HTO Laboratory Manual Revised.pdf

Laboratory Manual
For Students
Heat Transfer Operations Lab
CHE 325
Lab In-charges: Dr. Abdul Razzaq, Dr. Imran Hassan
Lab Advisor: Engr. M. Akmal Rana
Department of Chemical Engineering
COMSATS University Islamabad, Lahore Campus

TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Author Notes ------------------------------------------------------------ii
II. Course Learning Outcomes--------------------------------------------iii
III. Program Learning Outcomes-------------------------------------------iv
IV. Safety Rules and Regulations -----------------------------------------v
V. Instructions for preparing laboratory reports/books---------------viii
VI. Evaluation/ Grading of the overall lab -------------------------------ix
VII. List of Experiment------------------------------------------------------x

ii
I. Author Notes
Heat Transfer Operations Lab enables the students to apply the understanding of heat transfer
mechanisms such as conduction, convection and radiation for understanding the performance
of various heat transfer equipment such as heat exchangers, condensers, boilers, evaporators
etc. used in almost all the chemical and related industries. The HTO lab manual concentrates
on the concepts involved in modes of heat transfer i.e. conduction, convection and radiation,
heat transfer by convection (Natural & Forced Convection), the application of dimensional
analysis like Reynold’s, Prandtl and Nusselt, Biot, Rayleigh, grashoff number to convection,
radiation mode of heat transfer and its applications, the concept of film and overall heat
transfer coefficients, Heat Exchanger types and relevant parameters such as pressure drop
control and heat loss control.
Recommended Books:
1. Serth, R. W. and T. Lestina “Process Heat Transfer: Principles, Applications and Rules of
Thumb” 2014. Elsevier Science.
2. Kern Donald Q. “Process Heat Transfer” 1997. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
3. Cengel Yunus A. “Heat Transfer-A Practical approach” 2003. McGraw-Hill Book
Company.
4. Incropera Frank P., De Witt David P. “Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer” 5th
Ed.
2002. John Wiley and Sons.
5. Coulson J.M., Richardson J.F. “Chemical Engineering” Vol-I 1999. The English Book
Society and Pergamon Press
6. Coulson J.M., Richardson J.F. “Chemical Engineering” Vol-II, 5th
Ed. 2002. The English
Book Society and Pergamon Press
7. Hewitt, G.F. and Shires, G.L. and Bott, T.R. “Process Heat transfer” 1994. CRC Press.
8. J. P. Holman “Heat Transfer” 2002 McGraw-Hill Book Company.

iii
II. Course Learning Outcomes (CLO’s)
Heat Transfer Operations Lab encourages students to understand the basic concepts of
heat transfer mechanism by performing different heat transfer equipment given under
different case studies and varying the experimental parameters. Commonly used heat
transfer equipment such as various types of heat exchangers, evaporators, film
wise/drop wise condensation, conduction through heating rods and composite wall,
radiation heat transfer module and unsteady state head conduction equipment enable
students to signify the working principle of basic heat transfer equipment being used in
different chemical industries and also enable them to trouble shoot in case of equipment
failure. The HTO lab also persuade students to develop and analyze different heat
exchanger systems to develop concepts and techniques for academic research, deal with
issues associated to the operation of computer controlled heat transfer systems in
chemical industries and optimizing the performance of the equipment.
The course learning outcomes for the heat transfer operations lab are presented below:
1. Describe fundamentals of Heat Transfer Operations & associated lab equipment.
2. Analyze the raw data and results of heat transfer experiments.
3. Perform all assigned work in compliance with established policies and procedures.
4. Organize the lab work including lab procedures, results, discussions, analysis and
conclusions through written report and be able to present and communicate at different
levels.
5. Behave according to safety standards, established for laboratory operation.
6. Commit to professional ethics, while working in a group.

iv
III. PROGRAMME LEARNING OUTCOMES
(PLO`S)
The programme learning outcomes are depicted as below:
1. Engineering Knowledge
2. Problem Analysis
3. Modern Tool Usage
4. The Engineer and Society
5. Individual and Teamwork
6. Communication

v
Safety Rules and Regulations
PRE-CHECKS:
Before starting any laboratory operation, ask and answer the following questions by yourself:
1. Have I done this before?
2. Do I have the proper equipment?
3. Does anything look wrong?
4. What are the hazards?
5. Should I work in a fume hood?
6. Do I need goggles or other safety equipment?
7. Do I need additional help?
8. Should I check further with my instructor?
9. Have I planned this experiment or exercise?
10. Do I know what to do, if there is an accident?
11. Do I know where the fire extinguishers are located?

vi
LABORATORY SAFETY RULES
1. NO SMOKING IS ALLOWED IN THE LABORATORY PREMISES.
2. Safety glasses must be worn at all times (where applicable) during laboratory periods.
These glasses should be kept between laboratory sessions in the racks provided.
3. Wear apron (lab overall) in the lab when running apparatus and handling liquids.
4. Wear rubber gloves when handling liquids.
5. When dangerous chemicals are in use, a second person should be within call.
6. Find out the location of First Aid Box.
7. Before operating any valve, switch, etc., know precisely what the effect of your
manipulation will be.
8. Turn off all the valves on cylinders of compressed or liquefied gases when not in use.
9. Students are not allowed to open gas cylinders. Ask the technician.
10. Report all injuries to the instructor and to COMSATS doctor immediately. Dial 1122.
11. Attach a label "Please leave on" on fittings; you need "on" for a long time.
12. Keep all inflammable liquids or gases away from open electrical equipment and other
sources of ignition.
13. Gas cylinders must be kept in a stand or chained vertically to a bench.
14. Do not leave cables trailing across the floor of the lab.
15. Practice good housekeeping. Clean all spills at once. Return all equipment to proper
storage when not in use. Place all trash in appropriate receptacles.

vii
16. Avoid direct blasts of air on the skin from high-pressure compressed air-lines. Never play
with air hoses.
17. Use special vacuum cleaner from the laboratory for the immediate removal of mercury
spills. The arrangement should be made to contain mercury.
18. Make sure any system being heated is properly vented.
19. Know the location and use of all emergency, protective, and firefighting equipment.
20. Do not smell directly any chemical being heated.
21. Remember that, if a lab smells, do not use it. Inform instructor/lab technician.
22. Do not leave lab while apparatus is on, always inform the instructor if you are in a situation
to leave the lab.
23. When working with others, be especially careful not to drop tools.
24. Do not wear loose clothing or neckties when working with machinery. You will not be
allowed to enter the lab if you are in loose dress or not wearing covered shoes.
25. Report to the instructor any conditions that are safety hazards.
26. All power wiring is to be installed by an approved electrician.
27. Always remember: Safety has only three letters in its alphabet. ABC which
means Always Be Careful!

viii
IV. Instructions for preparing laboratory
reports/books
Each experiment should include following
• Title of experiment
• Objective
• Theory/Concept/Background including relevant pictures
• Procedure
• Observation - Data analysis, discussion
• Useful data/charts/tables
• Safety measurement associated with each experiment
• Application
• References

ix
V. Evaluation/Grading of the overall lab
The assessment of this module shall have following breakdown structure
First Sessional Test 10%
Second Sessional Test 15%
Quizzes/Assignments 25%
Terminal Examination 50%
Assessment Plan
Description Weightage CLO`s Covered
Lab Rubrics / Assignment # 1 2.5% 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Sessional – 1 Examination 10% 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Sessional – 2 Examination 15% 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Terminal Examination 50% 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

x
List of Experiments
Experiment # 1: Free and Forced Convection
Measure (C4) the convective heat transfer coefficient “h” using dimensionless numbers in
a. Free Convection
b. Forced Convection
Experiment # 2: Temperature Distribution in Cylindrical Rods
Compare (C4) the value of heat transfer rate (Q) in materials with different thermal
conductivity. Plot and relate the value of “Q” in metallic rods under study.
Experiment # 3: Heat conduction through Composite Wall
Measure heat transfer rate (Q) through composite wall and draw temperature profile for the
given system.
Experiment # 4: Drop Wise and Film wise Condensation
Analyze (C4) the effect of cold stream flow rate on the rate of steam condensation. Compare
(C4) the experimental and theoretical values of the overall heat transfer coefficient for:
a. Film wise condensation
b. Drop wise condensation
Experiment # 5: Radiation Heat Transfer Module
Examine (C4) the effect of radiations on different bodies (Black/Silver). Compare (C4) the
obtained values with different metallic plates and prove the Stefan Boltzmann law.

xi
Experiments 6: Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
Examine (C4) values of experimentally determined overall heat transfer coefficient with
theoretically calculated values for double pipe heat exchanger. Analyze (C4) the effect of
steam pressure and water flow rate on the efficiency of the exchanger.
Experiment # 7: Open Pan Evaporator
Analyze (C4) the effect of steam pressure on the economy of the open pan evaporator.
Experiment # 8: Geyser
Analyze (C4) heat transfer efficiency of geyser with varying the water flowrate in case of baffle
installation.
Experiment # 9: Unsteady Heat Transfer Module
Analyze (C4) the effect of flow rate in unsteady state heat transfer by changing the geometry
of the objects.
Experiment 10: Thermal Expansion Experiment
Measure (C4) the expansion coefficients for different pipe sections and analyze the obtained
results
`

Heat Transfer Operation Lab Manual
Page | 1
Prepared By: Engr. M. Akmal Rana
EXPERIMENT NO. 1
FREE AND FORCED CONVECTION
Pre Lab
1. Objective
1. Measure the convective heat transfer coefficient “h” using dimensionless numbers in
a. Free Convection
b. Forced Convection
2. Plot the graphical correlation of “h” with change in air velocity.
2. Theory
Convection:
“Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid
or gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid
motion”.
The faster the fluid motion, the greater will be the convective heat transfer. In the absence of any
bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.
The presence of bulk motion of the fluid enhances the heat transfer between the solid surface and the
fluid, but it also complicates the determination of heat transfer rates.
Consider the cooling of a hot body by blowing cool air over its top surface. Heat is transferred by the
air adjacent to the block by conduction. The heat is then carried away from the surface by convection,
that is by the combined effects of the conduction within the air is due to random motion of the air
that removes the heated air near the surface and it replaces it by the cooler air.
Newton’s Law of cooling:
Despite the complexity of convection, the rate of convective heat transfer is observed to be
proportional to the temperature difference and is conveniently expressed by Newton’s law of cooling.
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ𝐴𝑠(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞)
Where,
h is the convective heat transfer co-efficient on W/m2
.K,

Page | 2
As is the surface area through which convective heat transfer takes place,
Ts is the surface temperature,
T∞ is the temperature of the fluid far from the surface
Free and forced Convection:
The convective heat transfer may be classified according to the nature of fluid flow. Forced
convection occurs when the flow is caused by external means, such as a fan, a pump and similar. An
example is a fan which provides forced convection air cooling of hot electrical components on a
printed circuit board.
In contrast, for the Natural (or free) convection, the flow is induced by buoyancy forces, which arise
from density differences caused by temperature variations in the fluid. In such situation, air that
makes contact with the hot components experiences an increase in temperature and therefore
reduction in density. Since the warm air is now lighter than surrounding air, buoyancy forces induce
a vertical motion and the hot air rising from the boards is replaced by the inflow of air at room
temperature. Boiling and condensation are also grouped under general subject of convection heat
transfer with the application of the dimensional analysis convection heat transport can be defined in
term of Nusselt number. Where the Nusselt number and other dimensionless numbers for convective
heat transfer are co-related with the following equation:
Nu =f (Gr, Re, Pr) …………. (i)
Where,
Nu =Nusselt number (ratio of actual heat transfer to that by the conduction over thickness l)

Page | 3
Pr =Prandtl number (ratio of momentum diffusivity to that by the thermal diffusivity)
Re=Reynolds number (ratio of inertial forces to that of viscous forces)
Gr=Grashof number (ratio of buoyant forces to that viscous forces)
Ra = Rayleigh Number = (Gr*Pr)
For condition in which only natural convection occurs the velocity is dependent solely on the
buoyancy effects, represented by the Grashof number and the Prandtl number can be omitted and
equation (i) is reduced to:
Nu = f (Gr,Pr)
When forced convection occurs the effects of natural convection are usually negligible and Grashof
number may be omitted and equation (i) is reduced to:
Nu = f (Re,Pr)
All fluid properties are evaluated at film temperature (Tf), where
Tf= (𝑻𝒔 + 𝑻∞)/𝟐
For perfect ideal gases, the expansion co-efficient β = 1/ Tf , while for liquids and non-ideal gases the
expansion co-efficient must be obtained from property charts.
For all range of Rayleigh number the following formula may be used.
For turbulent flow Ra>109
and For laminar flow Ra < 109
Formula for Forced Convection
For all range of Re # and Pr# following correlation may be used

Page | 4
General Description of Free
and Forced Convection Equipment
The apparatus consists of a metallic block of specific dimensions (thickness, height etc.) with a
thermometer installed at the top for temperature measurements. The block is heated to a certain
temperature and then allowed to cool under open air. The same procedure is repeated under forced
convection phenomena by cooling it under some external source such as fan. The change in
temperature is noted and heat transfer co-efficient is calculated to evaluate which mode of convective
heat transfer is more favored i.e. forced or free.
3. Procedure
1. Startup
• Insert the metallic block properly on the burner or heat source.
• Turn on the burner flame.
• Make sure that the block is exposed completely to the burner flames covering all the
below side.
2. Operation
• Note down the room temperature
• Take the metallic block and place it on the stand.
• Place the thermometer in the small cavity present at the top surface of block. Place the
thermometer in cavity after filling it with Aluminum powder.
• Heat the metallic block up to 250(°C), with the help of burner.
• Remove the burner and let the block to cool down in still air (i.e. without fan) condition.
• Note the temperature of block at suitable time interval (e.g. 30 sec or 1.0min).Until the
temperature of the block becomes equal to room temperature.
• Alternately you can record the time after every 10°C decrease in temperature.
3. Shutdown

Page | 5
• After performing the experiment remove the block from burner when it is at room
temperature.
• Make sure that burner is properly off with no gas leakage.
4. Safety and Precautions
1. Don’t start the burner till the block is properly placed on it.
2. In case the temperature exceeds from the required temperature switch off the burner.
3. Use gloves to operate the equipment.
4. Don’t expose naked skin to hot surface it can cause serious injury.
5. Learn where the safety and first-aid equipment is located. This includes fire extinguishers, fire
blankets, and eye-wash stations.
6. Notify the instructor immediately in case of an accident.
7. If hot surface come into contact with your skin or eyes, flush immediately with copious amount of
water and consult with your instructor.
Work Problem
A fluid flows over a plane surface 1 m by 1 m. The surface temperature is 50o
C, the fluid temperature
is 20o
C and the convective heat transfer coefficient is 2000 W/m2o
C. The convective heat transfer
between the hotter surface and the colder air can be calculated as
q = (2000 W/(m2o
C)) ((1 m) (1 m)) ((50 o
C) - (20 o
C))
= 60000 (W) = 60 kW
5. Application
This mechanism is found very commonly in everyday life, including central heating, air conditioning,
steam turbines and in many other machines. Forced convection is often encountered by engineers
designing or analyzing heat exchangers, pipe flow, and flow over a plate at a different temperature
than the stream.
6. Recommended books:

Page | 6
Company.
Ed.

Page | 7
In Lab
Observations & Calculations
Room Temperature = TR =
Length of metallic block = L =
Diameter of the metallic block = d =
Heat Transfer area (surface area) of the body = A =
S.
No
Time
( Mins
)
Temperatur
e (0
C)
Film
Temperature
(0
C)
Properties of
Air at Film
Temperature
Value of Dimensionless
Numbers
Value of “h” in
free convection
Value of “h”
in forced
convection
ρ C
p
k μ Pr# Gr Ra =Gr*Pr Re
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Page | 8
Air Properties chart

Page | 9
Post-Lab
• Findings:
• Display Results:
• Conclusions:

Page | 10
EXPERIMENT NO. 2
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN CYLINDRICAL RODS
Pre Lab
1. Objective
1. Compare the value of “Q” in materials with different thermal conductivity.
2. Plot and relate the value of “Q” in metallic rods under study.
2. Theory
“Heat” is the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a result of
temperature difference. The science that deals with the rates of such energy transfers is “heat
transfer”.
There are three modes of heat transfer:
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
Conduction:
“Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles
of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of
interactions between the particles”.
Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases.
In Gases and liquids:
It is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.
In solids:
It is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by
free electrons.
The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on the:

Page | 11
1. Geometry of the medium
2. Its thickness
3. the material of the medium
4. and the temperature difference across the medium
Fourier’s Law of heat conduction:
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 ∝
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 × 𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑸𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 = 𝒌𝑨
𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐
∆𝒙
= −𝒌𝑨
∆𝑻
∆𝒙
Where,
k is the thermal conductivity of the material,
A is the cross sectional area,
∆T is the temperature difference
∆x is the change in length. (Distance from the heater)
General Description of Heat conduction through Metallic Rod Equipment
The apparatus consists of a heating assembly which can heat three metallic rods at same time. The
metallic rods should be same in dimensions to evaluate the effect of thermal conductivity or K on
the heat transfer process. The rods are attached linearly with one end attached to the heating
assembly and other end open in air. Three thermometers are installed at equal distances to measure
the temperature gradient through the metallic rods.

Page | 12
3. Procedure
1. Startup
• Install the three metallic rods with the heating assembly.
• Note down the dimensions of the metallic rods and hang thermometers at equal distance
to measure metallic rods temperature.
2. Operation
• Switch on the heating system and set specific required temperature.
• At regular time intervals note down the temperature reading at different points along
the length of the available rods.
• Repeat the same procedure for 10 readings.
3. Shutdown
• After performing the experiment turn off the heating system
• Remove all the metallic rods when they reach rooms temperature.
1. Don’t note the reading till the heating system required temperature is attained.
2. In case of high temperature then required switch off the heating system.
3. Use gloves to operate the apparatus.
4. Don’t expose naked skin to hot metallic rod as it can cause serious injury.
5. Learn where the safety and first-aid equipment is located. This includes fire extinguishers,
fire blankets, and eye-wash stations.
7. If hot surface come into contact with your skin or eyes, flush immediately with copious
amounts of water and consult with your instructor.
5. Application
Heat transfer is an essential process throughout a number of residential, industrial and
commercial facilities. Within these locations, heat must efficiently and effectively be
added, removed or transferred from one process to another. Heat transfer is one of the most
important industrial processes. Throughout any industrial facility, heat must be added,

Page | 13
removed, or moved from one process stream to another. Understanding the basics of the
heart of this operation is key to any engineers' mastery of the subject.
1. RC Chemical Engineering by J.M. Coulson & J.F. Richardson 6th
Edition (387-401)
2. Heat Transfer by J.P, Holman 9th
Edition (1-9) & (25-35)
3. Process Heat Transfer by D.Q. Kern Indian Edition (6-13)
Company.
7. Incropera Frank P., De Witt David P. “Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer” 5th Ed.
9. Coulson J.M., Richardson J.F. “Chemical Engineering” Vol-II, 5th Ed. 2002. The English Book
In Lab
Observation & Calculation
For Copper rod:
Diameter ID = , OD =
Length L1 = L2 = L3 =
Sr. # Time (min)
Temperature (○
C)
“T1”
Temperature (○
C)
“T2”
Temperature (○
C)
“T3”

Page | 14
For Aluminum rod:
Sr. # Time (min)
Temperature (○
C)
“T1”
Temperature (○
C)
“T2”
Temperature (○
C)
“T3”
For SS rod:
Sr. # Time (min)
Temperature (○
C)
“T1”
Temperature (○
C)
“T2”
Temperature (○
C)
“T3”
Comparison:
Sr. #
Copper Aluminum S.S
L1 Q L1 Q L1 Q
Trend Lines
▪ Temperature Vs. Length of the tubes
▪ Rate of Heat Transfer Vs. Length of the tube
▪ Rate of Heat Transfer Vs. Time
Post-Lab
• Findings:
• Conclusions:

Page | 15
EXPERIMENT NO. 3
HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH COMPOSITE WALL
Pre Lab
1. Objective
Measure heat transfer rate (Q) through composite wall and draw temperature profile for the
given system.
2. Theory
Conduction (heat transfer by diffusion) is the transport of energy from the more energetic to the
less energetic particles of a substance due to a temperature gradient, and the physical mechanism
is that of random atomic and molecular activity. For one-dimensional, steady-state heat conduction
in a plane wall with no heat generation, temperature is a function of the x coordinate only and heat
is transferred exclusively in this direction.
Figure-1: Heat transfer through a plane wall

Page | 16
The heat transfer rate (qx) by conduction through a plane wall is directly proportional to
the cross sectional area (A) and the temperature difference (T), whereas it is inversely
proportional to the wall thickness (x).
In addition to single plane wall, heat transfer through composite wall is also important.
Such walls may involve any number of series and parallel layers made of different materials. In the
case of steady state one-dimensional heat conduction with no heat generation, temperature profile
through each layer becomes linear as shown in Figure 2. Heat transfer through composite systems
is usually described by an overall heat transfer coefficient. Simply, the overall heat transfer
coefficient is related to the total thermal resistance.
Figure-2: Heat transfer through composite systems.
General Description of Heat conduction through Composite wall Equipment
The apparatus consists of metallic walls of different materials combined in series to evaluate the
overall heat flow through the composite wall. The first wall is attached to a heating system at one
end receiving heat from heat source and transferring to other combined metal walls through
conduction.
3. Procedure
1. Startup

Page | 17
• Place the metallic walls in series in the composite wall apparatus.
• Turn on the heating source.
• Set the temperature up to 250 o
C.
2. Operation
• Wait and let the steady state be achieved.
• After certain time note down the temperature of all three walls.
• By using Fourier’s law of heat conduction, note down the heat transfer co-efficient.
3. Shutdown
• Repeat the experiment following the same procedure for another composite wall
rearranging the sequence of metallic walls.
• After performing the experiment turned off the heating system.
• Remove the metallic walls from the apparatus when they reach to room temperature.
1. Don’t switch on heating system till the walls are properly placed.
2. Don’t turn off apparatus until required temperature is attained by the heating system
3. Use gloves to operate the open pan evaporator.
4. Don’t expose naked skin to hot water or steam as it can cause serious injury.
5. Learn where the safety and first-aid equipment is located. This includes fire
extinguishers, fire blankets, and eye-wash stations.
5. Application
Composite walls allow us to use any combination of material which results in the
optimization of the heating system with minimum heat losses. It allows us to change the
materials as per our requirement to meet our requirements from strong to less heating as
required for heat sensitive compounds. The resultant composite wall becomes more strong
and efficient.

Page | 18
Company.
Ed.

Page | 19
In Lab
Length from =
=
→ 1
L
B
A
Length from =
=
→ 2
L
C
B
Length from =
=
→ 3
L
D
C
Temperature at point = T1=
Temperature at point = T2 =
Thickness of Stainless Steel =X2=
Thickness of Aluminum = X1=
Thermal conductivity of glass wool =0.04W/mK
Thermal conductivity of S.S. =16W/mK
Thermal conductivity of Aluminum =205W/mK
Rate of Heat transfer Q is given as:






+
+
+
−
=

=
A
K
L
A
K
L
A
K
L
A
K
L
T
T
R
T
Q
S
S
gw
Al
gw .
4
.
3
2
1
4
1 )
(
Post-Lab
• Findings:
• Conclusions:

Page | 20
EXPERIMENT NO. 4
FILM AND DROP-WISE CONDENSATION
Pre Lab
1. Objective
Analyze (C4) the effect of cold stream flow rate on the rate of steam condensation. Compare (C4)
the experimental and theoretical values of the overall heat transfer coefficient for:
a) Film wise condensation
b) Drop wise condensation
2. Theory
Condensation of a vapor into a liquid is a process involving large heat transfer coefficients and a
phase change. Condensation takes place when a saturated vapor such as steam comes in contact
with a solid whose surface temperature is below saturation temperature, to form a liquid phase such
as water.
Normally, upon condensation of vapor on a surface such as vertical or horizontal tube or other
surface, a film of condensate is formed on the surface and flows over the surface by the action of
gravity. It is the film of liquid between the vapors and surface that provides main impedance to the
heat transfer. This is called film wise condensation.
Drop wise condensation occurs when a vapor condenses on a surface not wetted by the condensate.
For nonmetal vapors, drop wise condensation gives much higher heat transfer coefficients than
those found with film condensation. For instance, the heat transfer coefficient for drop wise
condensation of steam is around 10 times that for film condensation at power station condenser
pressures and more than 20 times that for film condensation at atmospheric pressure. However this
type of condensation is difficult to maintain at industrial level accounting to the factors of
oxidation, fouling and degradation of coating and eventually film condensation occurs. Therefore,
condensers designs are based on the assumption of film wise condensation mostly.
General Description of Film and Drop-wise Equipment
The equipment consists of two pipes enclosed in a container. The material of construction for both
pipes is same except the one pipe surface is polished having smooth surface while other comprise
of rough uneven surface. Steam is passed through both pipes and the condensation phenomena are
noticed in the form of layer and droplets on the two surfaces.

Page | 21
3. Procedure
1. Startup
• Note the room temperature.
• Open all valves and drain all the water already present.
• Set the apparatus so that the water only flows through rough pipe.
2. Operation
• Open the water flow rate valve and pass it through the rough pipe.
• Open the steam valve and try to set the pressure at a constant value in the chamber.
• Steam condenses in the form of film and condensate is obtained at the bottom. Measure the
mass flow rate and temperature of water (at inlet and outlet) and condensate.
• Change the cold water flow rate and do same. Take 3 to 4 more readings.
• All the readings should be taken by keeping safety in the mind.
• Measure the condensate (Steam outlet) temperature.
3. Shutdown
• Repeat the experiment following the same procedure for smooth pipe.
• After performing the experiment turned off the steam.
• Drain all the condensed water and water left over in the evaporator.
• Open safety valve to release all the steam pressure.
1. Never splash water to the control panel. This will cause body injury and damage to the
equipment.
2. Never use your bare hand to test the AC Power Supply. It may cause hazardous injury.
3. Cool down the equipment before draining the water inside the glass vessel so that the
heater will not be overheated when there is no water inside the vessel.
4. Make sure tap water used is free from any contamination to prevent blockage inside the
condenser.
5. In case of steam pressure build up open the relief valve.
6. Use gloves to operate the film and drop wise condensation unit .
7. Don’t exposed naked skin to hot water or steam as it can cause serious injury.

Page | 22
extinguishers, fire blankets, and eye-wash stations.
5. Application
Condensation phenomena is used in the designing of condensers being used in heat exchangers of
various designs and come in many sizes, ranging from small units to very large systems. The use
of condensation knowledge helps in designing of pipelines to transport different chemicals on a
large distance from hot sunny to cold climate regions.
2. Heat Transfer by J.P, Holman 9th
Edition (1-9) & (477-482)
Company.
Ed.
10. 8 J. P. Holman “Heat Transfer” 2002 McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Page | 23
In Lab
qx = Heater Power (W)
Tsat = Saturation Temperature (K)
Tin = Inlet Temperature(K)
Tout = Outlet Condensate Temperature(K)
Ф = Heat Flux (W/m2
)
U = Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m2
.K)
Post-Lab
• Findings:
• Display Results
• Conclusions
Flow rate
(l/min)
Steam
Pressure
(Psi)
Tin
(degC)
Tout
(degC)
Tsat
(degC)
LMTD
(Tsat-Tin)-
(Tsat-
Tout)/ln(Tsat-
Tin/Tsat-Tout)
Mass
Flow
rate
(kg/sec)
Ф
Heat
Flux
(W/m2
)
U
Heat
Transfer
Coeffcient
(W/m2
.K)

Page | 24
EXPERIMENT NO. 5
RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER MODULE
Pre Lab
1. Objective
Examine (C4) the effect of radiations on different bodies (Black/Silver).
Compare (C4) the obtained values with different metallic plates and prove the Stefan Boltzmann
law.
2. Theory
➢ RC Chemical Engineering by J.M. Coulson & J.F. Richardson 6th
Edition (438-441)
➢ Heat Transfer by J.P, Holman 9th
Edition (12-13) & (367-376)
➢ Process Heat Transfer by D.Q. Kern Indian Edition (62-68)
General Description of Radiation Heat Transfer Module Equipment
The unit consists of a horizontal track fitted with interchangeable heat radiation source end and
light source. Either the heat radiation detector or the light meter may be placed on the horizontal
track. In addition, a number of accessories can be fitted for experimental purposes. These include
metal plates, two vertically oriented metal plates to form an aperture, radiometer and a number of
light filters. The radiation detectors accessories are all clamped to stand, which enable them to be
positioned at different distances from the source. Temperatures from plates & output from radiation
detector are displayed on digital read out on the control panel.
3. Procedure
1. Startup
• Ensure the main switches of the control panel are off.
• Install the heat source assembly on the holder at one end of horizontal track.
• Install radiometer, aperture and plates on horizontal track.
• Connect the heater supply cable to the power output socket of the control panel.
• Ensure the heater cable is connected to panel.
• Initially (When heater is not ON) thermocouple reading from the plate should indicate
ambient temperature.
• Radiometer should indicate approximately zero on the panel.

Page | 25
• Then (After when heater is ON) the thermocouple/radiometer reading should increase.
• Now your equipment is ready for experiment.
2. Operation
• Follow the basic start-up instructions.
• Connect one of the thermocouple of the target plates on the bench, to record ambient
temperature.
• Position radiometer on the test track at 800mm from the heat source.
• Set the heater temperature to 250o
C by heater controller. Monitor T4 reading on the panel.
• When T4 value has stabilized, move the radiometer to 300mm from heated plate. The
reading of radiometer should start to rise. When the value has stabilized, record T1, T4, the
distance X and radiometer reading, R.
• Repeat the above procedure with an increment of 50˚C from 250˚C to 400˚C.
3. Shutdown
• After performing the experiment turn off the main supply to control panel & also switch
off heater.
1. High voltages exist so avoid direct skin contact with any live wires .
2. During operation, the heated plate may be heated up to 400 0
C and even above.
So treat the unit with caution, as there is a severe burn hazard.
3. Try not to open wooden box during operation, as radiations may damage your
skin/eyes.
4. Use gloves & goggles to operate the equipment.
5. Application
Radiation heat transfer module entitles students to operate & understand major heat transfer
mechanism namely radiation which has diverse applications in our industry i.e. Solar panels,
furnaces etc.

Page | 26
In Lab
Distance between radiometer and heated surface, X =
Temperature of heated surface, T4 (K) =
Temperature of target plate (Ambient), T1(K) =
Heat Flux via Radiation, qb = σ (Ts
4
– Ta
4
)
while σ = 5.6703 10-8
(W/m2
K4
) - The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant
While, Corrected radiation heat flux, qr = qb× Sin2
ɵ
Whereas ɵ can be calculated from the relation;
ɵ, in Radians = Tan-1
(
50
𝑋
)
And corrected radiometer reading, Rc = R× C. Whereas C is average correction factor whose value
can be calculated by using following relationship;
C= ∑ rn / n,
r is the individual correction factor which can be obtained using , r = qr /R
While F is the ratio between actual heat flux through a heated surface to radiations emitted whose
value should remain constant under different temperature conditions.
F = qr/Rc
Sr. #
Temp of
heated
surface Ts
(K)
Temp. of
the target
plate Ta
(K)
Radiometer
Reading , R
( W/m2
)
qb qr r Rc F

Page | 27
Post-Lab
• Findings:
• Conclusions:

Page | 28
EXPERIMENT NO. 6
DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER
Pre Lab
1. Objective
Examine (C4) values of experimentally determined overall heat transfer coefficient with
theoretically calculated values for double pipe heat exchanger.
Analyze (C4) the effect of steam pressure and water flow rate on the efficiency of the
exchanger.
2. Theory
Temperature can be defined as the amount of energy that a substance has. Heat exchangers are used
to transfer that energy from one substance to another. In process units it is necessary to control the
temperature of incoming and outgoing streams. These streams can either be gases or liquids. Heat
exchangers raise or lower the temperature of these streams by transferring heat to or from the
stream.
“Heat exchanger is a device that exchanges the heat between two fluids of different temperatures
that are separated by a solid wall. The temperature gradient , or the differences in temperature
facilitate this transfer of heat.”
Transfer of heat happens by three principle means:
• Radiation
• Conduction
• Convection
In the use of heat exchangers radiation does take place. However, in comparison to conduction
and convection, radiation does not play a major role. Conduction occurs as the heat from the higher
temperature fluid passes through the solid wall. To maximize the heat transfer, the wall should be
thin and made of a very conductive material. The biggest contribution to heat transfer in a heat
exchanger is made through convection.
The double-pipe heat exchanger is one of the simplest types of heat exchangers. It is called a
double-pipe exchanger because one fluid flows inside a pipe and the other fluid flows between that

Page | 29
pipe and another pipe that surrounds the first. This is a concentric tube construction. Flow in a
double-pipe heat exchanger can be co-current or counter-current.
There are two flow configurations:
• Co-current
It is when the flow of the two streams is in the same direction.
• Counter current
It is when the flow of the streams is in opposite directions.
Effect of changing the conditions on heat transfer rate:
As conditions in the pipes change: inlet temperatures, flow rates, fluid properties, fluid
composition, etc., the amount of heat transferred also changes. This transient behavior leads to
change in process temperatures, which will lead to a point where the temperature distribution
becomes steady. When heat is beginning to be transferred, this changes the temperature of the
fluids. Until these temperatures reach a steady state their behavior is dependent on time.
In this double-pipe heat exchanger a hot process fluid flowing through the inner pipe transfers its
heat to cooling water flowing in the outer pipe. The system is in steady state until conditions
change, such as flow rate or inlet temperature. These changes in conditions cause the temperature
distribution to change with time until a new steady state is reached.

Page | 30
The new steady state will be observed once the inlet and outlet temperatures for the process and
coolant fluid become stable. In reality, the temperatures will never be completely stable, but with
large enough changes in inlet temperatures or flow rates a relative steady state can be
experimentally observed.
Working Principle:
The basic principle of heat exchanger is the transfer of heat between two fluids. Two fluids are
brought in close contact with each other but are prevented from mixing by a physical barrier. The
temperature of the two fluids will soon come to an equilibrium temperature.
The energy from each fluid is exchanged and no extra heat is added or removed. Since the heat in
the process is not constant and the heat amount of the fluids is also not constant thus the Heat
exchanger must be designed in a way that it is suited for all the cases of heat exchange and the
performance is best suited for all conditions. Also the design should be such that the heat exchange
is at a particular rate required by the process. Heat exchangers are originally designed to be over
sized so that in cases of fouling, the surface of heat exchanger is still large enough to carry out
operations. Once cleaned the heat exchanger would be again oversized.
For the use of any heat exchanger the proper study of various technical and economical parameters
is required such as life of heat exchanger, cost per unit area , Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient ,
Low heating value of fuel, Effectiveness, Efficiency , Heat Capacities, Annual variation of
temperatures of fluid under observation.
Various types of heat exchanger follow this general principle. Whether it is a Double Pipe heat
exchanger or Shell and Tube or Plate Heat exchanger or others of various kinds the underlying
principle is same although specifics differ greatly.
Some factors that influence the heat exchanger performance are:
• width of the material of the tubes
• Temperature variation between two fluids
• Thermal Conductivity of the material of fabrication
• Physical features of the exchanger and Surface Area of the tubes
• Type of flow i.e. Counter current or co current or mixed flow
• Properties of the liquid i.e. viscosity, Heat capacity etc.

Page | 31
Explanation:
As with any process the analysis of a heat exchanger begins with an energy and material balance.
Before doing a complete energy balance a few assumptions can be made. The first assumption is
that the energy lost to the surroundings from the cooling water or from the U-bends in the inner
pipe to the surroundings is negligible. We also assume negligible potential or kinetic energy
changes and constant physical properties such as specific heats and density. These assumptions
also simplify the basic heat-exchanger equations.
The determination of the overall heat-transfer coefficient is necessary in order to determine the
heat transferred from the inner pipe to the outer pipe. This coefficient takes into account all of the
conductive and convective resistances (k and h, respectively) between fluids separated by the inner
pipe, and also takes into account thermal resistances caused by fouling (rust, scaling, i.e.) on both
sides of the inner pipe. For a double-pipe heat exchanger the overall heat transfer coefficient, U,
can be expressed as
U=Qh/A.ΔTLMTD
In a heat exchanger the log-mean temperature difference is the appropriate average temperature
difference to use in heat transfer calculations. The equation for the log-mean temperature difference
Where
T1=Hot Stream Inlet Temperature.
T2=Hot Stream Outlet Temperature.
t1 =Cold Stream Inlet Temperature.
t2=Cold Stream Outlet Temperature.
Construction:
They simply consist of two concentric pipes: one fluid flows in inner pipe and other fluid flows in
the annular space between the inner pipe and outer pipe.

Page | 32
Double pipe Heat exchangers can be made with various materials:
• Carbon steel
• Alloy steels
• Copper alloys
• Exotic materials (tantalum).
• Iron
• Aluminum alloys
Fouling:
Formation of a scale or a deposit on a heat transfer surface is called fouling.
Every single heat exchanger in operation in modern industries is exposed to fouling to
a greater or lesser extent depending on the surface temperature, surface condition
Material of construction, fluid velocity, flow geometry and fluid composition. The
Fouling phenomenon is time dependent and will result in a decrease in thermal
effectiveness of a heat exchanger. Once the thermal effectiveness decreases to a
minimum acceptable level, cleaning of the equipment becomes necessary to restore its
performance.
Types of fouling:
• Precipitation fouling ( due to dissolved salts of Ca & Mg )

Page | 33
• Particulate fouling( due to suspended particles )
• Corrosion fouling
• Chemical reaction fouling (due to deposits formed by chemical reactions)
• Bio fouling ( due to the attachment of bio chemical species )
• Solidification fouling ( due to sub cooling of fluids )
Types of heat exchangers:
There are two basic types of heat exchangers.
(1) Indirect contact heat exchanger
Special type of indirect heat exchanger includes the following heat exchanger that is
commonly used in industries.
• Shell and tube heat exchanger
• Double pipe heat exchanger
• Spiral tube heat exchanger
• Plate and frame heat exchanger
• Plate and fin heat exchanger
• Adiabatic wheel heat exchanger
• Phase change heat exchanger
• Pillow plate heat exchanger
(2) Direct contact heat exchanger
Direct contact heat exchanger involves the following types that are used in industry
commonly
• Gas –liquid
• Immiscible liquid-liquid
• Solid –liquid or solid gas
Industrial applications:
Heat exchangers are widely used in industry both for cooling and heating large scale industrial
processes. The type and size of heat exchanger used can be tailored to suit a process depending on

Page | 34
the type of fluid, its phase, temperature, density, viscosity, pressures, chemical composition and
various other thermodynamic properties.
In many industrial processes there is waste of energy or a heat stream that is being exhausted, heat
exchangers can be used to recover this heat and put it to use by heating a different stream in the
process. This practice saves a lot of money in industry, as the heat supplied to other streams from
the heat exchangers would otherwise come from an external source that is more expensive and
more harmful to the environment. Heat exchangers are used in many industries, including:
• Waste water treatment
• Wine and beer making
• Refrigeration
• Petroleum refining
In waste water treatment, heat exchangers play a vital role in maintaining optimal temperatures
within anaerobic digester to promote the growth of microbes that remove pollutants. Common
types of heat exchangers used in this application are the double pipe heat exchanger as well as the
plate and frame heat exchanger .Heat exchangers can be used in food Industry as a process of
cooling down various products in the industry. Large number of products like hazelnut paste and
other types of food pastes are required to be cooled down or heated up in order to be processed
further. For this process Heat exchanger can be used. Ethanol produced from various sources is
gaining popularity worldwide for being the next alternative fuel which will replace the
conventional fossil fuels and help in saving the environment. In the process of ethanol production
a network of heat exchangers is used instead of single or double heat exchangers. The use of heat
exchanger networks fulfills the utilization of waste heat and enables considerable savings of energy
in short payback period.
Limitations:
❖ It is not as cost effective as most shell and tube exchangers
❖ It requires special gaskets
❖ Limited volumetric capacity
❖ Fouling

Page | 35
General Description of Double Pipe Heat Exchanger Equipment
The principal parts are two set of concentric pipes, two connecting Tees, and a return head and a
return bend. The inner pipe is supported within `the outer pipe by packing glands and the fluids
enter the inner pipe proper. The Tees have nozzles or screwed connection attached to them to
permit the entry and exit of the annulus fluid which crosses from one leg to the other through the
return head. The two lengths of the inner pipe are connected by a return bend which is usually
exposed and does not provide effective heat transfer surface. When arranged in two legs the unit is
called hair pin. In case of the double pipe heat exchanger one fluid flows inside the inner pipe while
the second fluid flows in the annular space between the inner and the outer pipe.
3. Procedure
1. Startup
• Fill the steam generator with clean water.
• Switch on steam generating unit until it creates your desired pressure in unit.
• Open cold water inlet
• Measure the flow rate of inlet water
2. Operation
• Open the valve which control flow of steam.
• Inlet temperature of steam can be found from steam table corresponding to steam
pressure
• Note down the inlet temperature of cold water.
• Also note down the outlet temperature of cold water.
• Measure the condensate flow rate.
3. Shutdown
• Shut off the hot stream first
• Close the cold water inlet.
1. Use PPE i.e. Lab Coat & Safety goggles to prevent any harm
2. As we are using steam leather gloves are recommended for operation

Page | 36
3. Do not let Steam to be accumulated in the steam chamber high pressure me cause it to
burst
4. Do not rip the insulation of the exchanger
5. Clean Water must be used to prevent corrosion
extinguishers, fire blankets, and eye-wash stations
7. Report any accident immediately
8. In case of fire evacuate the lab immediately
5. Application
Double pipe heat exchanger found its greatest applications in the industries where the total heat
transfer area is small, 100 to 200 ft2
or less, and is usually use in the refineries, fertilizers, food,
petrochemical industries etc.
1. RC Chemical Engineering by J.M. Coulson & J.F. Richardson 6th Edition (414-416)
2. Heat Transfer by J.P, Holman 9th Edition (9-11) & (205-209)
6. Cengel Yunus A. “Heat Transfer-A Practical approach” 2003. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Ed.

Page | 37
In Lab
Sr.
No
Steam
Pressure
(Psi)
Hot Water Cold Water Condensate
Flow rate
(kg / sec)
Flow
rate
Kg/sec
Inlet
Temp
(T1°C)
Outlet
temp
(T2°C)
Flow
Rate
Kg/sec
Inlet
Temp
(t1°C)
Outlet
Temp
(t2°C)
1
2
3
4
1. Amount of heat supplied by steam to the cold water.
Qh = mconde λ + mconde Cp ∆T (Watts)
2. Amount of heat taken by cold water.
Qc = m Cp ∆T (Watts)
3. : Heat losses in the system.
Qloss = Qh – Qc (Watts)
4. : Efficiency of the concentric pipe heat exchanger:
η =
Qh
Qc
* 100
Post-Lab

Page | 38
a. Findings
b. Display Results
c. Conclusions:

Page | 39
EXPERIMENT NO. 7
OPEN PAN EVAPORATOR
Pre Lab
1. Objective
Analyze (C4) the effect of steam pressure on the economy of the open pan evaporator.
2. Theory
What is evaporation?
Evaporation is a type of vaporization of a liquid that occurs from the surface of a liquid into a
gaseous phase that is not saturated with the evaporating substance. The other type of vaporization
is boiling, which is characterized by bubbles of saturated vapor forming in the liquid phase.
Water is transferred from the surface to the atmosphere through evaporation, the process by which
water changes from a liquid to a gas. Approximately 80% of all evaporation is from the oceans,
with the remaining 20% coming from inland water and vegetation. Winds transport the evaporated
water around the globe, influencing the humidity of the air throughout the world. For example, a
typical hot and humid summer day in the Midwestern United States is caused by winds
blowing tropical oceanic air northward from the Gulf of Mexico.

Page | 40
Factors Affecting Evaporation:
Several factors affect the rate of evaporation from surfaces:
1. Energy availability.
2. Humidity.
3. Rate of turbulent diffusion.
4. Water availability.
Different from drying:
There is usually a difference between two terminologies that are evaporation and drying. The
difference generally stated is between the products of the two operations i.e. the product of
evaporation is liquid or slurry as we are aiming to concentrate a solution. But in case drying, the
moisture content is evaporated from the specimen by the application of heat to the desired
characteristic of the object in solid form. For example, to attain the desired properties of gypsum,
we remove the free moisture content up to 6 remaining molecules of water attached with it, called
inherent moisture content.
Therefore,
• Evaporation gives – liquid/slurry
• Drying gives – Solid
Types of evaporators:

Page | 41
Types of evaporators are:
1) Natural circulation type
i) Vertical short tube or Calandria evaporator
ii) Long tube vertical (LTV) rising film type
iii) Long tube vertical (LTV) falling film type
2) Forced Circulation type
3) Agitated Film Evaporators
4) Multiple Effect Evaporator
5) Plate Evaporator
6) Open Pan Evaporator
Open pan evaporator:
Pan evaporation is a measurement that combines or integrates the effects of several climate
elements: temperature, humidity, rain fall, drought dispersion, solar radiation, and wind.
Evaporation is greatest on hot, windy, dry, sunny days; and is greatly reduced when clouds block
the sun and when air is cool, calm, and humid. Pan evaporation measurements enable farmers and
ranchers to understand how much water their crops will need.
An evaporation pan is used to hold water during observations for the determination of the quantity
of evaporation at a given location. Such pans are of varying sizes and shapes, the most commonly
used being circular or square. The best known of the pans are the "Class A" evaporation pan and
the "Sunken Colorado Pan". In Europe, India and South Africa, a Symon's Pan (or sometimes

Page | 42
Symon's Tank) is used. Often the evaporation pans are automated with water level sensors and a
small weather station is located nearby.
General Description of Open Pan Evaporator Equipment
Pan evaporation is a measurement that combines or integrates the effects of several climate
elements: temperature, humidity, rain fall, drought dispersion, solar radiation, and wind.
Evaporation is greatest on hot, windy, dry, sunny days; and is greatly reduced when clouds block
the sun and when air is cool, calm, and humid. Pan evaporation measurements enable farmers and
ranchers to understand how much water their crops will need. An evaporation pan is used to hold
water during observations for the determination of the quantity of evaporation at a given location.
Such pans are of varying sizes and shapes, the most commonly used being circular or square.
3. Procedure
1. Startup
• Fill up the open pan with water up to a certain height say 15 cm.
• Set the steam pressure at a certain value say 10 Psi and turn on the equipment.
• Don’t open the steam valve till required pressure is attained.
2. Operation
• Measure the fluid (water) temperature in the open pan evaporator.
• When required steam pressure is attained opened the steam inlet valve in to the evaporator.
• Measure the temperature of the inlet steam.
• Measure the initial water height.
• After certain time say 10 min measure the water level.
• Calculate the height differences indicating the volume evaporated.
• Measure the condensate (Steam outlet) temperature.
3. Shutdown
• Repeat the experiment following the same procedure for another steam pressure say 20 Psi.
• After performing the experiment turned off the steam.
• Drain all the condensed water and water left over in the evaporator.
• Open safety valve to release all the steam pressure.

Page | 43
1. Don’t open the steam valve till the required steam pressure is attained.
2. In case of steam pressure build up open the relief valve.
3. Use gloves to operate the open pan evaporator.
4. Don’t exposed naked skin to hot water or steam as it can cause serious injury.
5. Learn where the safety and first-aid equipment is located. This includes fire extinguishers,
fire blankets, and eye-wash stations.
5. Application
1. Pan evaporation is used to estimate the evaporation from lakes.
2. Helps to evaluate the environmental conditions like humidity, wind flow and other gradients
responsible for evaporation.
3. Helps to identify global warming trend and future predictions.
2. RC Chemical Engineering Design by R.K. Sinnott 4th
Edition (434-437)
Company.
Ed.
10. J. P. Holman “Heat Transfer” 2002 McGraw-Hill Book Company

Page | 44
In Lab
No of
observations
Time t
(Sec)
Steam
pressure p
(Psi)
Initial
height of
water
level h1
(cm)
Final
height of
water
level h2
(cm)
Volume of
water
evaporated
(cm3
)
Mass of
water
evaporated
kg m=ρ x v
No of
observations
Time ( t) Rate of evaporation mass of steam
condensed
Economy
Economy of the evaporator = mass of water evaporated/mass of steam fed.
Post-Lab
a. Findings
b. Display Results
c. Conclusions

Page | 45
Experiment NO. 8
Gas Geyser
Pre Lab
1. Objective
Analyze (C4) heat transfer efficiency of geyser with varying the water flowrate in case of
baffle installation.
2. Theory
Water heating is a thermodynamic process that uses an energy source to heat water above its initial
temperature. Typical domestic uses of hot water include cooking, cleaning, bathing, and space
heating. In industry, hot water and water heated to steam have many uses. Domestically, water is
traditionally heated in vessels known as water heaters, kettles, cauldrons, pots, or coppers. These
metal vessels that heat a batch of water do not produce a continual supply of heated water at a
preset temperature. Rarely, hot water occurs naturally, usually from natural hot springs. The
temperature varies based on the consumption rate, becoming cooler as flow increases.
Construction of a gas fired heater
• Cold Water Supply
Cold water is provided to the tank by a cold water supply line and controlled by a shutoff valve. It
is important to know where the water supply shut off valve is located so maintenance can be
performed on the tank.
• Hot Water Discharge
This is the business end of the hot water heater and the hot water line is what supplies all your
sinks, tubs, showers and appliance needing hot water.

Page | 46
• Construction of the Hot Water Tank
The tank jacket itself is made of steel and encloses a pressure tested water storage tank. Between
the storage tank and the tank jacket is insulation to reduce heat loss of the heated water. It is a good
idea to supplement the insulation by adding a fiberglass insulation tank jacket to the outside of the
hot water heater. These are inexpensive and easy to install.
Inside the tank you will see a dip tube. The dip tube is where the cold water supply enters the tank
to be heated by the gas burner. Since cold air and cold water is denser than hot air or hot water, the
cold water sets at the bottom of the tank until it is warmed by the burner and heated enough to rise
(through convection) to the top of the tank where the hot water hangs out.
In glass-lined tanks there will also be a metal rod in the tank, usually magnesium or aluminum)
called a sacrificial anode. The anode rod is bolted and fastened to the top of the tank and extends
deep into the tank. Its purpose is to draw corrosion to itself instead of the metal tank. Some models
do not have a separate anode but combine the function of the anode with the hot outlet. Plastic lines
tanks do not have an anode.
• Gas Burner Control Module
The natural gas or propane is supplied by a pipe having its own gas shutoff valve. Just like you
need to know where the water supply shutoff valve is located, you need to know where the gas line
shutoff is located too. The gas line fees into a gas burner control module that serves as a kind of
thermostat for the water heater. It also controls the ignition of the pilot light.
From the control module we now proceed to the gas burner assembly. This includes the pilot
light and gas burner itself. The pilot light and burner adjustment is key to proper and energy
efficient operation of the water heater. The gas flame should about 1/2 inches in height and should
have blue tips.
• Gas Combustion Exhaust Flue

Page | 47
The exhaust flue serves two purposes. It exhausts combustion gasses from the burner and it serves
as a type of heat exchanger helping to heat the water in the storage tank. The flue must be properly
exhausted to the outside and there are specific code requirements for the type of flue construction
and acceptable details.
• Temperature and Pressure Relief Valve
A safety feature of the hot water heater includes the pressure relief valve and discharge pipe. It
operates like the radiator cap on your car. The purpose of this valve is to relieve excessive
temperature or pressure builds up inside the tank if it approaches the limits of the tank's safe design
range. This valve is located on top of the tank and often is threaded directly into the tank top itself.
To test the valve, lift up on the handle slightly and hot water should discharge out of the overflow
pipe.
• Tank Drain Valve
The hot water tank can build up sediments in the bottom of the tank if left unmaintained and by
draining the tank using the tank drain valve these sediments cannot build up. And if you don't have
sedimentation then that helps to prolong the life of your tank and improve your water quality.
Advancements in geyser design
Efficiency of geysers can be improved by increasing the residence time of the flue gases which
increases effective heat transfer’s time as heat transfer is a function of time as well.
Creating turbulence in the flow of fluid in the geyser, as this will break the laminar boundary layer
formation and cause and increase in convective heat transfer co-efficient thus increasing the
efficiency of the heater. This can be done by introducing baffles and fins on the inner pipe of the
geyser which also increases the heat transfer area.
A material with high thermal conductivity will allow more heat transfer through it so an inner pipe
must be of a material with high thermal conductivity. Analogously and conversely the outer pipe
must have a low thermal conductivity in order to minimize the losses to surroundings.
Gas fired heaters’ advantages over electrically operated geysers

Page | 48
Since we are dealing with water and there are no circuit boards or electrical components installed
there’s no risk of short circuiting etc. if we experience leakages or other malfunctioning.
In Pakistan gas is much cheaper than electricity, so a gas fired heater is much viable solution than
an electric heater.
Gas fired heaters won’t work unless they are filled up with water, hence lesser maintenance is
required. Whereas electrically operated ones do not show such features unless proper control
mechanism is applied.
The only con these geysers have is that they are slower than electrically operated ones.
General Description of Instrument
Geysers are similar to double pipe heat exchanger in that the flue gases flow in the inner pipe and
the liquid or water that is to be heated flows in the annular portion of the assembly. For heating,
burner and pilot are installed at the bottom of the assembly. Thermostats are also installed in the
geysers for controlling the temperature of the heating fluid at certain limit. It is a sort of ON-OFF
control system, which shutdown (blow-off) the burner on reaching a certain temperature level.
Whereas, the pilot remain in burning condition for again switching on the burner when temperature
decrease from a specified limit due to the entry of fresh liquid/water. Geysers contain pressure
relief valve at the top for maintaining the pressure at certain level. The mode of heat transfer that
is conduction, convection and radiation but the most dominant mode is by radiation.
3. Procedure
1. Startup
• Fire the geyser
• Set the thermostat
• Note the pressure of gas at the interval during heat up
2. Operation
• Heating is continued until the set point of temperature is reached and burner is
switched-off and gas meter reading is noted

Page | 49
• Withdraw the hot water by feeding the cold water of known temperature at fixed
steady rate (0.06 m3
) and note the temperature of both hot and cold water at regular
interval (say after every min.).
• Repeat the procedure for second and third set of readings
3. Shutdown.
• Turn off the gas connection
• Shut off the water connection
• Put out the flame of geyser
1. Do not obstruct air intake
2. Do not obstruct vent hood draft on top of heater
3. Vent pipe gets hot, and must not directly touch other materials including walls and
building materials
4. Gas water heater must have adequate incoming air supply to support proper
combustion and venting
5. The vent goes straight up and out, without any dips
6. Don’t install the geyser on uneven surface.
5. Application
Gas fired heater (Geyser) is an excellent equipment for heating water for house hold purposes. It
is frequently used in daily life in winter. It applications include hot water for washing and
cleaning.

Page | 50
In Lab
Temperature of cold water supplied = Tcw =
Temperature of hot water obtained = Thw=
Mean pressure of gas supplied = Pg=
Mean temperature of gas supplied = Tg =
Initial Volume of Gas = V1 =
Final Volume of Gas =V2 =
Volume Of Gas used =Vg = V2 – V1 =
Mass of water withdrawal =Mhw =
Energy (heat supplied) =Qs= Vg * CV * ρg
Energy (heat captured) =Qc=mcw x Cp x (Thw - Tcw)
Thermal efficiency =ŋt =Qc/Qs x 100
Specific Heat of water =Cv = 1.7 kJ/kg.K

Page | 51
Post-Lab
a. Findings:
b. Display Results:
c. Conclusions:

Page | 52
Experiment NO. 9
Unsteady State Heat Transfer Module
Pre Lab
1. Objective
Analyze (C4) the effect of flow rate in unsteady state heat transfer by changing the geometry
of the objects.
General Description of Instrument
The unsteady state heat transfer module consists of a tank which has provision of heater in it. The
heater is used to heat the water. A small pump is used to circulate water in this tank. The flow is
controlled by a valve. The flow is read out by a Rota meter. The heater’s temp is controlled by set
point given control panel. This control panel also gives us the temperature readings of water and
the object which is placed in it. Thermocouples are used to measure temperatures.
2. Procedure
1. Startup
• Plug in the wire of control panel
• Provide the set point to heater.
2. Operation
• Install the cylinder in the shape carrier
• Set the circulating pump to a specific speed
• Record the starting condition temperatures and then plunge the shape in the flow
duct
• Measure the temperature of water and objects after 20 s.
• Repeat the procedure for the other object
3. Shutdown.
• Turn off the water heater
• Drain the water tank
• Unplug the main switch

Page | 53
2. Recommended Books:
1. Serth, R. W. and T. Lestina “Process Heat Transfer: Principles, Applications and
Rules of Thumb” 2014. Elsevier Science.
Company.
4. Incropera Frank P., De Witt David P. “Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer”
5th
Ed. 2002. John Wiley and Sons.
5. Coulson J.M., Richardson J.F. “Chemical Engineering” Vol-I 1999. The English
Ed. 2002. The
English Book Society and Pergamon Press
7. Hewitt, G.F. and Shires, G.L. and Bott, T.R. “Process Heat transfer” 1994. CRC
Press.
In Lab
Sr # Time Set Point
Temp
T1
Water Temp
T2
Object Temp
T3

Page | 54
T3= object temp at time t sec
T1= T∞= bath temp
Ti= temp of object at time t 0 sec
So formula becomes
=T3-T1/Ti-T1
Fourier Number:
Fo = αt/r2
Biot Number:
Bi = hr/k

Page | 55
AS: α = k/density* cp
Post-Lab
a. Findings:
b. Display Results:
c. Conclusions:

Page | 56
Experiment No: 10
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Pre lab:
1. Objective:
• Compare values of experimentally determined overall heat transfer coefficient with
theoretically calculated values for Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger.
• Quantify the effect of changing hot and cold side flow rates
2. Theory:
Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate the exchange of heat between two fluids that are at
different temperatures while keeping them from mixing with each other. Heat exchangers are
commonly used in practice in a wide range of applications, from heating and air-conditioning
systems in a household, to chemical processing and power production in large plants. Heat
exchangers differ from mixing chambers in that they do not allow the two fluids involved to
mix. In a car radiator, for example, heat is transferred from the hot water flowing through the
radiator tubes to the air flowing through the closely spaced thin plates outside attached to the
tubes.
3.
Shell -and- tube heat exchangers contain a large number of tubes (sometimes several hundred)
packed in a shell with their axes parallel to that of the shell. Heat transfer takes place as one
fluid flows inside the tubes while the other fluid flows outside the tubes through the shell.
Baffles are commonly placed in the shell to force the shell-side fluid to flow across the shell to
enhance heat transfer and to maintain uniform spacing between the tubes. Despite their
widespread use, shell- and-tube heat exchangers are not suitable for use in automotive and
aircraft applications because of their relatively large size and weight. Note that the tubes in a
shell-and-tube heat exchanger open to some large flow areas called headers at both ends of the
shell, where the tube-side fluid accumulates before entering the tubes and after leaving them.

Page | 57
Figure 1. The schematic of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger (one-shell pass and one-tube
pass)
General Description of the Equipment:
Hot Water Circuit:
Hot water flows through a closed circuit. An electrical resistance immersed in the tank heats
the water to a certain temperature. Water leaves the tank and is driven by a pump into the
exchanger. Some water enters the exchanger and some of it returns to the tank via a bypass.
Water is cooled along the exchanger then flows through a flow sensor as it exits, and later flows
back into the heating tank and restarts the cycle.
Cold Water Circuit:
Cooling water enters from the main net, goes through a flow control valve then through a
pressure regulator programmed at 0.5 Bar to avoid any excess pressure in the equipment. Before
entering the exchanger, it goes through a flow sensor then enters into the exchanger where it is
heated. Water exits the exchanger and flows to the drainage system.
Heat Exchanger:
It consists of groups of tubes inside the heat exchanger. The hot water flows through the internal
tubes and cooling water circulates through the space between the external and internal tubes.
There are traverse baffles placed in the external tube to guide the cold water and maximize
the heat transfer.
The exchanger has 8 thermocouples placed strategically: 5 for measuring the cold water
temperatures, 2 for measuring the hot water temperatures and 1 for measuring the temperature
inside the heating tank.
Control System:
The temperature of the water tank can be regulated through PID in the software, it is limited to
65deg C.

Page | 58
Cold water flow is regulated by the control valve on the base unit.
Hot water flow is regulated by the pump’s speed which is controlled in the software and by the
bypass valve.
4. Procedure
During the experiments, a step-by-step procedure given below will be followed.
• Check water level in tank and top up if necessary.
• Switch on master switch.
• Set desired hot-water temperature at temperature controller
• Switch on heater from an ambient temperature of 20o
C to 60o
C requires approx. 20 min,
while heating up start with bleeding procedure.
• Set counter-current by connecting hoses with base apparatus. Only change coldwater hoses!
Otherwise there is a danger of scalding!
• Set a high cold-water flow rate with flow-control valve. Allow water to run until no more
bubbles are visible.
• Switch on pump.
• Use flow-control valve to set high hot-water flow rate.
• Carefully open bleeder valve for hot-water flow and allow water to run for a short while
• Set desired flow rates at flow-control valves.
• Wait until the temperatures fluctuate by less than 1o
C per minute. For this purpose it is
sufficient to observe the two outlet temperatures at thermometers T3 and T6.
• Take temperature readings and enter them in the worksheet together with the set flow rates
for countercurrent.
5. Safety Precautions:
•There is a risk of electric shock. Always unplug first.
•Do not touch heated surfaces during or at the end of an experiment or place them near
to the items sensitive to heat. The heat source plate will become hot, up to 150°C!
Company.
Ed.

Page | 59
8. J. P. Holman “Heat Transfer” 2002 McGraw-Hill Book Company
In Lab:
Observations and Calculations:
Parallel Flow
Hot water
Cold water
Run #
Inlet Outlet Volumetric Inlet Outlet Volumetric
temperature temperature flow rate temperature temperature flow rate
(
o
C) (
o
C) (l/min) (
o
C) (
o
C) (l/min)
T1=Th,in T3=Th,out T4=Th,in T6=Th,in
V
hot
V
cold
1
2
3
4
5
Average
Counter Flow
Hot water
Cold water
Run #
Inlet Outlet Volumetric Inlet Outlet Volumetric
temperatur
e temperature flow rate temperature temperature flow rate
(
o
C) (
o
C) (l/min) (
o
C) (
o
C) (l/min)
T1 = Th,in T3 = Th,out T4 = Th,in T6 = Th,in
V1
= V
hot V2
= V
cold
1
2
3
4
5
Average

Page | 1
Post-Lab
a. Findings
b. Display Results
c. Conclusions

Page | 2
Experiment No: 11
Thermal Expansion of Pipes
Pre lab:
1. Objective:
Measure (C4) the expansion coefficients for different pipe sections and analyze the
obtained results.
2. Theory
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change its shape, area, and volume in response
to a change in temperature.
Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a substance.
When a substance is heated, the kinetic energy of its molecules increases. Thus, the molecules
begin vibrating/moving more and usually maintain a greater average separation. Materials
which contract with increasing temperature are unusual; this effect is limited in size, and only
occur within limited temperature ranges (see examples below). The relative expansion (also
called strain) divided by the change in temperature is called the material's coefficient of thermal
expansion and generally varies with temperature.
Most solid materials expand upon heating and contract when cooled. Materials generally
change their size when subjected to a temperature change while the pressure is constant. In the
case of solid materials, the pressure does not appreciably affect the size of a solid. Thermal
expansion is a material property that indicative the tendency of the material to change in
volume in response to a change in temperature. Different materials expand by different
amounts.
General Description of the Apparatus:
The Thermal Expansion Training Unit, “TEDT”, allows studying the thermal expansion of
different pipe sections and the thermal expansion force. It comprises original components as
used in heating and sanitation systems. This unit provides measurements for the determination
of the thermal expansion of several pipe sections. The unit includes six pipe sections and one
of these sections is fitted with an expansion compensator to compensate thermal stress in the
pipe. These sections are made of different materials and diameters. Several dial gauges situated

Page | 3
on the pipe sections inlet measure the elongation of the pipes and a force measuring device
allows determining the thermal expansion force. The pipe sections can be individually selected
using the ball valves situated at the pipe section outlet. The cold and hot water connections
made using quick-release couplings. The water inlet temperature can be adjusted by these
connections and a mixing faucet. The inlet and outlet lines include two temperature sensors to
measure the change of temperature
Specifications:
Anodized aluminum frame and panels made of painted steel.
The unit includes wheels to facilitate its mobility.
Main metallic elements made of stainless steel.
Six pipe sections:
Length: 1000 mm, each one.
Stainless steel pipe section with an external diameter of 1/2”.
Copper pipe section with an external diameter of 10 mm. Copper pipe section with an
external diameter of 18 mm.
PVC pipe section with an external diameter of 20 mm. PVC pipe section with an external
diameter of 15 mm with an expansion compensator to compensate thermal stress in this section.
PE pipe section with an external diameter of 20 mm.
Six ball valves:
Five ball valves to select the pipe sections. A ball valve situated in the water inlet line.
A thermostatic mixing faucet to adjust the water inlet temperature.
Five dial gauges to measure the elongation of the pipe sections.
A force measuring device to determine the thermal expansion force.
Two “J” type temperature sensors situated in the water inlet and outlet lines.
Water connections made using quick-release couplings.
Electronic console: Metallic box. Temperature sensors connections. Selector for temperature
sensors.
Digital display for temperature sensors.
ON/OFF main switch.
Cables and Accessories, for normal operation.

Page | 4
3. Procedure:
Startup:
• Turn on the ON Switch on the Equipment.
• Measure the original Lengths of the adjusted pipes.
• Set the temperature at which the water is to be heated.
Operation:
• Set the flow of the water in the pipes by using flow meter.
• Note down the flow by using flow sensor.
• Once the flow is set start raising the temperature of the water to the desired
temperature.
• Once the desired temperature is set continue the flow for set times.
• After regular intervals note down the reading obtained on the gauge for the elongation
of the individual pipes separately.
Shutdown:
• After noting down the required readings turn off the water supply
• Turn off the electric supply.
• Drain out the hot water carefully.

Page | 5
In Lab :
Initial temperature=T1
Final Temperature=T2
Original Length=L1
Change in length after expansion=L2
No of
Readings
Type of pipe Change in
Temperature
delta T
(T1-T2)
Original
length
L
Change in
Length
(Original
Length-
Final
Length)
delta L
Thermal
Expansion
Coefficient
Alpha
α= del L/delT*L
1. PVC
2. PE
3. Cu
4. Steel
Post Lab :
c. Findings:
d. Display results
e. Conclusion

Page | 6

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