Business research method slide

1. Yardstick
International
College
1

2. Business Research
Methods
2

3. Course Outline
Chapter 1 - Research Methods: An
introduction
1.1. Meanings of Research
1.2. Research Methods Vs. Research Methodology
1.3. Types of Research
1.4. Motivation of doing Research
1.5. Research and Scientific Method
1.6. Research Process
1.7. Criteria of Good Research
3

4. Chapter 2 - Research Topics and Problems Formulation
2.1. Research Topic and Selection
2.2. What is Research Problem?
2.3. Techniques and Approaches to Problem Definition
2.4. Problem Formulation, and designing Research Questions
Chapter 3- Literature Review and Hypothesis Formulation
3.1. Need for literature review
3.2. Sources and Methods of reviewing literatures
3.3. Theoretical concepts and empirical studies
3.4. Theory and Establishing Research Hypothesis
3.5. Operationalization of variables
4

5. Chapter 4- Research Methods
4.1. Research Design (Introduction of research methodology)
4.2. Research Approaches
4.3. Types and Sources of data
4.4. Scales of data measurement
4.5. Population Vs. Sample Size Determination
4.6. Sampling techniques: Probability and non-probability methods
4.7. Methods of Data Collection And Ethical Issues
4.8. Concepts of Reliability And Validity
4.9. Methods of Data analysis
Chapter 5 - Research Proposal writing
5.1. What is a Research Proposal?
5.2. Functions of Research Proposal
5.3. Components of Research Proposal
5.4. Developing a Research Proposal
5

6. Chapter 6 - Data Analysis and Interpretation
6.1. Preparing data for analysis (Editing, coding & data entry)
6.2. Statistical Techniques in Quantitative analysis
6.3 Data Interpretation
Chapter 7 - Communicating Results of a Research
7.1. What is Research Report Writing?
7.2. Components Of Research Report Writing
6

7. Evaluation Scheme
1. Proposal writing = 30
2. Article review = 20
3. Final Exam = 50
Total = 100
7

8. CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
8

9. 9

10. 1.1. DIFINITIONS OF RESEARCH
According to:
 Advanced learners dictionary of current English: research is “a careful
investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any
branch of knowledge.”
 Redman and Mory: it is a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”
 Encarta dictionary : “methodical investigation into a subject in order to
discover facts, to establish or revise a theory, or to develop a plan of
action based on the facts discovered.
 Research comprises (Clifford Woody )
 Defining and redefining problems,
 Formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions;
 Collecting , organizing and evaluating data;
 Making deductions and reaching conclusions; and
 Carefully testing the conclusions whether it fit the hypothesis
10

11. Cont.
 Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing
stock of knowledge making for its advancement.
 It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study,
observation, comparison and experiment.
 In short, the search for knowledge through objective and
systematic method of finding solution to a problem is
research.
 The systematic approach concerning generalization and
the formulation of a theory is also research. 11

12. ……Cont.
 Research’ refers to
The systematic method consisting of
Articulating the problem,
Formulating a hypothesis,
Collecting the facts or data,
Analyzing the facts and
Reaching certain conclusions either in the form of
solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain
generalizations for some theoretical formulation (Kothari).
12

13. 1.2 Research Methods Vs Methodology
Research methods can be understood as all those methods/techniques that
are used for the conduction of the research.
 Research methods can be put in to the following three groups:
a. The methods which are concerned with collection of data
b. The statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationships
between the data and the unknowns;
c. Those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results
obtained.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research
problem.
 It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done
scientifically.
 In it, you find the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in
studying a research problem along with the logic behind them. 13

14. 1.3 Types of Research
 Policy Research
 Descriptive Vs analytical
 Applied Vs Fundamental
 Quantitative Vs qualitative
 Conceptual Vs Empirical
 Cross-sectional Vs Longitudinal research
 Case studies Vs Surveys
 Experimental Research
14

15. 1. Policy Research
 Policy research is basically the research with policy
implications.
 They are more of practical utility than of theoretical knowledge.
 Researches, which are conducted for the specific purpose of
application, or researches with policy implications, may be treated
as policy researches.
 The results of such studies are used as indices for policy
formulations and implementation.
 Many management researches are policy researches, because they
are not merely of theoretical value.
15

16. 2. Descriptive Vs Analytical
 Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds.
 The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state
of affairs as it exists at present.
 In social science and business research, we often use the term “Ex-post
facto research” for descriptive research studies. for e.g., frequency of
shopping, and preference of people, to discover causes or similar data.
 In such kind of research, the researcher has no control over variables;
s/he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
 An analytical study or statistical method is a system of procedures
and techniques of analysis applied to quantitative data.
 It may consist of a system of mathematical models or statistical
techniques applicable to numerical data.
16

17. 3. Applied Vs Fundamental
 Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial or business organization.
 Fundamental/pure research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the
formulation of a theory.
 Fundamental research is original and investigative study of a basic nature.
 The topic or area of investigation would be new and fresh
 The investigation would be carried out to originate a new theory, making additional
contribution to knowledge.
 It may also throw additional light on the existing theory or body of knowledge. Its
contribution, therefore, can be two folds: developing a new theory and improving
upon the existing theory.
17

18. ……..Applied Vs Fundamental
 Researchers can apply several types of applied researches. Some of these
include evaluation research, social impact assessment research, and
action research
 Evaluation research is one type of applied research. It is made for assessing
the effectiveness of social or economic programs implemented (say, family
planning program) or for assessing the impact of development projects (say,
irrigation project) on the development of the project area.
 Therefore, its purpose is directed to assess or appraise the quality and
quantity of an activity and its performance and to specify its attributes
and conditions required for its success.
 It is also concerned with changes over time.
The types of evaluation research are three:
a. Concurrent evaluation:- This is a continuous process and partakes the
nature of an inspection or social audit of an on-going program. It
evaluates the quality of implementation and it serves as a feedback for
improving the performance.
b. Period evaluation: - this is made after each distinct phase of a project
is completed. It can be mid-term (in the middle of the period)
evaluation or other form.
c. Terminal evaluation: - This is done after the completion of a program
or a project. Contd…. 18

19. ……..Applied Vs Fundamental
 Social impact assessment: - This is aimed to estimate the likely
consequences of a planned change. It can be used for planning and making
choices among alternative policies. Areas assessed in social impact studies
include:
 Community services (E.g. School enrollments, speed of police responses)
 Social conditions (E.g. Crime rates, the ability of elderly to feel that they
care for themselves)
 Economic impact (E.g. Changes in income levels)
 Demographic consequences (E.g. Changes in the mix of old and young
people)
 Environment (E.g. change in air quality)
 Health outcomes (E.g. changes in the occurrence of disease)
 Psychological well-being (E.g. changes in stress, fear, etc)
 Action Research this is a type of concurrent evaluation study of an action
program launched for solving a problem. Action programs may include
human resource development programs, rural development programs, social
welfare programs, managerial improvement programs, etc. 19

20. 4. Quantitative Vs Qualitative
 Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. It is applied to phenomenon that can be
expressed in terms of quantity or number.
 Qualitative research is concerned with phenomena relating to
or involving quality or kind.
 Qualitative research is loosely defined category of research
designs or models, all of which elicit verbal, visual, tactile, and
gustatory data in the form of descriptive narratives like field
notes, recordings or other transcriptions from audio and
videotapes and other written records and pictures and films.
 In qualitative research, researchers collect data in the form of
words, descriptions or pictures.
For example, open-ended interviews, naturalistic observations,
document analysis, case studies /life stories, descriptive and self-
reflective supplements to experiments and correlational studies
are means of gathering qualitative data. 20

21. 5. Conceptual Vs Empirical
 Conceptual research is concerned with some abstracts or theory.
 It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret the existing ones.
 Empirical research, on the other hand, relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory.
 It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are
capable of being verified by observation or experiment.
 It can also be called experimental type of research in which there are
control groups and experimental groups of variables.
 Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain
variables affect other variables in some way. 21

22. 6. Cross-sectional Vs longitudinal research
These categories are seen from the point of time.
 Cross-sectional research is confined to a single time period, whereas
 Longitudinal research is carried on over several time-periods. The longitudinal
research can be categorized in to three:
a. Time series research:- In this study, the same type of information is collected on
a group of people or other units across multiple time periods. This serves to
observe stability or changes in the features of the units.
b. The panel study:- the researcher observes exactly the same people, group or
organization across time periods. For example, if you want to study the gender
difference on English language comprehension and plan to examine the gap-across
the grades in primary school, you may give exams while they are in grade 1 and
continue to administer the same subject for the same students when they enter
grade 2, and you may continue when they join grade 3, and etc.
c. Cohort analysis: unlike in the panel study, a category of people who share similar
life experience (but not same people) in a specified time period is studied. Here, the
focus is on the cohort, or category, not on specific individuals.
Example, all people born in the same year (birth cohort), all people hired at the
same time, all people graduated in the same year.
22

23. 7. Case studies Vs Surveys
 A case study is an in-depth comprehensive study of a person, a social group,
an episode/incident, a process, a situation, a program, a community, an
institution, or any other social unit.
 Its purpose may be to understand the life cycle of the unit under study or the
interaction between factors that explain the present states or the development
over a period of time.
 The examples include social anthropological study of a rural community, a
causative study of a successful co-operative society; a study of the financial
health of a business undertaking; a study of labor participation in management
in a particular enterprise, a study of juvenile delinquency; a study of life style of
working women;
 Survey is a research method involving collection of data directly from a
population or a sample thereof at particular time. Data may be collected by
observation, interviewing or mailing questionnaires.
 The analysis of data may be made by using simple or complex statistical
techniques depending up on the objectives of the study.
 In short, the case study and survey methods are compared as follows: 23

24. Case studies Vs surveys
Case study
 Intensive investigation
 Study of a single unit /group
 Its findings cannot be generalized.
 Useful for testing hypotheses about
structural and procedural characteristics
 e.g. Status relation, interpersonal
behavior, managerial style) of a specified
social unit (e.g. an organization, a small
group or a community)
Survey
 Broad-based investigation
 Covers large number of units (units of
universe or a sample of them)
 Its findings can be generalized based on
sample
 Useful for testing hypotheses about large
social aggregates
24

25. 1.5 Research Process
Review the literature
Define
research
problem
Review concepts
and theory
Review previous
research findings
Formulate
hypothesis
Design
research
Analyze
data
Interpret
and report
25

26. …………….Research Process
Review ofliterature
Define
Research
Problem
Review
conceptsand
theories
Review previous
research findings
Formulate
Hypotheses
Designing
Research
(including
sample
design)
Data
Collection
Data
Analysis
(hypothes
estesting)
Interpretation
and report
writing
FF
F
F
26

27. 1.6. Motivation in Research
The possible motives may be either one or more of the following
 Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
 Desire to face the challenges in solving the unsolved problems;
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing creative work;
 Desire to be of service to the society
 Desire to get respectability
 The motivation will, however, determine to a considerable extent the
nature, quality, depth and duration of research.
27

28. 1.7 Criteria of Good Research
 Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing
that is important is that they all meet on the common ground of
scientific method employed by them.
One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common
concepts be used.
The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to
permit another researcher to repeat the research for further
advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been
attained.
28

29. Cont.
The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to
yield results that are as objective as possible.
The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in
procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its
significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the
research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate
basis.
29

30. ……Good research
Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is
experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of
integrity
In general
Good research is systematic
Good research is logical
Good research is empirical
Good research is replicable
30

31. CHAPTER TWO
Research Topics
and
Problems Formulation
31

32. What is a Research Problem?
 It refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of
either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution
for the same.
 “Problem is the obstacle in the path of satisfying our needs.” John Geoffery
 “Problem is a question which is to be solved.” John. G. Tornsand
 “To define a problem means to put a fence around it, to separate it by careful
distinctions from like questions found in related situations of need.” Whitney
 A problem is a question proposed for a solution generally speaking a problem
exists when there is a no available answer to same question.” J.C. Townsend
 “A problem is an interrogative sentence or statement that asks: What relation
exists between two or more variables?” F.N. Kerlinger 32

33. Workings of a research problem
For the existence of a research problem:
1. There must be an individual or a group or an organization which
has some difficulty or the problem.
2. There must be some objective(s) to be attained at.
3. There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with
regard to the selection of alternatives.
4. There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty
pertains.
33

34. Techniques in Defining a Problem
 Defining a problem involves the task of laying down boundaries
within which a researcher shall study the problem with a pre-
determined objective in view.
 statement of the problem in a general way;
 understanding the nature of the problem;
 surveying the available literature;
 developing the ideas through discussions; and
 rephrasing the research problem into a working
proposition.
34

35. Problem Formulation
 A problem formulation (identification) means choosing a topic or defining
the general interest area of the study.
 Your problem formulation should keep the following points:
The discrepancy/inconsistency between what is and what should be,
for example:
- 30% of unemployment ------ what is.
- All should be employed------what should be.
The magnitude or incidence of the problem,
for example:- only 30% of Ethiopian labor force is employed.
 Population affected by the problem:
-who are directly or indirectly affected by the problem?
 Previous attempts to address the issue:
- What methods were used?
- What are the results or conclusions?
 What are the shortcomings of the previous attempts?
 What questions are not answered? etc.
35

36. Writing the problem statement
 The following is a simple and straightforward template often
used in Business Analysis to maintain focus on defining the
problem.
Ideal Reality Consequences Proposal
 IDEAL: This section is used to describe the desired or “to be”
state of the process or product. It identifies the goals of the
stakeholders and customers as well as assists in defining scope.
At large, this section should illustrate what the expected
environment would look like once the solution is implemented.
 REALITY: This section is used to describe the current or “as is”
state of the process or product. It explains the pain points
expressed by the stakeholders and customers. It should also
include the insights and expertise of the project team and subject
matter experts provided during problem analysis. 36

37. ……Writing the problem statement
 CONSEQUENCES: This section is used to describe the impacts
on the business if the problem is not fixed or improved upon.
This includes costs associated with loss of money, time,
productivity, competitive advantage, and so forth. The magnitude
of these effects will also help determine the priority of the
project.
 PROPOSAL: This section is used to describe potential
solutions. Once the ideal, reality, and consequences sections have
been completed, understood, and approved, the project team can
start offering options for solving the problem. It can also include
suggestions by the stakeholders and customers, although further
discussions and research will be needed before a specific course
of action can be determined.
37

38. Example
 The following is an example of a simple problem statement for the creation of a
single sign on capability:
 IDEAL
 Ideally our users would be able sign into their laptops and then automatically
have access to all of the applications they need to use.
 REALITY
 In reality we use at least three applications every day to accomplish our work.
Each application is protected by a password with different requirements for
username & password length. Passwords also expire at different times.
 CONSEQUENCES
 Users waste approximately 2 minutes per day logging into multiple applications
(500 users * 2 minutes per day = 1000 minutes in lost productivity; 1000 minutes
= 16.67 hrs per day * $75/hr = $1250 per day).
 Helpdesk resolves approximately 6000 calls per year to reset forgotten passwords
& unlock accounts. Security risk as users will continue to write usernames &
passwords on sticky notes at their desks.
 PROPOSAL
 Have S/W Dev, Network Administration and business stakeholders collaborate to
evaluate potential solutions for a Single Sign On capability 38

39. Criteria of good Statement of Problem
The following are the three criteria of good problem
statements:
 A problem should be concerned with relation between two
or more variables.
 It should be stated ‘clearly and unambiguously in question
form’.
 It should be amenable to empirical testing.
39

40. Research Topics?
A research topic is a subject or issue that a researcher is interested in when
conducting research.
Research topic is the starting point of every successful research project.
T
opic SelectionConsiderations
 Personal interest
 Organizational support
 Ethical issues
 Relevance of the study
 Contribution to the field
 Time constraints
 Breadth and scope
 Economic factors
 Others
40

41. Sources of Research Topics
 Personal experience
 Previous researches
 Current social, political and economic issues
 Related literature
 Deductions from theories
 Practical situations
 Research themes
 Conferences, workshops, presentations
 Recommendations about future research
 Courses
 Workplace
 Expert consultations
 Online library services 41

42. Research Topic Relevance
Basic questions that should be answered
Is the topic broad enough?
Can the problem be really investigated?
Are the data susceptible to analysis?
Is the problem significant
-Is the problem add knowledge to the information already available in
the field?
-What is the real purpose of the study?
Can the result of the study be generalized
-one must generalize from it
What cost and time can be involved?
Is planned approach is appropriate for the study?
Is there any potential harm to the subjects
42

43. Research Topic Vs Research Title
Although topic and title are often used
interchangeably, topic actually to an object or area
of study.
If topic is child mortality, title can be reducing child
mortality rate in Ethiopia.
Research topic is broader than research title.
Usually you derive the title of your research from
the topic.
43

44. …………Research Title
Effective titles characteristics.
 Indicate accurately the subject and scope of the study.
 Avoid using abbreviations.
 Use words that create a positive impression and stimulate reader interest.
 Use current nomenclature from the field of study.
 Identify key variables, both dependent and independent.
 May reveal how the paper will be organized.
 Suggest a relationship between variables which supports the major hypothesis.
 Is limited to 10 to 15 substantive words.
 Do not include "study of," "analysis of" or similar constructions.
 Titles are usually in the form of a phrase, but can also be in the form of a question.
 Use correct grammar and capitalization with all first words and last words
capitalized, including the first word of a subtitle. All nouns, pronouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs that appear between the first and last words of the title are
also capitalized.
 In academic papers, rarely is a title followed by an exclamation mark. However, a
title or subtitle can be in the form of a question mark. 44

45. Formulation of Hypothesis and Research Questions
 A hypothesis is often described as an attempt
by the researcher to explain the phenomenon of
interest.
 It is a formal statement regarding the relation
between variables and it is tested directly.
 It is a statement of what we expect to observe if
the theory is true.
45

46. ………….Formulation of Hypothesis and Research Questions
 In formulating a research hypothesis, please keep yourself aware of the
following criteria:
 Stand a test;
 Be expressed in clear language;
 Be in accordance with the general theme of other hypotheses
statements in the same field of study, and should be regarded as valid;
 Be coordinated with the theory of science;
 Be a tentative answer for the formulated problem;
46

47. ………….Formulation of Hypothesis and Research Questions.
 Be logical and simplistic;
 Consider available research techniques (to be able to analysed and interpret
the results);
 Be specific; and
 Be relevant to the collection of empirical phenomenon, and not merely
conclude value judgment.
For example:
1. Leadership practices have positive and significant effect on employee job
satisfaction in ……..
2. Training has a positive relationship with the productivity of employees
3. Seniority has a positive and significant effect on performance of …
47

48. 48

49. CHAPTER THREE
Writing Literature Review
49

50. What is a Literature Review ?
• According to Creswell (2005) , a review of the
literature “is a written summary of journal
articles, books and other documents that
describes the past and current state of
information, organizes the literature into topics
and documents a need for a proposed study.”
• Literature review is the presentation, classification
and evaluation of what other researchers have
written on particular subject.
50

51. ……..Literature Review
The review of the literature is defined as a
broad, comprehensive, in - depth, systematic ,
and critical review of scholarly publications,
unpublished scholarly print materials,
audiovisual materials, and personal
communications.
Merriam (1988) define literature review as
‘an interpretation and synthesis of published
work’ 51

52. Needs of L/Review in your proposed research ?
 It will clarify the conceptual issues of your research
related area.
 It will help you to learn about research design for your
research.
 It is an opportunity to persuade your examiner that
your research is relevant worth doing.
 It will give you insight to contribute something new in
your subject area.
52

53. Theoretical Vs Empirical L. Review
Theoretical literature review is gives focus on theory rather
than on application. A theoretical framework is used when
investigating a specific theory.
Empirical literature review deals with original research (such
as scientific experiments, surveys and research studies). They
are researches based on experience and observation, rather
than on systematic logic.
A conceptual framework is made up of theoretical and
empirical work relevant to the manuscript's purpose, where
the purpose is not to further investigate a specific
theory. Theory may not be guiding the study but concepts
are.
53

54. Three stages at which a review of
the literature is needed
1. An early review
2. Review during the period of your research.
3. Review at the stage of preparing your final
report
54

55. Creswell’s 5 steps to conduct a Literature
Review
Step 1 : Identify Key Terms
Step 2 : Locate Literature
Step 3: Critically Evaluate Selected Literature
Step 4: Organize the Literature
Step 5: Summarize the Literature in table or
concept map format
55

56. ……steps to conduct a Literature Review
Step 1 : Identify Key Terms
• Extract key words from your title (remember, you may decide to
change the title later)
•To identify key terms use
•Familiarize yourself with online databases
•Using relevant database.
1. Start with a general terms from the database
2. Redefine your topic if needed.
3. Identify landmark or classic studies and theorists

57. Step 2 : Locate Literature
 Use academic libraries, do not limit your search to an
electronic search of articles.
 Use primary and secondary sources.
 A “primary source” is research reported by the researcher that
conducted the study.
 A “secondary source” is research that summarizes or reports
findings that come from primary sources.
 It is “best to report mostly primary sources”
Search different types of literature:
summaries, encyclopedias, dictionaries and glossaries of terms,
handbooks, statistical indexes, reviews and syntheses, books,
journals, indexed publications, electronic sources, abstract series,
and databases. 57

58. Step 3: Critically Evaluate Selected Literature
Rely on research Journal articles published in
national journals
Prioritize your search : first look for refereed
journal articles, then, non-refereed articles, then
books, then conference papers, dissertations and
theses and then papers posted to websites.
Blend qualitative and quantitative research in your
review.
58

59. …..Step 3…..How to read research article critically
(An appreciation of Strength, Weakness and
Limitations)
• Identify research aim / questions ?
• Identify nature / type of study.
• Identify ontological position, epistemological and methodological
assumptions.
• Is researcher’s value position explicit?
• Identify location, date sample method used.
• Examine use of theory, deductive ? Inductive ?
• Are analysis, method clearly explained ?
• Are conclusions appropriately supported by evidence ?
• What are the implication for policy and practice?
59

60. Step 4: Organize the Literature
1. Create a “file” or “abstract” system to keep track
of what you read. Each article you read should be
summarized in one page containing:-
 Title (use APA to type the title so that you can later
copy-paste this into the References section of your
paper)
 Source: journal article, book, glossary, etc.
 Research problem: one or two lines will suffice.
 Research Questions or Hypotheses
 Data collection procedure ( a description of sample,
characteristics can be very handy as well)
 Results or findings of the study
60

61. 2. Sort the abstracts into groups of related topics or areas which can
then become the different sections of your review
.
3. Take notes:
1. Decide on the format in which you will take notes as you
read the articles.
2. Define key terms
3. Note key statistics that you may want to use in the
introduction to your review.
4. Note emphases, strengths & weakness.
5. Identify major trends or patterns.
6. Identify gaps in the literature
7. Identify relationships among studies
8. Keep your review focused on your topic.
9. Evaluate your references for currency and coverage.
61

62. Step 5: Summarize the Literature in Table Or Concept
Map Format
• Galvan (2006) recommends building tables as a key
way to help you overview, organize, and summarize
your findings.
1. You can create the table using the table feature
within Microsoft Word
2. You can create it initially in Excel.
3. The advantages of using Excel is that it enables you
to sort your findings according to a variety of
factors (e.g. sort by date, and then by author; sort
by methodology and then date, summary of
research result)
62

63. Structure of the Literature Review :
• There is not one ‘ideal’ structure for your
literature review so talk to your guide about this .
• Consider whether you wish to organize your
literature review chronologically, thematically, by
development of ideas (or a combination of these)
• Make sure that you always explain your structure
for your reader and have a clear narrative.
63

64. Synthesize the literature prior to writing your review
• Using the notes that you have taken and summary
tables, develop an outline of your final review.
• The following are the key steps as outlined by
Galvan (2006:71-79)
1. Consider your purpose before beginning to write.
2. Consider how you reassemble your notes
3. Create a topic outline that traces your argument.
4. Reorganize your notes according to the path of your
argument
64

65. 5. Within each topic heading, note differences
among studies.
6. Within each topic heading, look for obvious
gaps or areas needing more research.
7. Plan to describe relevant theories.
8. Plan to discuss how individual studies relate to
and advance theory.
9. Plan to summarize periodically.
10. Plan to present conclusions and implications.
11. Plan to suggest specific directions for future
research.
65

66. Writing the review
1. Importance of the topic.
2. Distinguish between research finding and other
sources of information.
3. Indicate why certain studies are important.
4. If you are commenting on the timeliness of a
topic, be specific in describing the time frame.
5. If a landmark study was replicated, mention that
and indicate the results of the replication.
6. Discuss other literature review on your topic.
7. Justify comments such as, “no studies were
found”. 66

67. 8. Avoid long lists of nonspecific references.
9. If the results of previous studies are inconsistent
or widely varying, cite them separately.
10. Near the beginning of a review, state explicitly
what will and will not be covered
11. Specify your point of view early in the review:
this serves as the thesis statement of the review.
12. If your topic teaches across disciplines, consider
reviewing studies from each discipline separately.
13. Write a conclusion for the end of the review.
67

68. Referencing
Provide full details of all sources cited in the
dissertation
Should include published book or articles, book
chapters, technical reports, web sources, etc.
List alphabetically by author name (name of first
author in the case of work with co-authors)
Make sure you understand the university
regulations on plagiarism
Consult your department guidelines for more on
referencing style
68

69. 69

70. Chapter 4
Research Methods
70

71. Research Methods
Points to be discussed:
 Research Design (Introduction of research methodology)
 Approaches of research
 Types and Sources of data
 Scales of data measurement
 Population Vs. Sample Size Determination
 Sampling techniques: Probability and non-probability methods
 Methods of Data Collection And Ethical Issues;
 Concepts of Reliability And Validity
 Methods of Data analysis
71

72. RESEARCH DESIGN OR PLAN
Having decided what you want to study about, the next
question is,
– How are you going to conduct your study?
– What procedures will you adopt to obtain answers to
research questions?
– How will you carry out the tasks needed to complete the
different components of the research process?
– What should you do and what should you not do in the
process of undertaking the study?
– These are some of the questions that need to be answered
(in your research plan) before you can proceed with the
study.
72

73. The Definitions of a Research Design
According to Miler : “research design” as “the planned sequence of the
entire process involved in conducting a research study”.
“Research design is a catalogue of the various phases and facts relating to
the formulation of a research effort. It is an arrangement of the essential
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a form that aims to
combine relevance to research purpose with economy in the procedure”.
(Selltiz et al,:)
“Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation
conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and control
variance”. The plan is the complete or program of the research. It includes
an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the hypothesis and
their operational implications to the final analysis of data
(Kerlinger, 1986:279).
73

74. …….Definitions of a Research Design
More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:
 What is the study about?
 Why is the study being made?
 What are the objectives of the study?
 What are the propositions to be tested (if any?)
 What is its scope?
 What are the major concepts to be defined operationally?
 On the basis of what criteria/measurements, the operational
definitions to be made?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 …….
74

75. …….Definitions of a Research Design
– What type of data is required?
– Where can the required data be found?
– What is the study population?
– What will be the sample design?
– What techniques of data collection will be used?
– How will the data be processed and analyzed?
– What is the significance of the study?
– To what target audience the reporting of the finding is meant?
– In what style will the report be prepared?
– What is the time period required for each stage of research work?
– What is the cost involved?
75

76. The Functions of a Research Design
The research design has two main functions.
The first relates to the identification and/or
development of procedures and logistical
arrangements required to undertake a study, and
the second emphasizes the importance of quality in
theses procedures to ensure their validity,
objectivity, and accuracy.
76

77. ……Functions of a Research Design
One of the most important requirements of the
research design is to specify every thing clearly so
that a reader will understand what procedures to
follow and how to follow them. A research design,
therefore, should:
Name the study design per se (Cross sectional,
Comparative, etc)
Provide detail information about the following aspects
of the study:
• The study population and how it is identified,
• A sample (if any) and how it is selected,
• Data collection methods and why,
• How to contact respondents(if any), and
• Etc
77

78. ……Functions of a Research Design
 There are a number of crucial research choices (study design), various writers
advance different classification schemes, some of which are:
– Experimental, Historical, and inferential designs ( American Marketing
Association),
– Exploratory, Descriptive, and causal designs (Selltiz, Jahoda, Deutsch),
– Experimental, and ex-post fact (Kerlinger),
– Exploratory, Case and clinical studies (Goode and Scates),
– Sample surveys, field studies, experiments in field settings , and laboratory
experiments (Festinger and Katz),
– Exploratory, Descriptive and Experimental studies ( Body and Westfall),
– Exploratory, Descriptive and Causal (Green and Tool),
– Experimental, “Quasi-Experimental Designs” ( Nachmias and Nachmias),
– True experimental, Quasi Experimental and Non-experimental Designs
(Smith),
– Experimental, Pre-experimental, quasi-experimental designs and Survey
Research (Kidder and Judd).
Contd…..
78

79. ……Functions of a Research Design
• These different categorizations exist because “research design” is a complex
concept. In fact, there are different perspectives from which any given study
can be viewed. These are:
– The degree of formulation of the problem(exploratory or formalized)
– The topical scope-the depth and breadth-of the study (a case or
statistical study)
– The research Environment: field setting or laboratory(Survey, laboratory
experiment)
– The time dimension(one time or longitudinal)
– The mode of data collection(Observational or Survey)
– The manipulation of the variables under study (Experimental or Ex-post
facto)
– The nature of the relationship among Variables (Descriptive and causal)
Note: Recall the previous discussions made on various research types.
79

80. Characteristics of a Good Research Design
• The designing aspect of a research study especially in the field of
social sciences is very complex.
• The selection of a method or methods of logic and the planning
of the design in time do not guarantee sound results. These are
only first steps.
• The research design at the most, is a blueprint, and therefore at
best it is only tentative. It is definitely useful to the extent of
laying down a series of guide posts to keep one handed in the
right direction.
• Every design has its own strengths and weaknesses and at the
same time there is no such thing as a single correct design.
• A good research design should satisfy the following four
conditions: objectivity, reliability, validity and generalizability of
findings. 80

81. …….Characteristics of a good Research Design
– Objectivity: The objectivity of the findings pertains to the
methods of collection of data and scoring of the responses
– Reliability: Reliability refers to “Consistency” throughout a
series of measurements.
– Validity: Any measuring instrument is said to be valid when it
measures what it purports to measure.
– Generalization/Generalizability :Once it is ensured that the
measuring instruments used in a research investigation yield
objective, reliable and valid data, the next important problem a
well planned research design has to answer is the
“generalizability” of the findings of the present study. That is
how best the data collected from a sample can be utilized for
drawing certain generalization applicable to a larger group
(population) from which the sample is drawn.
81

82. …….Characteristics of a good Research Design
• A research design, thus helps an investigator in his attempt to
generalize the findings, provided he has taken due care in
defining the population, selecting the sample and using the
appropriate statistical analysis while planning his research
design.
• Thus a good research design should ensure that:-
– The measuring instruments can yield objective, reliable and
valid data
– The ‘population’ is defined in unequivocal terms
– The requisite size of the sample is collected by using the
most appropriate technique of sample selection
– The appropriate statistical analysis has been employed, and
– The findings of the present study can be ‘generalized’
without being contaminated by the errors of measurement or
sampling errors or any other interfering factors.
82

83. 4.7. Components of a Research Design
• Any investigator, before getting on to the job of planning a
research design or proposal for a proposed study, should be
clear about the following aspects:
– What to observe?
– Whom to observe?
– How to observe?
– Why to observe?
– How to record the observations?
– How to analyze the observations?
– What inferences can be drawn?, and etc
• Once the investigator has sufficient understanding about the
above-mentioned aspects, he can resort to the job of planning a
research design or proposal.
• In doing so, he proceeds step by step in the following order.
83

84. Research Design Steps
1. Title of the investigation
2. Introduction
3. Statement of the Problem
4. Objectives of the Study
5) Review of the previous studies
6) Significance of the study
7) Conceptual Model
8) Conceptualization of the different
terms used in the Investigation
9) Formulation of Hypothesis
10) Scope of the Investigation
11) The study design
12) Selection of the Sample :
 Definition of the population
 Sample size
 Representativeness of the
Sample
13. Data Collection (Methods and
Instruments)
14) Analysis of Data
15) The structure of the report
16) Problems and limitations
17) Work/Time schedule
18)Financial budget
19)19) Bibliography
84

85. Census and Sample Investigation
 two ways by which the required information in any statistical
inquiry can be obtained:
1. Census method or complete enumeration survey
2. Sampling technique
• Census Method or Complete Enumeration Survey
• Census method: Advantages of Census Method, Demerits of
Census Method
Sampling Method
Sampling terminologies
85

86. Sampling Terminologies
 Population or study population/Universe-Aggregate of the
units pertaining to a study. It is a target group to be studied.
 Sample-part of a population from whom you obtain the
information about the population
 Sample size-The number of the sample units from whom you
get the required information
 Sampling design or strategy-The way we select a sample
 Sampling unit or element-each element of the population that
becomes the basis to select a sample
 Sampling frame or source list-The list of sampling units
(members of a population) from which a sample is taken.
 Sample statistics-Your findings on the basis of the information
obtained from the sample.
 Population parameters or mean
86

87. Objectives of Sampling
 The primary objective of the sample survey is to obtain
accurate and reliable information about the universe
with minimum cost, time and energy and to set out the
limits of accuracy of such estimates.
Types of sampling Techniques
Different types of sampling techniques are used for
drawing a sample plan.
The various methods of sampling may broadly be
classified into two categories:-
a. Probability sampling
b. Non-probability sampling
87

88. 1) Probability Sampling
1) Probability sampling
Probability sampling provides a scientific technique of
drawing samples from population according to some
laws of chance in which each unit has some definite
pre-assigned probability of being chosen in the sample.
probability sampling are considered as
 Random sampling,
 systematic sampling,
 stratified sampling,
 cluster sampling,
 multi-stage sampling
88

89. Random Sampling
• Selection of Random sample
• Four methods are generally used for drawing
out a sample on random basis. They are:-
Lottery Method , Use of table of random
numbers , Grid system , Coin Flipping method
• Precaution in Drawing a Random Sample
• Merits and Demerits of random sampling
89

90. Stratified Random Sampling
 Where the population is heterogeneous with respect to the
variables or characteristics under study, then the technique of
stratified sampling is used to obtain more efficient and accurate
results.
 Stratification means division of the universe into non-overlapping
groups according to geographical, sociological or economic
characteristics.
Categories of Stratified sampling
A. Proportionate stratified sampling-
B. Disproportionate stratified random sampling- This method does
not give proportionate representation to strata. It gives
overrepresentation to some and under
 representation to other to others. All strata may be given equal
weight even though their shares in the total population can vary.
 Merits and demerits of stratified random sampling
90

91. ……Stratified Random Sampling
• Systematic Sampling : Under this method, a
sample is taken from a list prepared on a
systematic arrangement either on the basis of
alphabetic order or on house number or any
other method.
• In this method, only the first sample unit is
selected at random and the remaining units are
automatically selected in a definite sequence at
equal spacing from one another.
Merits and demerits of Systematic Sampling
91

92. Cluster Sampling
• This method is adopted when the population elements are
scattered and large, and the list of the elements is not readily
available.
• Under this method, the total population is divided into some
recognizable subdivisions which are termed as clusters and a
simple random sample of these clusters, as the sampling unit,
is drawn and then the survey of each and every unit in the
selected cluster is made.
• Unlike the stratified random sampling technique, there is
heterogeneity within the subgroups (clusters) and
homogeneity among the subgroups.
92

93. …..Cluster Sampling
• Principles, merits, demerits of
cluster sampling
• Area sampling
• If clusters happen to be some geographical sub-
divisions (such as regions, woredas, kebeles, and
etc), in that case cluster sampling is better known
as area sampling. In other words, cluster designs,
where the primary sampling unit represents a
cluster of units based on geographical area,
distinguished as area sampling. All points of
cluster sampling are also applicable to area
sampling.
93

94. Multi-Stage Sampling
• Multi-stage sampling is a further development
of the principle of cluster sampling.
• The method is generally used in selecting a
sample from a very large area.
• As the name suggests, multi-stage sampling
refers to a sampling technique which is carried
out in two or more stages.
• Merits and demerits of Multi-stage sampling
94

95. 2) Non-probability sampling
2) Non-probability sampling
• Non-probability sampling or judgment sampling is based on the
personal judgment. Under this method, a desired number of
sample units are selected deliberately or purposely depending
upon the object of the enquiry so that only the important items
representing the true characteristics of the population are
included in the sample. Purposive sampling, quota sampling and
convenience sampling are considered as non-probability
sampling.
– Purposive sampling
• Purposive sampling is also called “deliberate sampling” or
judgment sampling”. When the researcher deliberately selects
certain units for study from the universe, it is known as
purposive sampling
• Merits and demerits of Purposive sampling
95

96. Quota Sampling
• Quota sampling is a special type of stratified
sampling. First of all, in this method, the population
is stratified on some basis, preferably on the basis of
the characteristics of the population under study.
After this, the number of sample units to be selected
from each stratum is decided by the researcher in
advance (i.e. selection with in the strata is non-
random). This number is known as quota, which
may be fixed according to some specific
characteristics such as income groups, sex,
occupation, political or religious affiliations, and etc.
• Merits and demerits of Quota sampling method
96

97. Convenience Sampling
• It is known as unsystematic, careless, accidental or opportunistic sampling.
Under this method, a sample is selected according to the convenience of the
investigator. This convenience may be in respect of availability of data,
accessibility of the units, etc. Moreover, the method is all about selecting
whatever sampling units are available, e.g., a producer/seller may select the
customer coming to his shop. This method may be used in the following
cases:-
– When the universe is not clearly defined
– When sampling units are not clear
– When a complete source 1B+ is not available
• Thus the names may be selected from a Telephone Directory, Automobile
Registration Records, Industrial or stock Exchange Directories and
contracting any one who may have chance to be easily available etc.
97

98. Convenience sampling
• It is known as unsystematic, careless, accidental or
opportunistic sampling. Under this method, a sample is
selected according to the convenience of the investigator. This
convenience may be in respect of availability of data,
accessibility of the units, etc.
• Moreover, the method is all about selecting whatever sampling
units are available, e.g., a producer/seller may select the
customer coming to his shop. This method may be used in the
following cases:-
– When the universe is not clearly defined
– When sampling units are not clear
– When a complete source 1B+ is not available
• Thus the names may be selected from a Telephone Directory,
Automobile Registration Records, Industrial or stock
Exchange Directories and contracting any one who may have
chance to be easily available etc.
98

99. Snowball sampling
This is a colorful name for technique of building up a
list or a sample of a special population by using an
initial set of its members as informants.
• For example, if you want to study the problems
faced by Ethiopians living in some country, say, you
may identify an initial group of Ethiopians through
some source like Ethiopian Embassy.
• Then you can ask each one of them to supply
names of other Ethiopians known to them, and
continue until you get an exhaustive list from
which you can draw a sample or make a census
survey.
• Merits and demerits of Snowball sampling
99

100. How a sample should be selected: Steps in Sampling Design
• The sample design is the blueprint for the method of
selection of the sample; still there are certain fundamental
factors which are to be considered. These are:-
• While developing a sample design, the researcher must
pay attention to the following points:
– Type of the universe
– Sampling unit
– Source list
– Size of the sample
– Parameters of interest
– Sampling procedure.
100

101. Sample Size
• This means the number of sampling units selected from the population for
investigation. The size of sample is directly related to standards of accuracy,
time, cost and administration of the investigation.
• The larger the size of sample, greater will be the representation of the items
of the investigation or universe in it. the size of a sample should be neither
too big nor too small. It should be “optimum”.
• An optimum sample survey is one which fulfills the requirements of
efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility. The size of the
sample should ensure minimum of cost and minimum of standard error.
• The size of the sample which is required in order to make a valid inference
about a population is dependent upon several factors such as:-
• Homogeneity or heterogeneity of the universe: - In a universe consisting of
homogeneous units, a small sample is suitable, while in a universe consisting
of heterogeneity units; a large sized sample is inevitable, for yielding good
results.
• Number of classes proposed: - If it is necessary to classify data in a large
number of classes, a large size sample should be taken to facilitate analysis
of the data.
101

102. Sample Size
Nature of Study:-Nature of study also affects the size of a sample. For an intensive and continuous
study, small sample will be suitable because such study in large-sized sample will require more
resources. For general survey, the size of the sample should be larger, but for technical studies the
size of the sample may be kept small.
Practical Considerations: - The availability of finance, time and trained personnel are other
practical considerations which affect the size of the sample
Standard of accuracy: - Though it is believed that larger is the size of the sample, great will be the
degree of accuracy
Type of Sampling: - In random sampling, greater accuracy in results will be achieved only in a large
sample. In a properly drawn stratified sampling, a small sample can give better results.
Nature of units: - where it is expected that a large number of units will not respond, and then a large
sample should be taken.
Size of questionnaire: - If the size of the questionnaire is large and it contains difficult questions, the
size of the sample should be kept small.
Moreover, when deciding upon sample size, the researcher must note the following points:-
The size of the population to be sampled: - Even if it is difficult to make general rules with out the
knowledge of the study population,
The actual number of cases from which data are collected: - In some instances, the data actually
gathered might be substantially fewer because of respondents who can not be located, refuse to be
interviewed, or return illegible questionnaires.
102

103. …….Sample Size
• Degree of accuracy that is needed for the study: - If you seek a higher
degree of accuracy (such as 0.01), your sample will need to be much larger
than if you seek a relatively low degree of accuracy (such as 0.05).
– Characteristics of a good sampling design
•
• Sample design must result in a truly representative sample
• Sample design must be the one which results in a small sampling
error
• Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for
the research study
• Sample design must be the one in which systematic bias can be
controlled in a better way
• Sample design should be such hat the results of the sample study
can be applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level
of confidence.
•
103

104. Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors
• In the study of sample surveys, it is necessary to keep in mind sampling and non-
sampling errors. Since a sample survey implies the study of small proportion of
the total universe/population and drawing inference about the population, there
would naturally be a certain amount of inaccuracy or errors.
I. Sampling Errors
• These are the errors created because of chance only. The errors occur because
only a partial observation of the universe is made. If a census is taken, sampling
errors could be expected to disappear.
II. Non-sampling Error (Systematic Bias)
• Systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures, and it can not be
reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size. Rather, the causes
responsible for these errors can be detected and corrected. Such error occurs
because of the human mistakes and not by chance.
• Non-sampling errors include bias and mistakes at the stages of ascertainment
and processing of data, i.e., clerical errors, computation of errors, or an incorrect
answer to an unclear question. Naturally, this type of error can occur in any
survey, whether it is a complete enumeration or sampling. The bias/sampling
error can be caused by the following factors.
104

105. Causes of Bias
Bias may arise due to the following factors:-
Faulty Selection of the Sample:- Faulty selection of the sample may give rise to
bias in a number of ways, such as:-
• Purposive Sampling: - Purposive and/or deliberate sampling method may be
adopted in place of a simple random sampling method
• If the selection of the sample is haphazard, the chance of bias error is great.
• Substitution: That is, substitution of the selected item in the sample by
another. Due to non-availability of the person chosen in the sample, another
may be interviewed,
• Incomplete investigation or non-response, i.e. Failure to cover the whole of
the sample. This frequently happens, as in the case of a sample chosen and
being collected through a questionnaire from those who have been included
in the sample.
• An appeal to the vanity of the person interviewed may give rise to yet another
kind of bias. For example, the question, ‘have you read that book?” is such
that most of the students would succumb to vanity and answer ‘yes’.
105

106. Causes of Bias
Bias due to faulty collection of data
During the process of collecting the actual information in a survey (whether sample or census),
certain inaccuracies and mistakes may creep in.
These may arise due to the following reasons:-
Negligence or prejudice of the person collecting information either in asking the questions or in
recording the answers
Negligence or prejudice or lack of knowledge or forgetfulness on the part of the person furnishing
information
Poorly designed questionnaire
Unorganized collection procedure, faulty editing or coding of response
The danger of such error is, however, likely to be greater in sampling work, since the units
measured are often smaller.
Accessibility bias: - In a considerable number of research studies, researchers tend to select
respondents who are the most accessible to them (easily reached. This can crate the bias.
Defective measuring device: - In case, for example, the questions are not well phrased; they can
not be fully understandable by the respondents. Accordingly, the answers obtained can not be
accurate. Moreover, some items can be mis-measured due to the errors in the procedures of
observation, interviewing, coding and etc.
IV. Bias in Analysis
Faulty methods of analysis of data may also introduce bias
V. Avoidance of bias
If possibilities of bias exist, the conclusions drawn from the sample cannot be regarded as fully
objective. The first essential of any sampling or census procedure must, therefore, be the
106

107. DATA COLLECTION
Primary Data and Secondary Data
• Primary data are original observations collected by a
researcher for the first time for any investigation and used by
him/her in the statistical analysis whereas secondary data are
collected by others and used by others
Choice between Primary and Secondary Data
• The choice between primary and secondary data mainly
depends up on the nature, objectives and scope of inquiry,
availability of time and money, degree of accuracy desired and
the status of the investigator. The primary data are more
reliable in the face, but the secondary data can be relied only
by examining the source from which they have been obtained,
their true significance, incompleteness and methods of
collection
107

108. Types of Statistical Units
There are two types of statistical units:
Units of Collection
Such units are concerned with the collection of data. They take the form of counts and
measurements. Examples of unit of measurement are production of wheat in quintals,
height in inches or weight in kilograms and examples of units of counting are the
number of persons in a family, number of rooms in a house or number of houses.
Units of collection may further be divided in to two categories, namely:-
. Simple unit: A simple unit is one which describes single determining
characteristics such as wage, weight, ton, yard, etc. Such units are not difficult to
define and are in common use. But care must be taken in interpreting some of
them. For example, a wage may be defined as money wage or kind wage.
. Composite unit:-A composite unit is one, which is formed by the addition of
some qualifying conditions to a simple unit. For example, electric power is
measured in units of kilowatt-hours while railway transport is expressed in ton-
miles are equal to the number of tons multiplied by the number of miles carried.
Other examples of composite units are educated-unemployed, factory- building,
man-hours or passenger miles.
Units of Analysis
Statistical data are collected for analyzing the behavior of the variable under study.
108

109. Sources of Data/Information
• There are two methods, which may be employed for the collection of
data:-
An original enquiry may be conducted for data collection, i.e. first-hand data .
Data collected by some other agency may be used , i.e. Second-hand data
• Moreover, it is always necessary to examine the following questions.
1. Who collected the data?
2. How the data were collected?
3. Was the correct method used for the data collection?
4. Whether the collected data are sufficient for the present enquiry or not
5. Whether the purpose and the scope of the past enquiry were the same as that of the
present enquiry.
109

110. Methods of Data Collection
Methods of Data Collection
• If primary data are to be collected, a decision has to be taken whether (i)
census method or, (ii) sample technique is to be used for data collection
Methods of Collecting Primary Data
I. Observation
Types of Observation
There are two types of observation:
i. Participant observation, and
ii. Non-participant observation
Problems with using observation as a method of data collection
Situations in which observations can be made
Observations can be made under two conditions:
Natural, and
Controlled
110

111. …….Methods of Data Collection
• The Recording of Observation
Narrative:-In this method, the observer records the description of the interaction in his/her
words
• Advantage& Disadvantage
• Scales:-Some observers may prefer to develop a scale in order to rate various
aspects of the interaction or phenomenon. The recording is done on the scale.
The scale can have many directions depending on the purpose of the
observation.
• Problems/disadvantages:
Categorical recording: sometimes an observer may decide to use categories to record his
observations. For example: passive/active (two categories); introvert/extrovert (two
categories); always/sometimes/never (three categories); strongly agree/
agree/uncertain/disagree/strongly disagree (five categories).
• Disadvantage:-the method has the same problem as those associated with scales.
Recording on Mechanical devices:- Observation can be recorded on video tapes and then
analyzed.
• Advantage: - the observer can see the interaction in a number of times before drawing
any conclusion and even can invite other professional to reach a more objective
conclusion.
• Disadvantage: Some may feel uncomfortable or may behave differently before a
camera. So the interaction may not be a true reflection of the situation
111

112. …….Methods of Data Collection
II. Interview
II. Interview
• Interviewing is a commonly used method of collecting information from
people. It is the process of communication or interaction in which the
subject or interviewee gives the needed information verbally in a face-to-
face situation or through telephone calls, or through mails and
internet/intranet.
Interview Designs
• Structured Interview: - A structured interview is one in which the
procedure to be followed is standardized and is determined in advance of
interview. It involves the use of a set of predetermined questions and of
highly standardized recording techniques
• Unstructured Interview: - This is characterized by a flexibility of approach
to questioning. Although the series of questions to be asked and the
procedure to be followed are decided upon before hand, the interviewer
is largely free to arrange the form, order and timing of the questions
112

113. …….Methods of Data Collection
Methods of Interview
• The main techniques of interview are as follows:
– Personal Interviews
– Telephone Surveys
– Mail Surveys
– Computer Direct Interviews
– E-mail Surveys
– Internet/Intranet (Web Page) Surveys
Personal Interviews
• An interview is called personal when the interviewer asks the
questions face-to-face with the interviewee. Is a two way
communication initiated by an interviewer to obtain information
from the respondent, the respondent is asked to provide
information with little hope of any immediate or direct benefit from
this co-operation.
113

114. …….Methods of Data Collection
– Telephone Interviews
• Surveying by telephone is the most popular interviewing method in the
USA. This is made possible by nearly universal coverage of telephone
facility (96% of homes have a telephone).
• Advantages and disadvantages
– Interviewing by Postal Mail
• Self-administered questionnaires may be used by mail surveys.
• Advantages and disadvantages
- Computer Direct Interviews
• These are interviews in which the Interviewees enter their own answers
directly into a computer. They can be used at malls, trade shows, offices,
and so on. The Survey System's optional Interviewing Module and
Interview Stations can easily create computer
114

115. …….Methods of Data Collection
- E-mail Surveys
• Email surveys are both very economical and very fast. More people have
e-mail than have full Internet access. This makes e-mail a better choice
than a Web page survey for some populations. On the other hand, e-mail
surveys are limited to simple questionnaires, whereas Web page surveys
can include complex logic.
• Advantages and disadvantages
- Internet/Intranet (Web Page) Surveys
• Web surveys are rapidly gaining popularity. They have major speed, cost,
and flexibility advantages, but also significant sampling limitations. These
limitations make software selection especially important and restrict the
groups you can study using this technique.
• Advantages and disadvantages
115

116. Techniques of Interviewing
• These techniques deal with the preparation for the interview, conduct of the
interview, and recording of data.
• i. Preparation for Interview: - It is quite necessary to plan for the interview
carefully to make it effective. Preparation focuses on recruitment of
interviewers, the type of data collected, and the procedures used for data
collection
• ii. Conduct for the interview: - During the execution of the interview, a
harmonious relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee is
essential as a good rapport helps the interviewee to feel at ease and express
him/herself willingly and freely. To establish a good rapport, an interviewer
should note the following rules:-
• Recording of the interview
• Interview- A method of data collection through communicating with
people/respondents
• Interviewer- the person who asks the respondents to respond to the interview
questions
• Interviewee/subject- Some individual (respondent) who gives responses to
the interview questions.
116

117. III. Questionnaire
 A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the answers to which are
recorded by respondents. In a questionnaire, the respondents read the
questions, interpret what is expected and write down the answers
 Methods of Data Collection through Questionnaire
 1. Mailed questionnaire to be filled in by the respondent: - The collection of
data through questionnaire is one of the most popular methods used these
days. A questionnaire contains many questions pertaining to the field of
inquiry a
 Questionnaires in charge of enumerators:-Sometimes the questionnaire is
filled by the enumerator or the interviewer in which case it is known as
schedule. In the case of a schedule, the enumerator files the answers to the
questions asked by him. The answer is given by the informant but they are
written is the schedule by the enumerator his own handwriting. This
eliminates to a large extent the problem of non-response present in the case
of mailed questionnaire method.
117

118. Designing a questionnaire
• There is no single generally accepted method for designing a
questionnaire. Various research texts have suggested procedures
ranging from four to fourteen sequential steps. The following steps
represent a sequential procedure that needs to be considered for the
development of an effective survey instrument.
– Determine the specific information needed to achieve the
research objectives.
– Identify the sources of the required information
– Choose the method of administration that suits the
information required and sources of information
– Determine the types of questions to be used and form of
response.
– Develop the specific questions to be asked
– Determine the sequence of the questions and the length of
the questionnaire
– Predetermine coding
– Pretest the questionnaire.
– Review and revise the questionnaire.
118

119. Organizing questionnaire
Introduce yourself :Start with a Title (e.g., Banking service-market survey).
Always include a short introduction - who you are and why you do the
survey. If you are asking about different services, it is often a good idea to
give the name of the research company (e.g., XYZ Research Agency) rather
than the client (say, the service producer) in order to avoid possible bias.
Questionnaire layout
• Always consider the layout of your questionnaire. This is especially
important on paper, computer direct and Internet surveys
Pre-testing/ piloting questionnaire
• The last step in questionnaire design is to test a questionnaire with a small
number of interviews before conducting your main interviews. Ideally, you
should test the survey on the same kinds of people you will include in the
main study. If that is not possible, at least have a few people, other than
the question writer, try the questionnaire
• Remember KISS - keep it short and simple
119

120. ……Organizing questionnaire
• Cover Letter
All surveys, irrespective of how they are administered, require a cover letter.
For an online survey, it should be no longer than one computer screen (about
three paragraphs). For a written survey, it should be no longer than one page.
The cover letter is the introduction to the survey and should be friendly and
persuasive.
 What is the purpose of the survey?
 How will the data be used?
 How were the survey recipients selected?
 How will the data be collected, stored, and analyzed? Who will have access to
the data? Who will have access to the results?
 Who is the sponsor of the survey? How can that person be contacted for
questions?
 How long does the respondent have to complete the survey?
 How should the respondent submit the survey?
Information received from correspondents: - Under this method, the investigator
appoints local agents or correspondents in different parts of the field of inquiry. They
will be submitting their reports periodically to the central office, where the data will
be processed
120

121. IV. Focus Group Discussion /FGD/
• Characteristics and Uses of Focus Group Discussions
 A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is a group discussion of approximately 6 -
12 persons guided by a facilitator, during which group members talk freely
and spontaneously about a certain topic.
 A FGD is a qualitative method. Its purpose is to obtain in-depth
information on concepts, perceptions and ideas of a group. A FGD aims to
be more than a question-answer interaction. The idea is that group
members discuss the topic among themselves, with guidance from the
facilitator.
• Focus research and develop relevant research hypotheses by exploring in
greater depth the problem to be investigated and its possible causes.
• Formulate appropriate questions for more structured, larger scale
surveys.
• Help understand and solve unexpected problems in interventions.
• Help understand and solve unexpected problems in interventions.
• Strengths and limitations
121

122. …………Focus Group Discussion /FGD/
• How to Conduct a Focus Group Discussion
i. Determine the purpose:
– A FGD can be regarded as a mini-study. It therefore requires one or two clear
objectives.
ii. Situation analysis: Points to be considered when preparing the FGD
– Recruitment of participants:
– Selection of participants:
– Physical arrangements:
– Preparation of a discussion guide:
– Conducting the session
– Functions of the facilitator
– Report Writing
122

123. Secondary Data
•
• Secondary data are those that which have been collected by someone
else and which have already been passed through the statistical
processes. Thus, studies made by others for another purpose
represent secondary data.
• Advantages and disadvantages of Secondary data
Classifications of Secondary Data Sources
• Internal sources: Internal data come from internal sources related
with the functioning of an organization or firm where records
regarding purchase, production, sales, profits, etc are kept on a regular
basis
• External sources of information: The external data are collected and
published by external agencies. It includes to sources outside the
organization E.g. books, periodicals, government documents,
reference books, encyclopedia, journals, magazines, government and
non-government reports.
123

124. Methods of Data Analysis
Data Processing
• Technically speaking, data processing implies
editing, coding, classification and tabulation of
collected data so that they are amenable to
analysis
• In proposal the data processing should be
planned.
124

125. PROCESSING OPERATIONS
• Editing: Editing of data is a process of
examining the collected raw data (specially in
surveys) to detect errors and omissions and to
correct these when possible.
• Editing is done to assure that the data are
accurate, consistent with other facts gathered,
uniformly entered, as completed as possible
and have been well arranged to facilitate
coding and tabulation.
125

126. ….Cont
• Coding :Coding refers to the process of assigning
numerals or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put into a limited number of
categories or classes
• Classification: the process of arranging data in
groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics.
126

127. Cont.
Classification according to attributes
Classification according to class-intervals
• Tabulation: the process of summarizing raw
data and displaying the same in compact form
(i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for
further analysis.
127

128. Types of Analysis
 Descriptive analysis:
 Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of
significance for testing hypotheses in order to determine with
what validity data can be said to indicate some conclusion or
conclusions.
128

129. CHAPTER FIVE
129

130.  The research proposal is the detailed plan of study
 A research proposal is a formal document that sets out
exactly what is intended to be achieved in the research
and how it is to be done
 The objective in writing a proposal is to describe what
you will do, why it should be done, how you will do it
and what you expect will result
 The quality of the final research project/ thesis often
depends on the quality of the research proposal
 It serves as a basis for determining the feasibility of the
project.
130

131.  The research proposal should consist of three major
chapters, including
1) Introduction ,
2) Literature review and
3) Methodology.
 In addition, to the three major chapters, the research
proposal should also provide
an abstract,
reference or bibliography,
implementation schedule and,
implementation budget.
 The introduction and methodology sections are written
in future tense in the research proposal 131

132. Requirements for proposal
1. Paper Specifications
 Color: White
 Size: 21 cm x 29.7cm (A4)
 Weight: > 80 gm
2. Typing
• Left margin: > 3.5 cm
• Right margin: > 2.0cm
• Top margin: > 3.0 cm
• Bottom margin: > 2.5 cm
• Spacing: Double
• Side: Front single
• Number of lines: < 25 per page
• Font size 12 (size 10 is smaller than 12)
• Font type: Times New Roman
• Font style: Regular
• Font color: Black
• Breaking a word on 2 lines: Not allowed
• Corrections with fluid: Not allowed
• Overwriting: Not allowed
• Crossing out words: Not allowed
• Typing machine: Computer
• Printing quality: Laser or better quality
• Copies: High quality photocopy
132

133. Research Proposal format
Preliminary pages:
 Top cover
 Title page
 Approval sheet
 Acknowledgement
 Table of contents
 List of tables
 List of figures
 Abbreviation and Acronyms
 Abstract
133

134. The Text/Body Part
Chapter One: Introduction
Chapter Two: Literature review
Chapter Three: Methodology
• Study area
• Study design
• Study subjects
• Sample size and Sampling methods
• Data sources & method of collection/measurement
• Methods of data presentation, analysis and
interpretation
 References
134

135. Appendices
 Research budget
 Research program
135

136. Top cover
• Typed in all capital letters, should include:
Approved thesis title typed in the middle of the
page
Name of the degree, e g. MBA Thesis
Full name of the author typed in the middle of the
page
Name and location of the University /College
Month and year of thesis submission typed 5 cm
above the bottom margin
136

137. Sample of the top cover
THE EFFECT OF MARKETING MIX ON COMPANY
PERFROMANCE
MBA PROGRAM
BY: CHAMBER DAVID
SHASHAMANE, ETHIOPIA
Date: May 2019
137

138. Title page
 Title
 A concise statement of the main topic and should identify the
variables.
• Title length commonly not longer than 15 words.
• It is the first page under the top cover typed in all capital letters
and center justified on each line with the following information.
• Approved thesis title 5 cm below the top of the page
• Full name of the author typed 8 lines below the title 138

139. Example title page
THE EFFECT OF MARKETING MIX ON COMPANY PERFROMANCE
CHAMBER DAVID
A THESIS PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT,
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDEIS, NEW GLOBAL VISION COLLEGE , HAWASSA,
ETHIOPIA
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
May, 2019
139

140. Acknowledgement
 This is to appreciate the people who have assisted you
direct or indirect in the proposal preparation.
 This page is largely a matter of courtesy
 Acknowledges the following bodies for the assistance
 Guide/advisor
 Other academicians and Professionals who rendered
assistance
 Authorities of Libraries
 Respondents of questionnaire/Schedule
 Persons from administrative assistance is received
 Any other individuals who assisted in the proposal
140

141. Table of Contents
The section titles should be in caps and bold
The subheadings should follow each chapter title and
should be in lower case.
Example
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY…………………..17
3.1. Data set and Measurement of Variables……18
141

142. List of Tables
 This should capture the title and page number
where the table is found.
 The numbering style should be two numbers
level
Example
Table 3.1: Distribution of Target Population……………21
142

143. List of figures
 This should capture the title and page number of
the figure where figure is found.
 The numbering style should be two numbers level
Example
Figure1.1: Gender of the Respondents……………17
143

144. Abstract
 This is a brief statement of the problem,
objectives of the study, target population,
sampling technique and sample size,
instruments, data collection, data processing
and analysis
 The purpose of the abstract is to provide a clear
and concise summary of the:
 Purpose or problem
 Methodology to be used
 It should be in italics
 Not more than half a page
 The abstract is usually a one block, single
spaced and without citations
 Key word should be included 144

145. Chapter One: Introduction
 The introduction section of the proposal should include
1.1 Background of the problem/study
In this section, the researcher defines the background
of the study by providing a brief discussion of key
theoretical approaches and findings reported in earlier
related studies.
Trends related to the problem, unresolved issues and
social concerns are discussed.
Authoritative sources or citations should be provided in
the section.
Should show understanding and origin of the problem
Start with the global perspective followed by the local
scenario.
Should be approximately 5 pages (4-6 pages)
145

146. 1.2 Statement of the problem
 The problem statement describes the need for
the research project in terms of the knowledge
gap to be filled.
 The researcher should present a clear and
precise statement that indicates the gap that
previous research studies have not addressed.
 Authoritative sources or citations should be used
to support the problem statement.
 Note; Length – maximum 3 pages
146

147. 1.3 Objectives of the study
1.3.1The study or general objective
• In this section the major research objective is addressed.
 The purpose statement should emphasize practical outcomes or products
of the study.
 study should have one general objective which should be in line with the
title. Examples,
Title:
1. The Impact of cash management on the performance of manufacturing
companies in Ethiopia
2. The impact of promotional tools on sales volume of walia brewery
General objectives
1. The main objective of this study is to examine the impact of cash
management on the performance of manufacturing companies in
Ethiopia
2. The main objective of this study is to determine the impact of
promotional tools on sales volume of walia brewery
147

148. 1.3.2 The Specific objectives
 Should be a breakdown of the general objective.
Example
To determine the promotional tools walia brewery
currently using
To see the sales volume trend of walia brewery
To examine the relationship between the 4
promotional tools and sales volume of the
company
To investigate the influence of each promotional
tools on sales volume of the company
To identify the promotional tool which mostly
affect the sales volume of the company
148

149. 1.4 Research Questions
 should be in line with the specific objectives and equal
in number.
 Should be stated in the form of questions and not
statements.
 The research questions need to be broad enough to
allow further breakdown into questionnaire or interview
guide items for the data collection.
 On the average 3-5 research questions are sufficient.
What promotional tools walia brewery currently using
What sales volume trend of walia brewery looks like
Is there any relationship exist between the promotional
tools and sales volume of the company
To what extent each promotional tools influence sales
volume of the company
Which promotional tool mostly affect the sales volume
of the company
149

150. 1.5 . Develop a Hypothesis
• Once, you identify your research question,
you need to translate your research question
into a testable hypothesis.
Example:
–The relationship between the 4
promotional tools and sales volume of the
company is positive
–promotional tools have an influence on
sales volume of the company
1-150

151. 1.5 Significance of the study
Should illustrate why the researcher is
conducting the research and whom it shall
benefit.
 In this section the researcher describes the
values or the benefits that will be gained
from doing the study.
 The significance of the study is concerned
with the relevance of the problem both to the
practice and theory.
The significance is for:
 The researcher
 The case study organization
 For policy maker
 Other researcher
151

152. 1.6 Scope of the study
• In this section, the researcher describes the
focus or scope of the study to enable an eager
reader to make generalization of the findings.
• It should cite the focus of
– Geographical Scope/Target Popn.
– Conceptual/Construct scope
– Methodological scope
152

153. 1.7 Limitation of the study
• This brings out the perceived factors which might
affect the research in the course of the study.
• It should also show the suggested methods which
are supposed to deal with the problem.
• The limitations should not be stated in terms of time
or financial resources constraints.
• Researchers are expected to plan and implement
research projects within the available time and
financial resources.
• eg. Data limitation, Respondents nature, working
environment, Literature scarcity
153

154. 1.8 Organization of the study
 It is always important to provide structure on the
organization of the proposal section.
For example this thesis is structured as follows:
 Chapter one provides the research background,
research objectives, significance of the study, scope,
and the limitations encountered in the course of the
study
 Chapter two presents literature review on the
determinant of………and a conceptual framework
 Chapter three deals with the methodology employed in
the study;
 Chapter four : Results and discussion- the study
findings and their interpretation are presented here.
 Chapter five has conclusions of the study,
Recommendation and the policy implications.
154

155. Chapter Two: Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
 Literature review is a critical look at the existing research that is
significant to your project. However, start this chapter with an
overview of contents of the chapter. This should be very brief and
precise.
2.2 Theoretical review
 This section should discuss current/relevant theory that supports
the research problem been studied. For example in marketing
problem particularly consumer related, the underlying marketing
theory relevant to your project e.g. Consumer behaviour, brand
research, customer satisfaction) should be discussed.
2.3 Empirical Review
 This literature review section of the proposal should present a
review of the literature related to the problem and purpose.
 The literature review section should therefore be organized or
categorized according to the research questions or specific
objectives in order to ensure relevance to the research problem.
 literature relevant to the problem being investigated showing
clearly the linkage of literature review to the research questions
155

156. During literature review, it’s important to note the following
points:
 You should evaluate what has already been done, show
the relationships between different works, and show how it
relates to your project.
 Refer to work by recognized experts in your chosen area
 Consider and discuss work that supports and work that
opposes your ideas
 Make reasoned judgments regarding the value of others’
work to your research
 Support your arguments with valid evidence in a logical
manner
 Ensure the review is done chronologically
 Each key variable should be 2-3 pages long in proposal
156

157.  The hypothesized variables should be subheadings of the
literature review to form a framework that would help in
analysis.
 It is not supposed to be just a summary of other people's work
but Critique of the existing literature relevant of the study
 Review and critique any previous studies. For the review to be
critical, you will need to develop critical judgment.
 Indicate what has been done by other researchers including
the methodologies used and identify the gaps.
 You should also observe the trend in research from studying
recently published articles in the top journals.
 That way you will learn about the trend, i.e., what are the hot
topics being studied these days.
 You should not spend your valuable time studying and writing
on the “dead” topics.
157

158. 2.4 Summary of literature
 This sub-section is supposed to summarize the
literature reviewed and bring out clearly the
research gaps identified, if possible in a table
format
2.5 Conceptual framework
• The Conceptual framework should demonstrate
an understanding of what variable influences
what. For example using the topic below
158

159. • Topic: impact of working capital management on
profitability.
• The variables could be : ROA to measure
profitability(dependent variables), CTO
(creditors turnover ratio), DTO (debtors turnover
ratio), ITO( inventory turnover ratio) and CR
(current ratio) as working capital management
criteria.
• Independent variables Dependent variable
Working capital
CTO
DTO
ITO
CR
Profitability
ROA
159

160. Chapter Three: Methodology
The research methodology section of the proposal should provide
explanation and description of the methods and procedures to be
used in conducting the study.
 Research methodology is an important chapter in research
work. It is important to start this chapter with an overview of
contents of the chapter. This should be very brief and precise.
3.1 Description of research area
………………………..
3.2 Research design
 In this section, the researcher should identify, and provide
justification for the specific research design or strategy used in
carrying out the study.
 Research designs include exploratory, descriptive, causal, or
quasi experimental. The research design should emphasize on
defining the design, revealing its merits and providing
justification for its selection.
160

161. 3.3 Target Population
 The researcher should identify and describe the
characteristics of the population involved in the
study.
 Population refers to the entire group of people,
events, or things of interest that the researcher
wishes to investigate.
 Population forms a basis from which the sample or
subjects for the study is drawn.
 Clearly identify the population and the target
population and its size and characteristics.
 Justify the source of the target population.
 Where necessary provide the Sampling frame in
the form of a table
161

162. 3.4 sample size and sampling techniques
 Determine the sample size
 Identify which sampling techniques will be
used and why:
162

163. 3.5 Data Collection Instruments
• The researcher is supposed to discuss the type of data which
will be collected.
• This should be followed by the instruments to be used to collect
the data.
• In this section, the researcher should describe the major
methods for collecting data from the subjects.
• The major methods for obtaining data in a study may include
interviews, questionnaires and observation techniques.
• The data collection instruments should be developed and
organized on the basis of the research questions or specific
objectives to ensure relevance to the research problem.
• A description of the instruments should be given, whether they
are researcher developed or standardized instruments.
• A description of the nature of instrument items, validity and
reliability, and administration procedures should be provided.
163

164. Primary data is the data collected by the
researcher themselves, i.e.
 interview
 observation
 action research
 case studies
 life histories
 questionnaires
 ethnographic research
 longitudinal studies
164

165. Collection of Secondary Data
• Secondary data are those which have been collected by some other
persons for his purpose and published.
Advantages of Secondary data
 The information can be collected by incurring least cost.
 The time requires for obtaining the information is very less.
 Most of the secondary data are those published by big
institutions. So they contain large quantity of information.
Disadvantages of Secondary data
 Since the secondary data is a result of some other person’s
attempt, it need not be suitable for a researcher, who makes
use of it.
 It may be inaccurate and unreliable.
 It may contain certain errors
165

166. Sources of Secondary Data
 There are varieties of published sources from which one can
get information for his research work.
 Official report of the central, state and local government
 Official publications of the foreign governments and
international bodies like UNO and its subordinate bodies.
 Reports and publications of Trade Associations, Banks,
Cooperative Societies and Similar
 Semi Government and Autonomous Organizations
 Technical journals, News papers, Books, Periodicals
 Publications of research Organizations, Centers, Institutes,
and reports submitted by
 Economists, Research scholars
166

167. Choice between Primary and Secondary
Method
 The following factors are to be considered while
choosing between primary and secondary
methods.
 Nature and scope of enquiry
 Availability of time and money
 Degree of accuracy desired.
 Status of the investigator
167

168. Description of Variables
 Independent Variable: variable which affect
other variable
 Dependent Variable: The variable that is the
effect or is the result or outcome of another
variable
 In statistical analysis a variable is identified by
the symbol (X) for independent variable and by
the symbol (Y) for the dependent variable.
168

169. Example
• Research studies indicate that successful new
product development has an influence on the
stock market price of a company.
• That is, the more successful the new product
turns out to be, the higher will be the stock
market price of that firm.
• Therefore, the success of the new product is
the independent variable, and stock market
price the dependent variable.
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170. Moderating Variables
• A moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the
independent variable-dependent variable relationship.
• That is, the presence of a third variable (the moderating variable) modifies the
original relationship between the independent and the dependent variable.
• For example, a strong relationship has been observed between the quality of
library facilities (X) and the performance of the students (Y).
• Although this relationship is supposed to be true generally, it is nevertheless
contingent on the interest and inclination of the students.
• It means that only those students who have the interest and inclination to use
the library will show improved performance in their studies.
• In this relationship interest and inclination is moderating variable i.e. which
moderates the strength of the association between X and Y variables.
• Example 2: the influence of income on investment ….(saving)
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