1. The Effectiveness of Digital Modalities as
Training and Learning Environments
Jake D. Skinner
Sacred Heart University

2. Introduction
Employee training represents an area of considerable spending for companies and other
entities. In the United States, the average cost of training a worker is twenty-one percent of that
employee’s salary when excluding physicians and executives (Boushey & Glynn, 2012). Further,
training in some sectors may carry acute risks, such as flight training for pilots and exercises for
security firms. The use of simulations and digital environments represents a method of not only
reducing the costs of training, but also of increasing the safety of training paradigms.
Digital training represents a frontier of innovation for applied psychology. The American
Society for Training and Development (ASTD, 2013) shows that one third of learning hours are
technology based, but it also depicts inconsistent growth patterns in the use of technology
available for training. Self-paced online instruction, for example, rose from 12.66% in 2003 to
22.06% in 2009, while dropping to 16.96% in 2012. This coincides with a 4.69% increase in
instructor-led online trainings between 2009 and 2012 and a 1.29% increase in remote (non-
computer) instructor-led training over the same period. Instructor-led classrooms overall are on
the decline, peaking at 68.24% in 2004 and measured at 54.28% in 2012. The use of technology-
based training systems have risen overall from 30.28% in 2006 to 39.2% in 2012.
With the prevalence and implementation of digital systems of instruction and training on
the rise, applied psychologists are necessarily obligated to provide insight into the effectiveness
of such systems. Examining the receptiveness of employees to digital training and positive
design qualities can impact the efficacy and usefulness of digital training. This paper will discuss
the landscape of digital learning in the context of the trainees, characteristics of digital
environments and their construction, current implementations of digital learning environments,
costs of digital learning, and areas of further research.

3. The Landscape of Digital Learning
Before entering into a discussion on digital media and training, we must first examine the
receptivity of trainees and the accessibility of such media. The term “digital literacy” is used to
describe individual ability to utilize computer technology and refers to the technical, cognitive,
and sociological skills needed to solve problems in digital environments (Eshet-Alkalai, 2004).
These problems are not only restricted to the navigation of user interfaces, but also involves
socialization and argument mediation in virtual environments. Users with high digital literacy
typically approach computer-related problems in constructive and prosocial ways, while those
with low digital literacy require assistance to utilize digital media.
Eshet-Alkalai (2004) lists five distinct areas of digital literacy by which we can determine
a person’s digital aptitude. The first, photo-visual literacy, is a person’s ability to recognize or
navigate visual representations of information, such as puzzles, user interfaces, or two- and
three-dimensional environments. Reproduction literacy refers to the ability to generate unique,
meaningful, and creative work through existing content. The ability to retrieve desired data and
screen for undesired data is considered information literacy, while branching literacy is defined
by an ability to seek information in unordered and non-linear ways. Socioemotional literacy is
the ability of a user to determine identity and identify threat in digital systems.
The identification and determination of digital literacy, therefore, becomes a significant
factor in creating and judging the effectiveness of digital systems and their implementation.
There is a common, popular presumption which portrays young people as being digitally literate
or savvy, which can detract from a trainer’s attentiveness of younger students (Ellaway, 2011).
This presumption has been shown to hinder the ability of trainers and teachers to use digital
technology as training tools. It also affects the ability of students and employees to advance in

4. fields where digital skills are valued. Studies show that the use of digital technology not only
increases self-efficacy with digital learning, but also improves the perception of virtual
environments as a medium for learning (Hwang, Shi, & Chu, 2011) (Xu, Park, & Baek, 2011). In
this sense, digital training in the workplace becomes a means for indicating digital literacy
among employees, as well a provision of digital skills training to help employees advance
professionally.
People who are drawn to technology possess an innate appeal to virtual environments
(Andone, Dron, Pemberton, & Boyne, 2007). Students who are “digitally-minded” often have
specific needs or expectations from digital learning environments, enjoying more connectivity
and interactivity with others in these systems. They also wish to engage in direct participation
and control over the digital environment (Andone et. al., 2007), which has been shown to
increase learning when combined with guided instruction (Chang & Wang, 2009). Further, those
who play video games are more likely to view digital environments as places of learning,
collaboration, and problem solving (Squire, 2008).
Research has shown, however, that self-guided digital instruction shows no gains against
conventional teaching (Chang & Wang, 2009). As previously mentioned, however, self-guided
digital learning when coupled with some instructor-led content improves the retention of
information. Further, Xu, Park, and Baek (2011) show that the inclusion of entertaining content
can improve knowledge retention over conventional training methods. Their study on the effects
of course material presentation in the online virtual world “Second Life” showed positive gains
in instruction among undergraduate students in Seoul, South Korea.
Recognizing and understanding the degrees of digital literacy in the workplace can help
with the construction and presentation of materials through digital media. It also allows

5. evaluators to examine such trainings and make recommendations regarding instructional and
employee development. Key to these analyses, however, is the design and nature of digital
environments.
Characteristics of Digital Environments
A variety of digital environments exist which offer flexibility and various levels of
realism and practicality (Xu et. al., 2011). The design of these environments, and how the user
interacts with them, can be linked to Eshet-Alkalai’s (2004) five types of digital literacy. Prima
facie design elements of digital environments, such as the use of three-dimensional virtual
worlds or basic user interface navigations in online forums and social media, must consider the
average photo-visual literacy of those who would use the system. Likewise, the information
provided and its accessibility must be tailored to the information and branching literacy of the
users. In some instances, digital training systems may need to consider the ability of trainees to
create content in terms of open-answer responses, which would be directly affected by their
reproduction literacy.
The ability for participants to communicate with each other and collaborate during
instruction can also be a beneficial component of digital learning, as shown by Hwang, Shi, and
Chu (2011). The “Mindtools” system they developed for use among students in Taiwan gave
students the ability to generate content and provide location-specific information on their
learning material. In the case of this study, students were required to study information related to
butterfly ecology and collaborate on geographic distribution models on a map that could be
edited by the students within the software. Such collaborative models could represent a training
paradigm in any setting, by which trainees collaborate within a digital system to solve a problem

6. and attain an answer. The system discussed in this experiment also has a minimal learning curve,
exemplified by the limited instruction time required to train the students on its use.
Another positive feature of digital systems is the ability to collaborate over long
distances. The “Mindtools” system previously described did not require face-to-face interaction
(Hwang et. al., 2011). In academic settings, distributed problem-based learning is becoming
more popular as the ability for students to be on campus wanes (Strømsø, Grøttum, & Lycke,
2007). The utilization of digital systems in corporate environments reduces the costs associated
with bringing people together for training or learning and may also mitigate employee downtime.
It cannot be overstated that digital training also represents a replicable experience for all
participants (Zuiker, 2012). The control offered by digital environments provides training
specialists and evaluators with a nearly sterile environment in which to study training
effectiveness and a nearly uniform environment in which the trainee can learn. In physical
settings, such as classrooms, training may vary depending on a number of variables, including
trainer disposition and availability of materials.
Present Implementation of Digital Environments as Learning Tools
The use of digital environments in contemporary education and skills training is varied
and comprehensive. They are used across settings which include the academic, corporate, and the
military. The fidelity and environment in which the trainee learns is as varied as the setting in
which it is used.
The commercial airline industry utilizes realistic simulation technology to provide flight
and cross-training experience to employees with minimal downtime and expenditure (RAS,
2009). Laws require flight crews to undergo training and checking for two days every six

7. months, which is achieved through reproductions of cockpit environments and realistic flight
simulations. Through the simulators, trainers and evaluators can provide situational learning
states that would be too dangerous to produce in a physical setting, such as engine flame-outs or
other systems failures. Military applications of flight simulators also allow for mission-specific
training, to include fly-throughs.
These simulators train necessary piloting skills in a digital system with minimal photo-
visual, information, and reproductive literacy required due to the realism of the physical cockpit
environment and the high fidelity of the simulated flight environment. It can be said, then, that
digital systems which utilize natural or learned physical systems and high-fidelity visual
environments require low digital literacy.
One of the most common online learning environments, and the most prolific among
academic institutions in the United States (Bradford, Porciello, Balkon, & Backus, 2007), is
Blackboard. Controlling nearly 80% of the academic course management system in North
America and used by more than 70% of U.S. colleges and Universities by 2007 (Bradford et. al.,
2007), it is the premier distance learning tool for undergraduates and graduates. The system is a
basic online website in which users can navigate links that bring them to webpages of course-
related content. It is accessible at any time of the day through the internet on a variety of web
browsers.
A significant characteristic of Blackboard is the ability for students and teachers to
communicate instantaneously, but also hold asynchronous conversations to improve flexibility of
instruction and discourse. Data related to courses can be tracked by students and instructors,
providing accurate and accessible metrics on both sides of the academic pipeline. There are
complaints, however, that Blackboard is difficult to learn. A survey of teachers in the University

8. of Wisconsin system reported that Blackboard was more difficult to learn than expected,
identifying the course management system as “time consuming and inflexible.” Many
universities have had to construct dedicated websites to problem-solving issues with the
Blackboard system, which demands further digital literacy from those who would use it. There
are also some technical limitations, as seen in its inability to be used in certain browsers and
portal-based design.
Game-based learning is a new avenue of digital training that is being used across multiple
corporate settings. Squire (2008) writes that successful games are adept at creating emotionally
compelling contexts for players, and then invite participation from the user. Creating systems
where the user participates in a narrative or design methodology where they are being trained or
educated has theoretical validity. As information in game environments are discovered rather
than provided outright, the educational experience becomes more interesting and, as shown in
Xu, Park, and Baek’s aforementioned 2011 study, potentially more effective. Squire continues to
discuss the effect games have on challenging core beliefs held by the user, which may have
greater impacts on changing behaviors than instructional methodologies.
The Costs of Digital Learning
This paper has largely discussed digital learning as an additive feature to curricula and
training, which directly correlates to an increased expense of time, money, or both. However,
digital learning can represent a significant savings in cost.
As previously stated, airlines are required to train and check their pilots every six months
per regulations. For the average airline, the cost of training and checking 1,000 pilots in real
aircraft is $60 million. By contrast, the use of simulators reduces the cost to one-tenth of its

9. physical value (RAS, 2009). Not only does the airline reduce its expenses on training, but it also
provides more comprehensive training protocols through instruction on hazardous flight
scenarios.
Digital learning may also provide tangible benefits to trainees which augment the costs
involved in the development and implementation of digital systems. Online collaboration allows
for the creation of social capital and the increase of information flow within digital communities
(Harris, Jones, & Baba, 2013). Distributed leadership through digital media can also provide
opportunities for cross-training and objective completion (Harris et. al., 2013).
Zuiker (2012) explored the idea of digital learning environments being administered in
distinct locales, which would create more flexible corporate applications of digital training. He
discussed the possibility that replicable digital systems be administered in multiple locations
under identical conditions, provided the training and setting were culturally relevant. Results of
the training, according to Zuiker, could be analyzed in the short- and long-term such that the
environment and training could be modified for its intended purpose.
Conclusion and Further Research
Digital learning environments represent a next step in the application and administration
of effective training methods. Research shows that the proper administration and construction of
learning environments improves the retention of information and training among participants.
There are also applications in which the use of such technologies represents a reduction in cost
or, at the very least, a rationalization in the cost of its use.
Further research should be conducted to build on the implementation of game design and
gamification theory into training. Studies on the types of game environments which produce the

10. most impact on specific subjects or global cognitive functioning would help teachers and
professional trainers to identify possible avenues of digital implementation. Additional avenues
of further research include the examination of realistic versus abstract/fantastic environments,
high fidelity (simulator) versus low fidelity (text-based or forum) settings, and collaborative
online tools versus instructional online tools.
Research in the corporate setting should include cost-benefit analyses of digital learning
implementation. Universities, for example, gain tuition income for each user (student) of their
digital platform while corporations must pay each user (employee) on days they receive training.
Further, the effect of repeat training in unchanging digital environments should be examined to
determine if repetition in digital environments has a deleterious effect on training. The study of
possible effects of dynamic and persistent digital learning environments as places of
collaboration and training in school and corporate settings should also be encouraged.
Analyzing the average digital literacy of employees can help designers of digital training
systems understand their users and tailor systems to be better understood. Studies should
examine any discrepancies between the level of a trainee’s digital literacy and their ability to
retain information following digital training sessions. Further research could indicate trends in
the age and level of participants’ digital literacy and the effectiveness of digital training.

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