2. Session Objectives
• Define controlling , monitoring & evaluation
• Determine the purpose of M&E
• Describe the relationship b/n M&E
• Identify the types of evaluations
• Evaluate the characteristics of indicators
2
3. Controlling
Management Control
is the process of ensuring that actual activities
conform to planned activities.
Taking preventive / corrective action to keep things on
track is an essential part of control process
primary aim of control is to improve performance
4
4. Stages /steps of Controlling
1. Establish standards of Expected performance
2. Measure actual performance
3. Compare performance against standard
4. Evaluate the comparison and take appropriate
corrective action.
5
6. Controlling….
Types of Controls
1.Feed forward Control
• The active anticipation and prevention of problems,
rather than passive reaction.
• Monitor inputs
2.Concurrent Control
• Monitoring and adjusting ongoing activities and
processes.
3.Feedback Control outputs/products
• Checking a completed activity and learning from
mistakes.
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7. Forms of Management
There are three basic forms of management control:
1. Monitoring
2. Supervision
3. Evaluation.
8
8. 1. MONITORING
- Monitoring = routine and continuous tracking of
planned activities
- It is the day-to-day watch on, or continuous follow up
of, the on going activities.
- It is regularly checking to see that program activities
are being done as planned.
- It is carried out through observation, discussion and
review of reports, statistical data.
9
9. MONITORING…
• The goals of monitoring are:
To identify any problem early, and
To solve without delaying the progress of the
program.
• Hence it is a basic part of implementation management.
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10. 2. Supervision:
• Intermittent processes to be conducted by the management in line
with controlling.
• A single person should not go for supervision
• The three main styles of supervision are
autocratic, and democratic.
• Autocratic supervisions tend to humiliate/injury the dignity/
people, make them irresponsible and mostly one way.
• It may dry up the initiative of colleagues.
• Democratic supervision helps people to grow
• become responsible for their own work to show initiative
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11. 3. Evaluation
• Evaluation = periodic (e.g., annual) assessment of whether
program objectives have been achieved
Is systematical and periodical gathering, analyzing and
interpreting of information on the operation as well as the effects
and impacts of a development programme/project.
• Assess the contribution and worth of an intervention.
• It involves the comparison of the actual performance of the
system
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12. Evaluation….
The results of evaluation are expected to show:
• What a program has been trying to do;
• What actually happened;
• Where there are differences/gaps between
plans and what happened
• The reasons for the difference/gaps, and
• What needs to be done about them?
The Purpose is: to note short comings,
deficiencies, duplicates, generate of knowledge
etc. in the system.
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13. Distinctive Characteristics of M & E
Characteristics Monitoring Evaluation
Purpose/objective Specific Broad
Scope Narrow Broad
Frequency Continuous Periodic
Data Gathered Primarily
Quantitative
Primarily
Qualitative
Focus Inputs/Outputs Impact and
Sustainability
Uses
Alerts when to take
action
Provides detailed
information on what
type of actions to take
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14. Distinctive Characteristics of M & E…
Character Monitoring Evaluation
What does
it answers?
- Activities performed
- Problems encountered
- Why and how
results were achieved or not
- Strategy and policy options
Actors Internal Internal/External
Analysis Simple Comparative Analytical tools
Primary
Users
Small group/project
Managers
Large group /Project
Managers, planners,
Financers, etc.)
15
16. TYPES OF EVALUATION…
Some authors use the terms
• Input, Process, output ,Outcome &Impacts to determine
the value of a program
Others use the term
• Formative/diagnostic or progressive Evaluation to
Evaluate input and process. it is performed during
implementation.
• Summative or Terminal Evaluation
• to evaluate output, outcome, & impact it is done at the
conclusion of the program.
• focus on long term “ultimate” results
17
17. Types of Evaluation .….
• Based on people primarily responsible to lead
evaluation activities, evaluation could be classified as:
– Internal Evaluation
– External Evaluation
18
18. Internal Evaluation
• Evaluation activities designed and implemented
primarily under a leadership from program
implementers
• Usually serve information for program improvement
by supplementing monitoring activities
19
19. External Evaluation
• Evaluations designed and implemented primarily by
people who are relatively more distant from the
program (external evaluators)
• Used when:
– objectivity is a concern because of issues related to
the purpose of the evaluation
– concerns of multiple stakeholders included in
evaluation questions
– evaluation expertise beyond the organization’s
capacity is required to answer evaluation questions
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21. 22
Program Components
• Inputs
– Resources used in a program, such as money, staff,
curricula, and materials. Examples:
• Health workers
• Anti-TB drugs
• Laboratory reagents
• IEC materials
• Processes/ Activities
– Services that the program provides to accomplish its
objectives
– Examples:
• Training health workers for counseling and testing
• Screening patients for opportunistic infections
• Conducting supervision
• Educating women
22. 23
Program Components…
• Outputs
– Are the immediate products or deliverables of the inputs
utilized and program activities conducted
– Examples:
• Number of patients treated
• Number of clients counseled
• Number of condoms distributed
• Number of HIV tests carried out
23. Program Components…
• Outcomes
– Benefits that individuals, groups, communities realize.
– The change that occur on the target beneficiaries due to
program output.
– such as changes in knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, skills,
behaviors, access, policies, and environmental conditions
– Examples:
• Increase of condom use
• Improvement of quality of healthcare
• Reduction of risky sexual behaviors
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24. 25
Program Components…
Impacts
– Long-term results of one or more programs over time,
such as changes in HIV infection, morbidity, and
mortality
– Examples:
• Reduction in incidence of HIV infection
• Reduction of HIV/AIDS mortality
• Improvement in quality of life of patients
26. indicators are:
A variable or summary of variables that
Measures key elements of a program or project
Indicators provide critical M&E data at every
stage of program implementation
Inputs, process, outputs, outcomes and
impact
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27. 28
Indicators are signals which show;
Whether we are on the right track & direction,
How far we have progressed
How far we still have to go to reach our
destination/objectives
28. Types of indicators
Indicators could be classified based on different
aspects:
Relationship with the subject of interest
The nature of information they provide
The component of a program they measure
29
29. Types of indicators con’t…
Based on their relationship with the
subject of interest
• Direct indicators
• Indirect (proxy) indicators
30
30. Types of indicators con’t…
Direct indicators
Are indicators directly related to the subject
intended to be measured
E.g. Proportion of children vaccinated in X district is
direct measure of EPI program output
31
31. Types of indicators con’t…
Indirect/proxy indicators
They speak about a subject of interest only indirectly
are used to measure change or results where direct
measures are not feasible
– Example:
• Monthly expenses of patients could be used to estimate
their monthly income.
• Client satisfaction may be used to measure the quality of
service
32
32. Types of indicators con’t…
Based on the nature of information,
indicators could be classified as
–Quantitative indicators
–Qualitative indicators
33
33. Types of indicators con’t…
Quantitative indicators
Are indicators which are measured numerically
Include counts/frequencies, ratios, percentages,
rates, averages
Example
• Number of patients treated
• Prevalence of HIV
34
34. Types of indicators con’t…
Qualitative indicators
Are indicators which are measured non-
numerically
Usually applied when quantitative indicators are
not applicable
are more subjective than quantitative indicators
Example
• Cleanliness of a hospital
35
35. Types of indicators con’t…
• Based on the component of a program the indicator measures, indicators
could be classified as:
1. Input indicators: Measures the actual use of resources
2. Process indicators: Measures the activities performed
3. Output indicators: Measures what is accomplished with inputs
4. Outcome indicators: Measures the direct and immediate impact
5. Impact indicators: Measures the indirect and longer-term impact
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36. INPUT
• Human and
financial
resources
PROCESS
• Conduct one
PMTCT training
workshop in
each district
for providers
OUTPUT
• Providers
trained in
PMTCT
service
provision
OUTCOME
•Increased use of
PMTCT services
IMPACT
• Reduced
perinatal
transmission
of HIV
Indicator: # of providers who have
completed clinical training
Indicator: % of pregnant women who are
HIV tested
Indicator: percent of HIV+
women receiving a complete
course of ARV prophylaxis
Indicator: percent of
infants HIV- born to
HIV+ women
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37. Characteristics of Good Indicators
• Valid: accurate measure of a behavior, practice or task
• Reliable: consistently measurable in the same way
by different observers
• Precise: operationally defined in clear terms
• Measurable: quantifiable using available tools and
methods
• Timely: provides a measurement at time intervals in
terms of program goals and activities
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38. Data sources to measure Indicators
• Using Pre-Defined Indicators
Surveillance
Routine service reporting
Special program reporting systems
Administrative systems
Vital registration systems
Facility surveys
Household surveys
Censuses
Evaluation and special studies
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40. At the end of the session students be able:
• Define decision making
• Describe the relationship b/n decision making and other
functions of mgt
• Describe categories of decisions
• Decision making steps
• Identify factors influencing problem solving & decision
making
41
41. Decision Making . . .
Decision-making: the process of identifying and selecting a
course of action to solve a specific problem.
Decision making is a major part of management because :
• When planning, organizing, staffing, leading, and controlling,
managers make decisions on a daily basis.
• It requires choosing among alternative courses of action.
Decisions must be made at many levels in an organization from
executive decisions on the goals to the day to day repetitive
operations performed by lower level managers.
42
42. Interrelations of the mgt process functions
Planning
Organizing
Staffing
Leading
Controlling
43
43. Decision making….
The formal decision making process may be described in 7
steps:
1. Identifying and defining the problem
2. Identifying limiting factors
3. Developing potential alternatives
4. Analyzing the alternatives
5. Selecting the best alternatives
6. Implementing the decision
7. Establishing monitoring and evaluation system
44
44. Decision making….
Types of decisions
1. Ends-means
• Ends: decision making based on our objectives/outputs
• Means: decision making based on our Strategies /operational
programs/and activities
2. Administrative-operational
• Administrative decisions: made by senior managers
“Policy decisions”
Resource allocation and utilization
• Operational decisions: made by mid-level and first-line managers
Day-to-day activities, e.g. personnel deployment, purchases,
specific work assignments
45
45. Decision making…
3. programmed – non-programmed
• Programmed decisions are elements of some decisions which are
similar and made so often repetitive and routine.
Includes procedures, rules and manuals. E.g. patient admission,
scheduling, inventory and supply ordering
Non-programmed decisions are unique and non-routine and may
have unclear implications for the organization, requiring creative
problem solving because they are unfamiliar.
E.g. Decision to expand, add or closes services
46
46. Ways of decisions making
1. Individual decision making:
Depends on :
Style of the leader
Ability to set priorities
Timing of decision
Creativity of the manager
2. Group decision making:
Process of solving problems jointly
It plays a key role in health care management
E.g. task force
Especially very important in non-programmed decision making.
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47. Techniques of group decision making
1. Brain storming:- group effort art generating ideas and
alternatives that can help to solve a problem.
Generates more information for decision.
Dominant groups can be a problem.
2. Nominal group technique:- tries to solve the problem of
brain storming (dominant group) as the problems are identified
individually.
Group members are presented with a problem; each member
independently writes down his or her ideas on the problem, and
then each member presents one idea to the group until all ideas
have been presented.
No discussion takes place until all ideas have been presented.
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48. Techniques of group decision making
3. Delphi technique:- A group decision making
conducted by a group leader through the use of
written questionnaires.
It provides equal opportunity to participants.
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49. Outcomes of group decision making
• Indecision: failure to decide (disagreement)
• Authority rule: decision by the team leader
• Minority rule: decision dominated by few influential
individuals.
• Majority rule: the majority agree
• Consensus: immediate agreement without thorough
discussion
• Unanimity: agree after through discussion and argument
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