Speech Sciences MASLP

UNIT 2
ADVANCES IN SPEECH SCIENCES
1. Respiratory System
2. Laryngeal System
3. Articulatory System
4. Resonatory System
Presented by
HIMANI BANSAL
(MASLP 1st year)

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
(Fundamentals of aerodynamics, aerodynamic events in speech, passive & active forces in respiratory function,
breathing for speech and song, speech breathing kinematics and mechanism inferences, kinematics of the chest wall
during speech production)
“Respiration is defined as the complex physiological process by
which living organism exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide
between the organism and the environment." (N.Geetha, 2009 )

1.Upper
respiratory
tract
• nose
• mouth
• pharynx
• epiglottis
• larynx
• trachea
Lower
respiratory
tract
 Conducting zone: Trachea, Bronchi,
Secondary bronchi, Tertiary Bronchi,
bronchiole, terminal bronchioles
 Respiratory zone: respiratory
bronchioles, alveolar duct, alveolar sac,
Alveoli

MUSCLES OF RESPIRATION
Diaphragm, a thin sheet of skeletal muscle that forms the floor of the thorax. On
contraction, it moves inferiorly a few inches into the abdominal cavity, expanding
the space within the thoracic cavity and pulling air into the lungs. Relaxation of
the diaphragm allows air to flow back out the lungs during exhalation
The internal intercostal muscles are the deeper set of muscles and depress the
ribs to compress the thoracic cavity and force air to be exhaled from the lungs
The external intercostals are found superficial to the internal intercostals and
function to elevate the ribs, expanding the volume of the thoracic cavity and
causing air to be inhaled into the lungs

MECHANISM OF CONTROL OF RESPIRATION
The medullary
rhythmicity area
in the medulla
oblongata
The
pneumotaxic are
in the pons
NERVOUS
REGULATION
Concentration of
CO2 in blood
Concentration of
H+ ions or pH
CHEMICAL
REGULATIO
N
The
apneustic
area in the
pons
Concentrati
on of
oxygen in
blood

PATTERNS OF BREATHING
DIAPHRAGMATIC
THORACIC
CLAVICULAR
PARADOXIAL

Boyle’s
Law:
“If gas is kept at constant temperature, pressure and volume are inversely proportional to one another and
have constant product”. (Robert Boyle, 1627- 1691)
Pl V1 =P2V2,
where, P=pressure,
V= volume),
1 =initial state,
2=final state
FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS

AERODYNAMIC EVENTS IN SPEECH
INSPIRATION
Quiet
breathing
Speech
breathing
EXPIRATION
Active
expiration
Passive
expiration

• Active muscular forces — result from active
contraction of the rib cage, diaphragm, and
abdomen.
• Passive muscular forces — generated by the
elastic properties of tissues (incl. Lungs,
muscles, rib cage tendons). Also known as
“recoil” forces.
• Recoil forces are summarized in the
RELAXATION-PRESSURE CURVE.
• An important cut off on the relaxation
pressure curve is 38% of VC. This is an
equilibrium point :
1. above which expiratory forces are passive
and inspiratory forces must be active.
ACTIVE/PASSIVE FORCES IN RESPIRATION

ROLE OF THE RESPIRATORY PUMP IN SPEECH:
• Provides the driving forces necessary for the generation of sounds
• Participates in speech by displacing structures, creating pressure behind the valves and generating flows
through the constriction within the larynx and upper airway
• Parameters of speech such as speech and voice intensity (loudness), vocal fundamental frequency (pitch),
linguistic stress (emphasis) and the division of speech into various units (syllables, words, phrases, etc.)
BREATHING FOR SPEECH

• Figure: Lung volume change (L), flow (LPS)
and alveolar pressure (CmH2O) during an
isolated vowel utterance produced throughout
the vital capacity
• An isolated sustained vowel produced at
constant normal loudness and pitch levels
• Lung volume decreasing at a constant rate
during the speech activity, from near the total
lung capacity to near the residual volume
• Flow and alveolar pressure show abrupt increase
at constant value during the utterance and abrupt
decreases at the end of speech
• Average resistance (pressure/flow) offered by the
larynx and the upper airway is also constant
DEMANDS ON STEADY UTTERANCES:

STUDY CITATION RESULT
Hoit, J. D., Hixon, T. J., Watson, P. J., &
Morgan, W. J. (1990). Speech breathing in
children and adolescents. Journal of speech,
language, and hearing research, 33(1), 51-69.
Results for speech breathing indicated that
sex was not an important variable, but that
age was critical in determining speech
breathing performance
Hitos, S. F., Arakaki, R., Solé, D., & Weckx, L.
L. (2013). Oral breathing and speech disorders
in children. Jornal de pediatria, 89(4), 361-
365.
Speech alterations were diagnosed in 31.2% of
patients, unrelated to the respiratory type: oral
or mixed. Increased frequency of articulatory
disorders and more than one speech disorder
were observed in males
Huber, J. E. (2008). Effects of utterance length
and vocal loudness on speech breathing in
older adults. Respiratory physiology &
neurobiology, 164(3), 323-330.
Older adults produced shorter utterances than
young adults overall. Age-related effects were
larger for longer utterances. Older adults
demonstrated very different lung volume
adjustments for loud speech than young
adults
Bohnenkamp, T. A., Forrest, K., Klaben, B. K.,
& Stager, J. (2012). Chest wall kinematics
during speech breathing in tracheoesophageal
The TE speakers were generally accurate in
inspiring at appropriate linguistic boundaries.
there is robust control for speech breathing

Aerodynamics of voiceless plosives:
Intra-oral pressure rises and magnitude is
determined by speech effort, this is usually
3-7cm H2O (Malccot, 1955)
Aerodynamics of voiced plosives:
The pressure magnitude of voiceless sound
is between 3 and 5 Cm H2O, which is
slightly lower than its voiceless counterpart.
Airflow rate is slower for voiced plosive (
Isshiki & Ringel, 1964)
Aerodynamics of voiceless fricatives:
The oral port opens slightly (about
0.05sqcm) and a pressure head to
approximately 3-7Cm H20, forces airflow
through this constriction at high velocity.
The turbulence created by high velocity
airflow is the fricative sound source (Hixon,
1966)
Whisper:
The glottal chink is narrow but open during
whisper and resistance of about 4.0-6.0cm
H2O. Respiratory effort is considerably
increased. Airflow rate is increased and intra
oral pressure also is greater.
Aerodynamics of vowels:
Intra-oral Pressure is almost atmospheric for
vowels, since the oral airway is open.
Approximately 50-70cc of air is used in
producing the vowel sound.
Aerodynamics of voiced fricative:
The shape and magnitude of the pressure
pulse are influenced by timing of voicing;
airflow rate is slower than for voiceless
sounds and air volume used (around 75cc) is
less

MUSCULAR FORCES:
• The amount of muscular pressure required at a given instant during speech depends on the alveolar pressure
needed and the relaxation pressure available at the prevailing lung volume
• Figure : lung alveolar pressure relations during relation and during an isolated vowel utterance of normal
loudness produced throughout most of the vital capacity.

DEMANDS ON CONVERSATIONAL SPEECH:
AERODYNAMIC EVENTS:
• Conversational speech is not characterized by aerodynamic events of this nature
• Pressures, flows and resistances are in nearly constant states of change during conversational speech
LUNG VOLUME CHANGES:
• Approximately 0.5L of air is exchanged during each quiet tidal breath
• In the supine position volume events occur at lower level of the vital capacity than in the upright position
TEMPORALASPECTS OF LUNG VOLUME CHANGES IN CONVERSATIONAL SPEECH:
• Quiet breathing cycle is repeated 12 or more times a minute and involves expiration that are slightly larger than the
inspiration
• For speech, the frequency of breathing typically decreases and relative duration of inspiratory and expiratory phase
changes considerably
• A hallmark of volume events of conversational speech is irregularity of breathing cycle

RESPIRATORY FORCES:
MUSCULAR PRESSURE:
• 10 H2O is taken as the average alveolar pressure
• Frequent demands for rapid changes in muscular pressure
• The muscle of great importance in everyday speech is the internal intercostal muscles.

Hixon & Hoppman (1979), breathing for classical singing differs rom resting breathing that it uses:
• Greater range of lung volume
• Higher expiratory alveolar pressure and lower respiratory alveolar pressures.
• Lower expiratory airflow and higher inspiratory airflow.
• Longer expiratory breathing phrases and shorter inspiratory breathing pauses.
BREATHING FOR SONG

Thomasson, M., & Sundberg, J. (1999). Consistency
of phonatory breathing patterns in professional
operatic singers. Journal of voice, 13(4), 529-541.
The contribution to lung volume changes from the
rib cage and the abdominal wall varied across
singers, thus suggesting that professional operatic
singing does not request a uniform breathing
strategy
Sundberg, J. (1992). Breathing behavior during
singing. Stl-Qpsr, 33, 49-64.
In speech, subglottal pressure is used mainly for
loudness control
whereas in singing, subglottal pressure must be
tailored with regard to both pitch
and loudness. Because a change in subglottal
pressure causes an increase in fundamental
frequency, singers need to match the target
subglottal pressures with accuracy.
Hoit, J. D., Jenks, C. L., Watson, P. J., & Cleveland, T.
F. (1996). Respiratory function during speaking and
singing in professional country singers. Journal of
Voice, 10(1), 39-49.
Results indicated that respiratory behavior during
speaking was generally the same as that of other
normal subjects. Respiratory behavior during singing
resembled that of speaking
Salomoni, S., Van Den Hoorn, W., & Hodges, P.
(2016). Breathing and singing: objective
characterization of breathing patterns in classical
singers. PloS one, 11(5), e0155084.
In contrast to untrained individuals, classical singers
used greater percentage of abdominal contribution
to lung volume during singing and greater
asynchrony between movements of rib cage and
abdomen. Classical singers substantially altered the
coordination of rib cage and abdomen during singing
from that used for quiet breathing

Aerodynamic energy must be
converted into acoustic energy
with maximum efficiency
Griffin et al (1995) found the
ribcage activity was greater than
abdominal activity during singing
tasks in supported voice
Supported voice is characterized
by resonance, clarity and
extended vocal range produced
by correct adjustment of
breathing muscles
The natural vibration of the vocal
cords must have minimum
inferences
REFERENCES:
1. Hixton, Thomas (1991), Respiratory Function in Speech and Song.
2. Kent, Raymond D. (1997), Speech Science.
3. Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research.

SPEECH BREATHING KINEMATICS AND
MECHANICAL INFERENCES
The chest wall has been treated as a two-part kinematic system comprised of the rib
cage and diaphragm-abdomen in parallel
The volume displaced by each part is linearly related to the motions of points within it
For conversation, reading, and singing, lung volume events were restricted to the
mid volume range and were dependent upon body posture and utterance loudness
Relative volume contributions of the two parts differed for subjects and utterances
and ranged from all rib cage displacement to all abdominal displacement
During utterances, the chest wall was distorted from its relaxed configuration, and
differently so in the supine and upright postures
The distortions observed constitute a “volume platform” or posturing of the chest
wall, off of which the speaker produces speech

• The term kinematics is defined as the mechanism that displaces volume as it
moves
• Ribcage and diaphragm form the thoracic cavity.
• Diaphragm and abdominal wall forms the abdominal cavity
KINEMATICS OF CHEST WALL DURING SPEECH
PRODUCTION

Conversation,
reading
and singing
•Lung volume: mid range of the VC (60%)
Approximately 60%-50% of VC in upright 50-30% VC in supine.
•For loud reading, higher lung volumes than other tasks (10-20%high)
Relative volume
displacements of
ribcage and
abdomen
• For upright position subjects demonstrated contributions ranging from various degrees of
ribcage.
• For supine position ribcage displacement is relatively less than upright. Here either ribcage and
abdomen displacement were equal or abdomen displacement was predominant.
•For conversational speech, ribcage contributions is slightly more than normal reading
Separate volumes
of ribcage and
abdomen: chest
wall configuration
•During vowel and syllable utterance ribcage volume usually restricted to the range of volume
covered during relaxation
•In upright position the abdomen decreased to a size smaller than that attained at relaxed reserve
volume

Sustained
vowel and
syllable
repetition
utterances
Relative volume displacements of ribcage and abdomen:
1.In upright position relatively more abdominal contribution
at higher lung volume during loudest and fastest utterance
was observed
a)Separate volume displacement of ribcage and abdominal
chest wall configuration:
b)Ribcage volume usually restricted to the range of volume
covered during relaxation
REFERENCES:
1. http://kunnampallilgejo.blogspot.com/2012/09/breathing-for-speech-and-
song.html?q=breathing+for+speech+and+song
2. https://labs.utdallas.edu/speech-production-lab/teaching/courses/speech-
science/handouts/mechanics-of-respiration/
3. https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/anatomy-of-breathing

Forner, L. L., & Hixon, T. J. (1977). Respiratory
kinematics in profoundly hearing-impaired
speakers. Journal of Speech and Hearing
Research, 20(2), 373-408.
Both a lack of normal auditory sensation and
inappropriate early speech skill instruction are
responsible for the respiratory behaviors
observed (lung volume change, relative
volume displacements of the rib cage and
abdomen, and chest wall configuration)
Solomon, N. P., & Hixon, T. J. (1993). Speech
breathing in Parkinson’s disease. Journal of
Speech, Language, and Hearing
Research, 36(2), 294-310.
Reduced relative compliance of the rib cage to
the abdomen for subjects with Parkinson’s
disease as compared to healthy control
subjects
Stathopoulos, E. T. (1995). Variability
revisited: An acoustic, aerodynamic, and
respiratory kinematic comparison of children
and adults during speech. Journal of
Phonetics, 23(1-2), 67-80.
Children are not consistently more variable. In
particular, only the four-year-olds show some
tendency to produce acoustic, aerodynamic,
and respiratory kinematic speech events with
more variability than adults
Kuruvilla-Dugdale, M., & Chuquilin-Arista, M.
(2017). An investigation of clear speech
effects on articulatory kinematics in talkers
with ALS. Clinical Linguistics &
The results show significantly lower jaw
movement variability during habitual speech
but greater variability for clear speech in ALS
relative to controls

LARYNGEAL SYSTEM
(Molecular and cellular structure of vocal tissue, laryngeal biomechanics, models of vocal fold vibration, co-
ordination of respiratory & laryngeal systems in phonation, control of fundamental frequency, vocal intensity and
efficiency, fluctuations and perturberations in vocal output)

INTRINSIC MUSCLES
Muscle Origin Course Insertion Innervation Function
Lateral
cricoaytenoid
Superior-lateral surface
of the cricoid cartilage
Up and back Muscular process of
the arytenoid
Vagus,RLN Adducts vocal
folds;increases
medial
compression.
Transverse
arytenoid
Lateral margin of
posterior arytenoid
Laterally Lateral margin of
posterior surface,
opposite arytenoid.
Vagus; RLN Adducts vocal
folds.
Oblique arytenoid Posterior base of the
muscular process
Obliquely up Apex of the opposite
arytenoid
Vagus; RLN Pulls the apex
medially
Posterior
cricoarytenoid
Posterior base of the
muscular process
Obliquely up Posterior aspect of the
opposite arytenoid
Vagus,
recurrent
laryngeal
nerve
Pulls the apex
medially
Cricothyroid Parsrecta:anterior Surface
of the cricoid cartilage
Pars oblique:cricoid
cartilage lateral to the
pars recta
Parsrecta : up and
out
Pars
oblique:obliquely up
Parsrecta:lower
surface of the thyroid
lamina
Pars oblique:thyroid
carilage between
laminae and inferior
horns.
External
branch of
superior
laryngeal of
vagus.
Depresses
thyroid relative to
cricoid ;tenses
vocal folds.
Thyrovocalis Inner surface,thyroid
cartilage near notch
Back Lateral surface of the
arytenoid vocal
process
Recurrent
laryngeal
nerve
Tenses vocal folds
Thyromuscularis Inner surface of thyroid
cartilage near notch
Back Muscular process and
base of arytenoid
cartilage
Recurrent
laryngeal
nerve
Relaxes vocal folds
Superior
thyroarytenoid
Inner angle of thyroid
cartilage
Back Muscular process of
arytenoid
Recurrent
laryngeal
nerve
Perhaps
relaxes vocal fold
Thyroepiglottic Inner surface of thyroid at Back and up Lateral epiglottis RLN Dilates airway

EXTRINSIC MUSCLES
Muscle Origin Course Insertion Innervation Function
Digastric muscle Anterior:inner surface
of mandible.
Posterior:mastoid
process of temporal
bone
Medial and
down
Hyoid bone Anterior:trigeminal nerve
Posterior :digastric branch
Anterioe belly:draws hyoid
up
Posterior belly:draws hyoid
up
Mylohyoid Inner surface of
mandible
Fan like to
median
fibrous
raphe
Corpus of
hyoid
Alveolar nerve,trigeminal
nerve
Elevates hyoid or depresses
mandible
Geniohyoid Inner surface of
mandible
Back and
down
Corpus
,hyoid bone
Hypoglossal nerve Elevates hyoid , depresses
mandible
Hyoglossus Side of tongue down Greater
cornua hyiod
Motor branch of
hypoglossal
Elevates hyoid,depresses
tongue
Genioglossus Inner surface of
mandible
Up and
back
Tongue and
corpus of
hyoid
Motor branch of
hypoglossal
Elevates hyoid
Thyropharyngeous of inferior
pharyngeal constrictor
Posterior pharyngeal
raphe
Down, fan
like laterally
Thyroid
lamina and
inferior
cornua
Vagus:RLN and superior
laryngeal nerve
Elevates larynx and
constricts pharynx
Sternohyoid Manubrium sterni and
clavicle
up Inferior
margin of
hyoid corpus
Ansa cervicalis from
spinal C1-C3
Depresses hyoid
Omohyoid; superior and inferior
heads
Superior: corpus hyoid
Inferior: upper
border,scapula
Superior:
down
Inferior:
down and
laterally
Via
intermediat
e tendon to
hyoid
Superior belly: superior
to ramus of ansa
cervicalis from C-1
Inferior:ansa
cervicalis,spinal C2-C3
Depresses hyoid
Sternothyroid Oblique line, thyroid
cartilage
Down and
in
Manubrium
sterni
Hypoglossal and spinal
nerve
Depresses thyroid cartilage
Thyrohyoid
Oblique line, thyroid
cartilage
Up Greater
cornua,hyoi
d
Hypoglossal nerve and
fibres from spinal C1
Depresses hyoid

MOLECULAR AND CELLULAR STRUCTURE OF THE
VOCAL FOLD TISSUE
1.Epithelial layer
of the vocal fold
1.Superficial layer of
lamina propria
Intermediate layer of
lamina propria
1.Deep layer of
lamina propria
Vocalis muscle
MAIN LAYERS OF THE VOCAL FOLDS
1.Cover [Epithelium and
superficial layer of
lamina propria]
1.Transition ligament
[Intermediate and deep
layer of lamina propria]
1.Body [ vocalis muscle]
FROM MECHANICAL POINT OF VIEW

STRUCTURE OF THE VOCAL FOLD EDGE ALONG ITS
LENGTH
CELLULAR COMPONENTS AND TISSUE
COMPOSITION: NORMAL STRUCTURE

LARYNGEAL BIOMECHANICS
Active properties of the laryngeal muscle
The 2 major muscles which oppose each other and
control glottal configuration and vocal fold tension are
the thyroarytenoid and cricothyriod muscle
The contraction properties are related to morphology
and glottal dynamics on directly stimulating the muscles
of the larynx
Passive properties of the vocal fold tissues
1.Elastic properties: key factor in the control of
fundamental frequency of phonation
1.Visco-elastic properties: Helps to understand the
behaviour of the vocal fold tissues in the dynamics of
pre-phonatory adjustments
Rotational dynamics of the cricothyroid joint
The rotation and gliding of the cricoid and thyroid
cartilage
1.The rocking and rotation of the aryteniod cartilage

Koufman, J. A., Radomski, T. A., Joharji, G. M.,
Russell, G. B., & Pillsbury, D. C. (1996).
Laryngeal biomechanics of the singing
voice. Otolaryngology—Head and Neck
Surgery, 115(6), 527-537.
The lowest muscle tension scores were seen in
female professional singers, and the highest
muscle tension scores were seen in amateur
female singers. Male singers (professional and
amateur) had intermediate muscle tension
scores. Classical singers had lower muscle
tension scores than nonclassical singers
Hidalgo-De la Guía, I., Garayzábal-Heinze, E.,
& Gómez-Vilda, P. (2020). Voice
characteristics in smith–magenis syndrome: an
acoustic study of laryngeal
biomechanics. Languages, 5(3), 31.
The phonation of the smith–magenis
syndrome (SMS) group significantly deviates
from the adult normophonic profile in more
than one of the 19 features examined, such as
stiffness of the thyroarytenoid muscle and
dynamic mass of the vocal fold cover, among
others
Nasri, S., Damrose, E. J., Ye, M., Rreiman, J.,
Berke, G. S., & Dulguerov, P. (1995). Relation
of recurrent laryngeal nerve compound action
potential to laryngeal biomechanics. The
Laryngoscope, 105(6), 639-643.
The compound action potential (CAP) peak-
to-peak and EMG peak-to-peak amplitudes
demonstrated a sigmoidal relation to stimulus
intensity and a linear relation to subglottal
presuure and to each other
Hamdan, A. L., Sibai, A., Moukarbel, R. V., & There were no statistical differences in the

MODELS OF VOCAL FOLD VIBRATION
• The models of V.F vibration is used to provide the representation of the contact area of the VFs,
• To evaluate the contributions of the larynx to speech production and for assessing the role of various
tissues, the influence of medial compression and their longitudinal tension

A SINGLE-DEGREE-OF–FREEDOM MODEL
• Described by Flanagan and Landgray (1967).
• In this model the VFs must move as a single mass toward
and away from the midline, they have nowhere else to go
• The folds are considered as a simple mechanical oscillator
of mass, M which represents the mass of the paired VFs: a
spring constant K, which represents the vocal tract tension
and viscous damping B, which is due to a condition at the
boundary where the VFs strike one another upon closure
i.e. The opposing surface that the mass of the vocal fold
strikes is relatively massless and mainly fluid or viscous or
fluid like
 In the figure,:
Ps- denotes sub-glottic pressure
P1 and P2- acoustical pressures at the inlet and
outlet of the glottal orifice, respectively and
Ug- acoustic volume velocity through the glottic
orifice

 ADVANTAGES:
 Although one-mass model is a closer representation of actual vocal fold oscillation, some refinements will
make the model even more like human phonation.
 DISADVANTAGES:
 Vocal folds do not move as a single mass towards and away from midline. This means more complex
model is required to exhibit real laryngeal behaviour.

A TWO-DEGREE-OF–FREEDOM MODEL
 Describe by Ishizaka and Flangan in 1972.
 The figure given below represents several
characteristics of oscillation in common with the VFs
 The VFs are represented by two masses, M1 and M2,
which are capable of purely horizontal motion
independently.
 Each mass is thought of as a simple mechanical
oscillator with a mass m, a spring constant k and
viscous damping b, as with the single mass model.
 These masses are coupled together by s3, which acts to
supply a force on m1 and m2 in the horizontal
direction, by virtue of a difference in their lateral
displacements x1 and x2 respectively.
 The equilibrium position of the masses is X
 The stiffness exhibited by the spring S and S is due to
the longitudinal tension of the vocal folds.

 ADVANTAGES:
 Accounts for most of the relevant glottal detail, including phase difference s of upper and lower edges
 Useful for real-time speech synthesis and medical diagnostics
 Provides information on pathological behaviour of the vocal folds [Berryet.Al.,1994]
 DISADVANTAGES:
 There is no simple relationship between the parameters in the model and the physiology of the vocal folds
(Story and Titze, 1995)
 The effect of the vocal tract impedance has been ignored.

MULTI- MASS MODEL
 The body cover theory:
 Proposed by Hirano in 1975
 Based on the layered anatomy of vocal fold.
 The five layers of the vocal folds have been classified
on the basis of the differing degrees of stiffness of the
layers.
 Each layer has its own mode of vibration, depending
on its structural composition and stiffness properties.
 The structural complexity gives rise to a sound wave
that is acoustically complex and that results, in turn, in
a rich and resonant human voice. The wave like
motion of the vocal folds results from interactive
properties of the tissue layers within the mucosa
(McGowan, 1990).

 ADVANTAGES:
 This model very easily explains the body cover transition and also explains about the vertical phase
difference which are essential for air flow and sustained oscillation.
 DISADVANTAGES:
• This model does not explain where each point on the vocal fold has a distinct mass and locus of movement.
Thus, the complexity of vocal fold vibration is not sufficed by this model

SIXTEEN MASS MODEL
 Proposed by Titze in 1973 in an attempt to simulate
human like speech that would:
i. Phonate in at least two distinct registers,
ii. Provide sufficient flexibility for pathological studies,
iii. Be capable of simulating transient responses of the
folds, such as moderate coughs or voice breaks,
iv. Be regulated by parameters that have direct
physiological correlates and
v. Increase the “naturalness” of utterances.
 With this model, phonation is possible in at least two
registers, transient responses of the vocal system can
be simulated, and with it some pathologies can be
studied.

 IMPLICATIONS:
• In 1979, Titze and Talkin found fundamental frequency to be primarily affected by vocal fold length and
controlled through longitudinal stress in the muscle layers. They also found that subglottal pressure is not a
major factor in the control of F0.
• In 1984, Titze described parameters, in addition to fundamental frequency and vibrational amplitude, for
glottal area, vocal fold contract area, and glottal volume flow. The parameters were an abduction quotient, a
phase quotient, and a load quotient.
• Alipour and Titze (1996) have presented a complex two-dimensional model that takes the layered structure
of the vocal folds into account, and in which the flow is quite accurately described

A FINITE ELEMENT MODEL OF VF VIBRATION
 Given by Alipour, berry and Titze (2000)
 A finite-element model of the VF is developed from basic laws of continuum mechanics to obtain the
oscillatory characteristics of the VFs.
 The model is capable of accommodating inhomogeneous, anisotropic material properties and irregular
geometry of boundaries.
 It has provisions for asymmetry across the midplane, both from the geometric and tension point of view,
which enables one to stimulate certain kinds of voice disorders due to vocal fold paralysis.
 It employs the measured viscoelastic properties of the VF tissues.

Zanartu, M., Mongeau, L., & Wodicka, G. R. (2007).
Influence of acoustic loading on an effective single
mass model of the vocal folds. The Journal of the
Acoustical Society of America, 121(2), 1119-1129.
The results showed that acoustic loading contributed
more significantly to the net energy transfer than the
time-varying flow resistance, especially for less
inertive supraglottal loads. The contribution of
supraglottal loading was found to be more significant
than that of subglottal loading
Lucero, J. C., & Koenig, L. L. (2005). Phonation
thresholds as a function of laryngeal size in a two-
mass model of the vocal folds. The Journal of the
Acoustical Society of America, 118(5), 2798-2801.
The results show that the oscillation threshold
conditions become more restricted for
smaller laryngeal sizes, such as those appropriate for
females and children
Alipour, F., Berry, D. A., & Titze, I. R. (2000). A
finite-element model of vocal-fold vibration. The
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 108(6),
3003-3012.
The model is capable of accommodating
inhomogeneous, anisotropic material properties and
irregular geometry of the boundaries. It has
provisions for asymmetry across the midplane, both
from the geometric and tension point of view, which
enables one to simulate certain kinds of voice
disorders due to vocal-fold paralysis
Ishizaka, K., & Flanagan, J. L. (1972). Synthesis of
voiced sounds from a two‐mass model of the vocal
cords. Bell system technical journal, 51(6), 1233-
1268.
Results show that the two-mass model duplicates
principal features of cord behavior in the human. The
variation of fundamental frequency with subglottal
pressure is found to be 2 to 3 Hz/cm H2O, and is
essentially independent of vowel configuration in the

REFERENCES:
1. Zemlin, R.W.(2011).Speech and Hearing Science Anatomy and physiology. 4thedition.Upper Saddle River, NJ: A
Pearson Education Company
2. Vocal fold physiology (1993) by Titze, Ingo R
3. Raphael,Borden and Harris (1980), Speech science primer, Physiology,Acoustics,and perception of speech.5th
edition.Lippincott williams and wilkins.
4. Osamu Fujimura (1987).Vocal fold physiology,voice production mechanism and functions.
5. Titze, I.R.(1994). Principles of voice production.EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: A Paramount Communicative Company.

CO-ORDINATION OF THE RESPIRATORY AND LARYNGEAL
SYSTEMS IN PHONATION
The larynx acts as a variable resister, which regulates
air flow in and out of the lungs.
Contraction of posterior cricoarytenoid muscle (PCA)
abducts the folds and lowers the resistance
Contraction of thyroarytenoid (TA) and other vocal fold
adductors narrows the glottic slit and raises resistance
The cricoarytenoid (CT) muscle tilts the thyroid
cartilage ventrally and caudally with respect to the
cricoid, thus lengthening and slightly adducting the
vocal folds
Simultaneous CT and PCA activation renders the glottis
airway slightly larger than during PCA activation alone
The most important and consistent mechanism
underlying the respiratory movements is the phasic
activity of the intrinsic abductor muscles, the PCAs

•The larynx may influence inspiration to the extent that
influences resistance
•Normally the vocal folds are widely separated during
inspiration and dynamic passive collapse of the
laryngeal airway is prevented by the cricoid ring
•So laryngeal resistance is low and has little influence on
inspiratory flow
INSPIRATION
•The energy is recovered from potential energy stored in
the system during previous inspiration and
•Its respiratory flow is determined by the recoil pressure
of the respiratory system and its resistance rather than
the on going muscle activity
•There is a remarkable matching between the duration
of respiratory flow and the time before the next
inspiration, so there is no end respiratory pause
EXPIRATION

Quatieri, T. F., Talkar, T., & Palmer, J. S.
(2020). A framework for biomarkers of COVID-
19 based on coordination of speech-
production subsystems. IEEE Open Journal of
Engineering in Medicine and Biology, 1, 203-
206.
While there is a strong subject-dependence,
the group-level morphology of effect sizes
indicates a reduced complexity of subsystem
coordination.
MacBean, N., Ward, E., Murdoch, B., Cahill, L.,
& Geraghty, T. (2013). Phonation after cervical
spinal cord injury (CSCI): prospective case
examinations of the acute and sub-acute
stages of recovery. International Journal of
Speech-Language Pathology, 15(3), 312-323.
Phonation can be impaired following both
complete and incomplete CSCI, with type and
severity of impairment/s undergoing change
throughout the acute and sub-acute period
post-injury. Spontaneous physiological
recovery does not necessarily result in
improved phonation and/ or quality-of-life
Pate, O., & Kelly, S. INSTRUMENTAL
ASSESSMENT, USING SNORS+, OF SUCK
SWALLOW BREATHE SYNCHRONY IN SPEECH
DISORDERED CHILDREN.
Variations in oral motor output, e.g., the way in
which subjects can use and effect change in oral
toys, may be evidence of underlying differences in
areas such as respiratory control and synchrony

CONTROL OF VOCAL INTENSITY, FUNDAMENTAL
FREQUENCY AND EFFICIENCY
PITCH: psychological correlate of
frequency
Optimal pitch: the pitch of vocal
fold vibration that is optimal or
most suitable for each individual.
It is also known as natural pitch/
optimum pitch level
Habitual pitch: Refers to the
frequency of vibration of vocal
folds that is habitually used
during speaking
FUNDAMENTAL
FREQUENCY: the rate at
which vocal folds vibrate

Tang, J., & Stathopoulos, E. T. (1995). Vocal
efficiency as a function of vocal intensity: a
study of children, women, and men. The
Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America, 97(3), 1885-1892.
4‐year‐olds and 8‐year‐olds have lower VE
values than adults. Vocal efficiency increased
with vocal intensity for all the age groups, and
no significant differences were found for
females as compared to males
Kim, J. (2013). Aerodynamic characteristics,
vocal efficiency, and closed quotient
differences according to fundamental
frequency fixation. Phonetics and speech
sciences, 5(1), 19-26.
VE was significantly affected by intensity and
subglottal pressure in all conditions; Fo was
the other main key for affecting VE in high
pitch. However, none of the aerodynamic
characteristics significantly affected closed
quotient
Brockmann, M., Drinnan, M. J., Storck, C., &
Carding, P. N. (2011). Reliable jitter and
shimmer measurements in voice clinics: the
relevance of vowel, gender, vocal intensity,
and fundamental frequency effects in a typical
clinical task. Journal of voice, 25(1), 44-53.
Vowels, gender, voice SPL, and F0, each had
significant effects either on jitter or on
shimmer, or both. Voice SPL was the most
important factor, whereas vowel, gender,
and F0 effects were comparatively small
Plant, R. L., & Younger, R. M. (2000). The
interrelationship of subglottic air pressure,
fundamental frequency, and vocal intensity
during speech. Journal of Voice, 14(2), 170-
The interaction between these aerodynamic
properties is much more complex that
previously believed. Certain trends were seen
in most individuals, such as an increase in

PITCH CHANGING MECHANISM
VOCAL
FOLD LENGTH
AND PITCH
Pitch is directly
proportional to length
Rubin and Hirt have
shown that in falsetto the
vibrating length of vocal
fold is systematically
shortened as frequency is
increased
FOLD
THICKENESS
AND PITCH
Short, thick, lax vocal
folds vibrate at a much
slower rate than a long,
thin, tense vocal fold
Hollien (1962) found that
mean thickness or mass
of the vocal folds
systematically decreased
as voice pitch increased
VOCAL FOLD
TENSION AND
PITCH
Tension can be varied
over a considerable range,
by stretching them tighter
or relaxing them
According to Van Den
Berg tension is
responsible for variation
of F0

SUB GLOTTAL PRESSURE AND FUNDEMENTAL
FREQUENCY
Sub glottal pressure is related to loudness
of the sound produced and Fo to the
perceived pitch of the voice
Amplitude and, F0 rise together when sub
glottal air pressure is increased
Although rises in pitch may be
accompanied by increases in sub glottal
pressure, increases in sub glottal pressure
need not produce rises in pitch

INTENSITY CHANGING MECHANISM
The intensity of voice,
perceived loudness of the
voice, is directly related to
changes in sub glottal and
trans glottal air pressure
Hixon and Abbs (1980)
have written sound
pressure level is governed
mainly by the pressure
supplied to the larynx by
the respiratory pump.
Sub glottal
pressure
The vocal folds spend
about 50% of their time in
opening phase, 37% of the
time in closing phase and
13%of the cycle completely
closed.
When the vocal folds are
tightly adducted for
increased vocal intensity,
they tend to return to
closed position more
quickly and to stay closed
for a longer time
Medial
compressi
on

GLOTTAL RESISTANCE AND VOCAL INTESITY
Greater
closed time
of the vocal
folds
produce a
greater
resistance
to
vibration.
Glottal
resistance
increases
with
increase in
sound
intensity
Increased muscle
contraction that close
the vocal folds, will
increase the vocal fold
resistance, requiring
greater pressure
beneath the vocal
folds in order to
sustain vibration.
When the vocal folds
open, the air pressure
released into the vocal
tract will be greater
producing greater
sound pressure levels.
Phonations
produced in
falsetto voice
do not show
systematic
changes in
the glottal
resistance
with changes
in vocal fold

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PITCH AND INTENSITY
At higher sub glottal pressure, the vocal
folds remain closed for a greater
proportion of the vibratory cycle and close
more rapidly, frequency and intensity
tends to increase
If sub glottal pressure is
increased without muscular
adjustment of the vocal folds,
the fundamental frequency as
well as the intensity will
increase

CHECKING ACTION AND AIR FLOW RESISTANCE
Check (impede) flow of air out of your inflated lungs by using muscles of
inspiration; we do not let air out through total relaxation, rather we hold
inspiration position to impede outflow or air and let it out slowly; extremely
important concept for respiratory control for speech
The extreme case is complete blockage of air flow by the lips or tongue, or
by the vocal folds, following a deep inhalation. The resistance or impedance
is infinite; no air flow can take place, and so there is no need for checking
action by the inspiratory musculature
During phonation of a neutral vowel, at a conversational pitch and intensity
following a deep inhalation, larynx offers minimal resistance to the air flow, the
vocal tract is an extremely low impedance system, and if air flow is to be
regulated, checking action is essential
Holstead (1972) found that checking action decreased as laryngeal resistance
increased

FLUCTUATIONS AND PERTUBATIONS IN VOCAL OUTPUT
i.Pitch perturbation
(jitter)
Cycle to cycle variation in period that
occurs when an individual sustain
phonation at a constant intensity
(T1- T2) + (T2- 3) + (T3- T4)
J = -----------------------------
-------
3
T1, T2, T3, T4 are periods of 4
consecutive cycles in glottal waveform
i.Amplitude
perturbation/ intensity
perturbation ( shimmer)
Cycle to cycle variation in amplitude
that occurs when an individual
attempts to sustain phonation at a
constant frequency
(A1- A2) + (A2 – A3)
S = -----------------------------
- dB
2
A = amplitude

Higgins, M. B., & Saxman, J. H. (1989).
Variations in vocal frequency perturbation
across the menstrual cycle. Journal of
Voice, 3(3), 233-243.
At premenstruation and the onset of
menstruation, the magnitude of frequency
perturbation was not notably different from
the average behavior of individual subjects.
The time of ovulation was associated with a
notable change in the magnitude of frequency
perturbation for most subjects
Flagmeier, S. G., Ray, K. L., Parkinson, A. L., Li,
K., Vargas, R., Price, L. R., ... & Robin, D. A.
(2014). The neural changes in connectivity of
the voice network during voice pitch
perturbation. Brain and language, 132, 7-13.
Results indicated that STG plays a critical role
in voice control, specifically, during error
detection and correction. Additionally, pitch
perturbation elicits changes in the voice
network that suggest the right hemisphere is
critical to pitch modulation
Yang, C. Y., Palmer, A. D., Meltzer, T. R.,
Murray, K. D., & Cohen, J. I. (2002).
Cricothyroid approximation to elevate vocal
pitch in male-to-female transsexuals: results
of surgery. Annals of Otology, Rhinology &
Laryngology, 111(6), 477-485.
The speaking fundamental frequency was
raised by half an octave without any
significant changes in perturbation. The lower
and upper limits of pitch range both increased
by an average of 4 semitones
Wilcox, K. A., & Horii, Y. (1980). Age and
changes in vocal jitter. Journal of
Results showed that the average jitter of the
older adults was significantly greater than that

SOURCE OF FLUCTUATION AND PERTURBATION
Aerodynamic
sources
Neurologic
sources
Biomechanical
sources
Acoustic
sources

REFERENCES:
1. Zemlin W. R (1988). Speech and Hearing Sciences: Anatomy and Physiology.
2. Ingro. R. Titze. Vocal fold Physiology; Frontiers in basic science.
3. J. A. Seikel, David D, Paula Seikel. Essentials of anatomy and physiology for communication
disorders.
4. Michael S. Benninger, Barbara H.Jacobson,Alex F. Johnson. Vocal Arts Medicine. The care and
prevention of professional voice disorders.

ARTICULATORY SYSTEM
(Oral sensory perception, orofacial force physiology)
Articulation is defined as a series of overlapping ballistics movements which
places varying degrees of obstructions in the path of the outgoing airstream
and simultaneously modifies the size, shape and coupling of the resonating
cavities (Nicolosi, Harryman & Kresheck, 1996).

PHYSIOLOGY OF ARTICULATION
i.4. Palatine bones
i.1. Facial skeleton
i.5. Lacrimal bones
i.2. Maxillae
i.6. Zygomatic
bones
i.3. Nasal bones
i.7. Inferior
conchae i.8. Mandible
i.9. Cervical
vertebrae
Supportive framework primarily consists of:

NEUROPHYSIOLOGY OF ARTICULATION

ORAL SENSORY PERCEPTION
i.Thermo
receptors
(temperature)
i.Nocireceptors
(pain associated
with tissue
damage)
i.Chemoreceptors
(taste)
i.Proprioceptive
(position
sense)
i.Kinesthetic
(movement)
i.Auditory
The types of information includes:
In oral mucosa, which contains receptors like:
Sensory information is important in speech development and management of speech
disorders. The sensory receptors located in the oral mucosa, around the teeth, in the
muscles and the TMJ
Tactile (touch
& pressure)
Mechanor
eceptors
(touch &
movement
)

ORAL ANESTHETIZATION:
John C. Rosenbek & Robert
T. Wertz found that the
normal and aphasic groups
did not differ significantly
from each other and oral
sensory- perceptual deficit
were more severe in AOS
ORAL TACTILE SENSITIVITY:
The Fucci and associates
found that subjects with
misarticulations tended to
have poorer oral sensory
ability than normal
speaking subjects
ORAL STEREOGNOSIS (Oral
Form Recognition):
McDonald (1970) reported
that oral form recognition
improves with age through
adolescence

Ingervall, B., & Schmoker, R. (1990). Effect of
surgical reduction of the tongue on oral
stereognosis, oral motor ability, and the rest
position of the tongue and
mandible. American Journal of Orthodontics
and Dentofacial Orthopedics, 97(1), 58-65.
The surgical reduction of the tongue had a
minor influence on the subject's performance
in the test of oral ability to recognize forms,
where the number of false identifications
increased somewhat. The oral motor ability
and the positions of the head, the cervical
column, and the hyoid bone were unaffected
Park, J. H. (2017). Changes in oral
stereognosis of healthy adults by age. Journal
of Oral Science, 59(1), 71-76.
The results revealed differences in oral
stereognosis depending on the age of the
subjects and the test pieces employed. The
younger group had higher test scores and
shorter response times than the older group,
except for comparisons between the 20s and
30s age groups
Schimmel, M., Voegeli, G., Duvernay, E.,
Leemann, B., & Müller, F. (2017). Oral tactile
sensitivity and masticatory performance are
impaired in stroke patients. Journal of oral
rehabilitation, 44(3), 163-171.
The experiments confirmed lower masticatory
performance and lip force in the stroke group,
but the bite force was similar compared to
healthy controls
Song, X., Giacalone, D., Johansen, S. M. B.,
Frøst, M. B., & Bredie, W. L. (2016). Changes in
The interindividual variability in orosensation
impairment among the elderly population is

OROFACIAL FORCE PHYSIOLOGY
•Upper joints perform
Translational movements
•Lower joints perform
Rotational motion
•sliding in the upper joint and
rotation in the lower jaw are
usually combined
The primary movements of the
mandible are elevation &
depression, protrusion &
retraction, laterally in a
grinding motion, and combined
movements
MANDIBLE
The primary movements of the
lips are: protrusion, puckering,
retraction and rounding
Bilabial consonants,
Labiodentals,
rounded or protruded as in the
production of /u/
TONGUE

TONGUE
1)1.Horizontal
forward- backward
movement of the
tongue body
3.Horizontal forward-
backward movement of
tip- blade
 In terms of the number of parameters used
in sound production, the vowels are the
least complex, parameters 1 and 2 are
primarily used.
 Alveolar stops utilize parameters 1, 2, 3, 4
and 7
 Fricatives such as /s/, require maximum
participation of all articulatory parameters.
-Hard Castle (1976, 77)

Langmore, S. E., & Lehman, M. E. (1994).
Physiologic deficits in the orofacial system
underlying dysarthria in amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis. Journal of Speech, Language, and
Hearing Research, 37(1), 28-37.
Bulbar ALS patients were generally more
severely affected than the corticobulbar or
spinal ALS patients, and the tongue was
generally the most affected structure in all ALS
groups. Perceived severity of dysarthria was
more highly correlated with the measures of
repeated contraction rate than with the
measures of strength
McHenry, M. A., Minton, J. T., Hartley, L. L.,
Calhoun, K., & Barlow, S. S. (1999).
Age‐related changes in orofacial force
generation in women. The
Laryngoscope, 109(5), 827-830.
There were no statistical differences among
age groups, probably because of large
individual variability within groups. Trends
indicated a decline, particularly after age 80
years
Barlow, S. M. (1985). Fine force and position
control of select limb and orofacial structures
in the Upper Motor Neuron Syndrome.
A fundamental pathophysiologic feature of
UMN-syndrome subjects was the impaired
ability to adjust or modulate fine levels of
force and position in the upper lip, lower lip,
tongue, jaw and wrist. Although instability was
present in all structures, the ability to
generate absolute levels of force and position
was preserved
REFERENCES:
1. Anatomy & Physiology for Speech, Language, & Hearing – J. Anthony Seikel Douglas, W.K, David, G. Drumright.
2. Articulation & Phonological Disorders – Bernthal, J.E. & Bankson.
3. Speech and Hearing Science Anatomy & Physiology – Zemlin, Willard R.

RESONATORY SYSTEM
(Patterns of velopharyngeal closure, effects of vowel height on velopharyngeal airway resistance)
The nose &
nasal cavities
Lips
Oral cavity
[Hard palate,
Soft palate]
The tonsils
[Lingual tonsils,
Adenoids
(Pharyngeal
tonsils), Palatine
tonsils]
The pharynx
[Nasopharynx,
Oropharynx,
Laryngopharynx]

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VELOPHARYNGEAL VALVE
• Normal velopharyngeal closure is
accomplished by the coordination action
of the velum the lateral pharyngeal walls
and the posterior pharyngeal wall (Moon &
Kuehn 1996).
• Important during speech as well as
singing, whistling, sucking and so on

VELAR MOVEMENT
• INACTIVE: The velum is low in the pharynx .
contributes to a patent pharynx which is
important for the unobstructed movement of
air between the nasal cavity and lungs during
normal nasal breathing.
• ELEVATED: A type of knee action where it
bends to provide maximum contact with the
posterior pharyngeal wall over a large surface.
The contraction OF musculus uvulae provides
internal stiffness to the velum, helps to
achieve velopharyngeal closure in midline
Passavant’s Ridge
Posterior pharyngeal wall
movement
Lateral pharyngeal walls
movement

PATTERNS OF VELOPHARYNGEAL CLOSURE

Croft, C. B., Shprintzen, R. J., & Rakoff, S. J. (1981).
Patterns of velopharyngeal valving in normal and
cleft palate subjects: A multi‐view videofluoroscopic
and nasendoscopic study. The Laryngoscope, 91(2),
265-271.
Multiple patterns of valving were found in normal &
craniofacial disorder populations and were
characterized as “coronal,” “sagittal,” “circular,” and
“circular with Passavant's ridge.” The incidence of
the differing patterns of closure were surprisingly
similar in frequency in both normal and pathologic
populations
Witzel, M. A., & Posnick, J. C. (1989). Patterns and
location of velopharyngeal valving problems:
atypical findings on video nasopharyngoscopy. The
Cleft Palate Journal, 26(1), 63-67.
The predominant pattern of closure was coronal (68
percent), followed by the circular (23 percent),
circular with a Passavant's ridge (5 percent), and
sagittal (4 percent) patterns
Finkelstein, Y., Shapiro-Feinberg, M., Talmi, Y. P.,
Nachmani, A., Derowe, A., & Ophir, D. (1995). Axial
configuration of the velopharyngeal valve and its
valving mechanism. The Cleft palate-craniofacial
journal, 32(4), 299-305.
The axial configuration of the VP isthmus, as
observed in axial CT scans at rest, was found to be
correlated with VP function in terms of its closure
patterns in speech as observed by nasendoscopy. A
flat VP isthmus was found to be closed mainly in the
anteroposterior direction, forming the coronal
closure pattern. A deep VP isthmus is closed by
movement of the velum and medial movement of
the lateral pharyngeal walls, forming the circular
closure pattern
Ainoda, N., Yamashita, K., & Tsukada, S.
(1983). Velopharyngeal closure function and
The results showed that (out of 40),16 had
competent VP closure function, including 6

VARIATIONS IN VELOPHARYNGEOUS CLOSURE WITH TYPE OF
ACTIVITY
Non pneumatic
activities
Include swallowing, gagging
and vomiting
The velum raises very high in
the pharynx and the LPW
close tightly along their entire
length
Pneumatic
activities
Include blowing, whistling
and speech
Closure occurs lower in the
nasopharynx and appears to
be less exaggerated than with
non- pneumatic activities

EFFECTS OF VOWEL HEIGHT ON VELOPHARYNGEAL
AIRWAY RESISTANCE
CONSONANTS: Velar
heights are greater. High
pressure consonants like
plosives, fricatives and
affricates especially those
that are voiceless have
greatest heights
VOWELS:
/a/ – low back vowel, velar
height is reduced
/u/ – high back vowel, velar
height is increased
/i/- high front vowel, velar
height is increased

Bell-Berti, F., Baer, T., Harris, K. S., & Niimi, S.
(1979). Coarticulatory effects of vowel quality
on velar function. Phonetica, 36(3), 187-193.
Vowel quality was found to affect velar
position during adjacent consonants: that is,
the velum was lower for both nasals and
obstruents in an environment of open vowels
than in an environment of close vowels.
https://doi.org/10.1044/2016_JSLHR-S-16-0259 At 12 months of age, typically developing
children produced 98% of stops and vowels in
syllables with VP closure throughout the entire
segment compared with 81% of stops and
vowels for children with Cleft palate (p <
.0001). There were no significant group
differences at 14 or 18 months of age
Beddor, P. S., Krakow, R. A., & Goldstein, L. M.
(1986). Perceptual constraints and
phonological change: a study of nasal vowel
height. Phonology, 3, 197-217.
Nasalisation affects perceived vowel height
only when nasalisation is phonetically
inappropriate (e.g. insufficient or excessive
nasal coupling) or phonologically
inappropriate (e.g. no conditioning
environment in a language without distinctive
nasal vowels)
Kuehn, D. P., & Moon, J. B. (1998).
Velopharyngeal closure force and levator veli
palatini activation levels in varying phonetic
The results suggest that velopharyngeal
closure force is not controlled by a single
muscle (the levator veli palatini) but that other

REFERENCES:
1. Zemlin W.R. (1988). Speech and Hearing Sciences, Anatomy and Physiology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall
2. Bernthal, John E. and Bankson, Nicholas W, Articulation and Phonological Disorders. 3rd Edition
3. Ann. W. Kummer (2001), Cleft Palate and Craniofacial Anomalies. Effects on Speech and Resonance
4. Moorley. Cleft palate and speech
5. www.pubmed.com

QUESTIONS ASKED IN THE PREVIOUS YEARS:
1. Explain the neurophysiology of articulatory and resonatory system. (2021) (16 m)
2. What is relaxation pressure curve? Discuss its implications in understanding speech. (2017, 2019) (16 m)
3. Discuss the differences between breathing for life and speech. (2017, 2019) (8 m)
4. Describe the patterns of velopharyngeal closure. (2019) (8 m)
5. Describe the neurophysiology of breathing mechanism. (2019) (16 m)
6. Describe the relaxation pressure curve elaborating on the status of lung thoracic unit in relation to lung volume.
(2018) (16 m)
7. Elaborate upon the micro structure of vocal fold layers with a neat labelled diagram. (2018) (16 m)
8. Explain the upper airway and lower airway dynamics. (2017, 2018) (16 m)
9. Describe the models of vocal fold vibration. (2017) (8 m)
10. Critically evaluate any one model of vocal fold vibration with appropriate diagram. (2013) (16 m)
11. Short notes on (4 m): oro- sensory perception, upper airway dynamics (2014), models of vocal fold vibration
(2013)
12. Describe the aerodynamics of speech production with diagram wherever necessary. (2017) (16 m)
13. What is pressure relaxation curve? Explain with diagram. (2014) (10 m)
14. What is checking action? Explain how speech breathing is specialized in singers. (2014) (16 m)
15. Write a note on joints of the larynx. Describe any one model of vocal fold vibration. (2014) (16 m)
16. Describe the effect of vowel height on velopharyngeal airway resistance. How velopharyngeal closure varies for
different speech sounds? (2014) (16 m)
17. Explain molecular and cellular structure of vocal tissue. Update on laryngeal biomechanics. (2014) (16 m)
18. Explain the location and physiological importance of the following for speech: (2015) (16 m)- macula flava,
BMZ, cricoarytenoid joint, external intercostal muscle

Speech Sciences MASLP

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Similar to Speech Sciences MASLP

Similar to Speech Sciences MASLP (20)

More from HimaniBansal15

More from HimaniBansal15 (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Speech Sciences MASLP