A comparative study of two painting teachers of talented adolescents [zimmerman, enid]

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A Comparative Study of Two Painting Teachers of
Talented Adolescents
Article in Studies in Art Education · September 1993
DOI: 10.2307/1320899
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A Comparative Study of Two Painting Teachers of Talented Adolescents
Author(s): Enid Zimmerman
Source: Studies in Art Education, Vol. 33, No. 3 (Spring, 1992), pp. 174-185
Published by: National Art Education Association
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STUDIES in Art Education Copyright by the
A Journal of Issues and Research National Art Education Association
1992, 33 (3) 174-185
A Comparative Study of Two Painting Teachers of
Talented Adolescents
Enid Zimmerman
Indiana University
Case studies of two art teachers of talented young adolescents are compared to
determine what characteristics might determine successful classroom practice. It is
concluded that artists who teach talented art students should be aware that their
students may have needs for understanding the contexts in which they create art,
examining their reasons for creating art, and becoming intensely involved in art issues
that go beyond acquisition of art skills and techniques. Teachers of talented students
should understand each student's sensibilities, teach proactively, present mediated
learning experiences, and reflect critically about their teaching practices, as well as
have preparatory experiences in learning how to organize art classes.
Descriptions of ideal teachers for gifted and talented students have been
generated by a number of authors (e.g., Gold, 1965; Khatena, 1982; Torrance,
1962). These descriptions generally are unrealistic because they are either
idealistically unattainable or they fail to differentiate between good teachers
for all students and good teachers for students with high abilities (Clark &
Zimmerman, 1984; Gallagher, 1975). Most claims about ideal teacher charac-
teristics have resulted from armchair speculation. There are few research stud-
ies about teachers of academically gifted students and fewer still about teachers
of artistically talented students.
Story (1985) reported that traits most often cited in literature about success-
ful teaching of academically gifted students were not directly indentified from
observed behavior patterns; rather, these traits were identified through inter-
views and quantitative analyses. Lundsteen (1987) advocated using qualitative
methods to better understand processes of teaching academically gifted stu-
dents. Although there are a few qualitative studies about teachers of academi-
cally talented students, there is a paucity of such studies about teachers of
artistically talented students. For more than a decade, however, case studies
about art teaching have been reported in general art education literature and in
particular about teaching junior high and high school students (Alexander,
1977, 1980, 1983; Degge, 1976; Johnson, 1985; Stokrocki, 1986b, 1987, 1988).
In 1988, I studied the teaching methods and strategies of a painting teacher
who taught a two-week painting course for 13- to 16-year-old artistically talent-
ed students at the Indiana University Summer Arts Institute (IUSAI) (Zim-
merman, 1991). In the present study, I will describe and analyze characteristics
of another painting teacher of similar-aged students at the 1989 IUSAI and
compare and contrast these with teacher characteristics found in the 1988
study. My purpose is to discover what characteristics of art teachers of talented
young adolescents might be salient in determining successful classroom prac-
tice. The focus of this study is on the 1989 painting teacher; references to the
1988 painting teacher are used primarily for comparison.

TEACHERS OF TALENTED
Methodology, Data Collection, and Analysis
As Co-Director of the IUSAI, and with both teachers' permission and coop-
eration, I was able to observe two painting classes for their entire duration. I
used case study methodology and collected data by means of notes; audio tapes
of classroom sessions; slides of both classroom activities and student art work;
audio tapes of student, teacher, and group interviews; student IUSAI registra-
tion forms; and five adult observers' journals. In addition, I used Stokrocki's
(1986a) systematic time-sampling method to collect data and organize categor-
ies for reporting and comparing the two case studies. Her method utilizes the
three categories of substantive instruction, managerial behaviors, and appraisal
behaviors as described by Schmid (1980). Substantive instruction involves
teaching a new concept or skill and is directly related to learning outcomes,
managerial behaviors are evidenced in directing class and student interactions,
and appraisal behaviors include feedback to guide and modify acquisition of art
skills and concepts.
Data were analyzed by content, comparison, and time-sampling analyses and
were concurrently verified from journals kept by classroom observers and con-
versations with teachers and observers. Content analyses of notes, tapes, inter-
views, and slides were conducted to generate conceptual themes as suggested
by Glaser and Strauss (1967), Gordon (1978), Holsti (1969), and Mostyn (1985).
Conceptual themes, such as developing students' art making skills, knowledge
of the art world, and personal expression, and teachers' proactive and reflective
approaches to teaching, were interrelated to form generalizations that illumi-
nated and clarified the teachers' instructional methods and the contexts in
which instruction took place.
Setting and Participants
Painting classes met both summers for 11 instructional days, from 10:00 a.m.
to 12:00 noon in 1988 and from 1:30 p.m. to 3:30 p.m. in 1989. All students
attending the Institute were nominated as artistically talented based on criteria
developed by the Institute staff. In 1988, 60 students attended the Institute, and
all were assigned to painting classes based on their ages, past experiences,
and/or prior attendance at the Institute. There were 24 students in the ad-
vanced painting class I studied. These students were to enter grades 8 through
11 the following Fall with almost equal numbers entering grades 9, 10, and 11.
They ranged in age from 13 to 16 years with a mean age of 14. Nine were girls
and 11 were boys; half had previously attended the Institute. In 1989, there was
a total of 20 students who attended the Institute, and all were in the same
advanced painting class. Almost twice as many students were entering grades 9
and 10 as were entering grades 7 and 8. The age range was 11 to 15 years with a
mean age of 13.6 years. Fifteen were girls and 9 were boys; one quarter had
attended the Institute previously. In both 1988 and 1989, most students were
from Indiana, two were from other midwestern states, and two were from
Singapore. In both summers, about two-thirds of the students came from rural
communities, and almost half received some scholarship assistance based on
economic need.
The painting classroom used for both summer institutes was a very large
studio space used during the academic year for college-level art instruction.
Paint encrusted the walls, floors, easels, and storage spaces. Large windows
along one wall allowed north light to filter into the classroom. A bank of sinks
along another wall provided a place to remove paint from brushes and clothing.
175

ENID ZIMMERMAN
There was a model's stand in the center, and large easels circled the room.
Teachers' Philosophies
Mark taught the 1988 painting class, and Laura taught the 1989 painting
class.' Both were faculty members who taught painting to undergraduate stu-
dents in the Indiana University Fine Arts Department. They were physically
very different. Mark was a large man about 6'5"; Laura was a small woman
about 5'2". Both were in their middle thirties, and both dressed very casually to
accommodate to the warm weather.
Laura taught by repetition; she believed that if she repeated the same
instructions several times, her students would eventually understand what she
expected them to do. She often told students to try to make their paintings as
realistic as possible. For example, she asked one student what color the model's
eyes were. When the student responded, "blue green," she said, "Then paint
them that way."
She did not care how much noise the students made when they were painting.
"They're having a good time ... later when they look at their work they will
know how they acted when they made it." When I told her the students liked the
way she related to them individually, she replied, "I try to talk to them as equals
and not as an adult and a child." Laura, however did not know the names of her
students and could not identify any individual student's work when she was
asked to fill out final evaluation forms.
At the beginning of the Institute, she told a classroom observer that she did
not think that the students were especially talented. During the third day of the
class, however, she changed her mind and expressed surprise that the students
were progressing so quickly through the lessons. The last day of class she told
the students, "I want people to be knocked out by your paintings. They won't
believe junior and senior high students did this."
In conversations with Laura and Mark, it became apparent that they both
considered themselves to be artists who teach. Laura's principal focus was on
developing art-making skills, and she did not believe it was important to build
personal relationships with students. She viewed herself as an artist who had a
responsibility to teach a painting class and critique students' art work. She was
the only faculty member of the Institute who did not attend either the final
luncheon or student art exhibit. The reason she gave was that she needed to give
attention to her own work.
For Mark, teaching was "about relating to people," and what students actual-
ly created was secondary. He believed the teacher's role was very important and
that teachers were responsible for helping students learn both about themselves
and their art work. Laura's overall teaching emphasis was on having students
make their images as realistic as possible; Mark's was on helping them under-
stand frustrations, sources of inspiration, and intense personal involvement of
being an artist, as well as technical skills such as drawing in correct proportion,
mixing and applying paint to a surface, and balancing a composition.
Curricular Concerns
There is a curriculum used in all undergraduate basic design courses at
Indiana University, and, in the beginning, Laura attempted to adapt this cur-
riculum for the IUSAI students. This meant condensing a semester's college
'Both teachers' names are fictitious.
176

course into 11 instructional days. Toward the second week of the Institute, she
was more flexible and began to adjust her teaching to the students' interests and
abilities and the time constraint of 11 days. At one point, she decided not to go
to the museum as she had planned because she felt the students needed more
time to paint.
Laura began by having the students make color wheels and value scales with
neutral grays to get students "warmed up" for the final painting. She told the
students they were learning to mix colors and values so that they could paint
from life. "You will end up having a live model; you will actually paint what you
see." Next, she projected, upside down, a black-and-white slide of a photograph
of a man. The students were to concentrate on shapes and paint this image in
black and white. "It is easier," Laura told the students "to paint from a slide
because the image is already flattened out." Next, they made a black, white, and
gray value still-life painting and then a color still-life painting. They then
progressed to the final painting of a model. On several occasions, Laura told her
students that their goal was to complete the projects she assigned. When giving
directions for creating still-lifes, she told them that if they started at 1:30 they
should be finished at 3:30. All of Laura's curriculum concerned developing art
making skills with emphases on color mixing, creating solid shapes, and depict-
ing realistic images.
Before his class began, Mark was not absolutely sure what he wanted to teach
because he "needed to get a sense of the students and what they are capable of
doing." He made a decision after the first day of class and told students they
would "end up painting self-portraits." First they would paint simple spheres,
then "big eyes, big lips, and big noses," next, interpretations of portraits by
artists, and, finally, complete portraits of themselves. Mark mentioned two
important things he wanted students to take away from his painting class: one
was to help them understand what it is like to be an artist and the other was to
have them paint an adequate self-portrait.
Both teachers spent most of their class time appraising individual student
work. In addition, Mark spent almost twice was much time as Laura on substan-
tive instruction; compared to Mark, Laura spent 5% more time managing her
class and twice as much time in unrelated class activities such as leaving the
room to get a soft drink or to make a telephone call.
Substantive Instruction
Mark typically spent 32% of his class time on substantive instruction, and
Laura typically spent 19% of her class time on substantive instruction. She was
an artist-teacher whose approach to teaching involved viewing herself as a
technician who imparts information to students. In terms of Laura's painting
class, imparting information about color theory and how color theory can be
rendered in practice was of primary importance.
Laura's primary method of imparting technical information was to lecture
and then repeat the same information a number of times both to the entire class
and to each individual student. She spoke from the middle of the room, and
often students could not hear her when she tried to talk above the class chatter
and noise. Laura's other strategies for imparting art skills and techniques were
to demonstrate how to place colors on a palette, use a viewfinder, make a color
wheel, create a value scale, and mix colors. She showed slides of student work
from previous classes, drew charts and wrote art terms on the chalkboard, and
held up examples of successful in-progress student work for the entire class to
177

ENID ZIMMERMAN
view.
When she showed past student art work, her main emphasis was on technical
properties: "In this one there are four values." "This one is drawn well." "This
one took a week to complete." The only personal comment she made was about
a former student who was talented and had started a rock-and-roll band. "What
a waste of talent. He played terribly, and he drew wonderfully."
At my suggestion, Laura showed slides of her own work to engage her
students in more personal dialogue and enable them to observe how she, as an
artist, worked. She told them about how she created her paintings. "I had a little
trouble with this one. Now I do all the preliminary painting first ... when I
finish it I put it away for a couple of months. Then I pull it out again ... You're
more objective then and not so ego-involved." She revealed how she painted an
entire room in order to have exact colors and placement of still-lives and models
before she began to create a painting. "I actually painted the checkerboard
pattern on the floor. I really painted what I saw." She told the students at one
point how difficult it was for her to find a job as an art teacher and how she had
held five art teaching positions in eight years. One year, she told them, "I
applied for 65 teaching jobs, and I didn't get one."
Her directions to students always involved discussions about how to do a
specific painting exercise. "You have to do a black, white, and gray painting.
Decide on your composition. Sketch it in quickly. You can paint over the lines
later." Realism was the yardstick by which all work was measured. "This one
doesn't have outlines around the objects. It looks more real." Laura did not
engage students in in-depth dialogue. When a few students delved deeper into
color theory and asked detailed questions about the color of cast shadows,
Laura told them, "It doesn't matter. Don't worry. This is a one-shot exercise."
Mark adopted roles as artist-teacher and storyteller when he taught his
painting class. His sense of humor and ability to empathize with students in his
class also were salient characteristics. As an artist who teaches, Mark willingly
shared his "secrets of the trade" which included addressing problems of self-
expression and interpretation. For example, he told them that the secret of
creating psychological self-portraits is not to be concerned with appearances
and not to become "bored to death." Mark's teaching strategies were to sketch
diagrams of drawing systems on the chalkboard, use students' faces as exam-
ples, bring in many reproductions of eighteenth-century-to-contemporary por-
traits, and demonstrate how to use art materials and tools. Mark invited stu-
dents to visit his painting studio to share how he works as an artist, the tools and
materials he uses, the content of his drawings and paintings, and his own
frustrations as an artist.
While students painted at their easels, Mark often stood in the center of the
room or strolled around and told stories that lasted from 1 to 15 minutes. Not all
stories related directly to class content, and the stories often carried a moral
message or dealt with ethical and political issues. Mark was aware that students
knew about and were influenced by popular culture. He often built conceptual
bridges between art works created by masters and popular culture heroes. Mark
was concerned with how well he was getting his messages across to students,
and he often asked students whether they were getting bored or restless. He
would tell a joke or say or do something to capture their attention. He always
reassured them that they might experience "boredom, frustration, and rage.
Paint anyhow. In 5 minutes it will go away, and you will feel the opposite."
178

Individual and Group Appraisal
Mark and Laura both spent, on the average, almost half the class time (47%
and 48%, respectively) critiquing in-progress work and finished products. Mark
spent 86% of this time engaged in individual critiques and 14% in group
critiques. Laura spent almost 100% (99.79%) of critique time in individual
critiques. She conducted only one group critique; it lasted 10 minutes. Both
teachers' individual critiques averaged 2 minutes.
Laura employed individual critiques to tell students what they should be
doing or to ask them what they might do to improve their paintings. In a few
instances she positively appraised the work of the entire group. Commenting
about their work orally she said, for example, "I think everybody is going along
fine. Go ahead and finish off. I think everyone has the idea."
In 192 out of 194 recorded interactions between Laura and individual stu-
dents, the conversation pertained only to technical properties related to art
making. Laura usually began an individual critique by praising the student's
accomplishments with comments, such as "looks good," "there you go," "much
better," "real good so far," and "pretty amazing." Then she usually made
suggestions for improvement, such as "squint more to see the darkest values,"
"a bit too reddish," and "if you don't like the way you did it, paint it again."
When students were frustrated and could not paint, she treated their inability
to proceed as a technical problem they had to overcome. When one student
lamented, "This looks terrible, I can't do it," Laura replied, "Use the view-
finder. Decide what you want to do. Don't worry if it isn't perfect. Just paint."
When a student said he was finished and did not want to work further, she told
him, "An artist who works like this and doesn't finish will not make a living."
Humor was evident in only one recorded teacher-student exchange; Laura told
a student about his painting of a model, "If you put more white on her skin, she
will look as if she is dead."
Laura's and Mark's initial approaches to each student were positive. Praise
statements usually preceded corrections and suggestions for improvement. To
make corrective moves, the two teachers often painted on the side of a canvas or
paper, in the student's sketchbook, on the back of a canvas board, or directly on
the work in progress. Both teachers' comments generally included summarizing
and reinforcing concepts that were being taught in class.
Mark's ability to empathize with his students was evident in conversations
with those having trouble getting started or finishing their paintings. For exam-
ple, he told one student: "Get yourself together... you have a lot of strength...
you will be great someday." And another, "Your sense of panic won't go away
unless you do things. It's not that serious ... you are tired but can do it."
Both teachers used in-progress work to exemplify a concept or technique.
Another strategy was to compliment the entire group orally; Laura did this
when most students had completed a project, and Mark did it before he began a
group critique.
Classroom Management
Mark spent 15% and Laura spent 20% of the total class time distributing and
collecting tools and materials and physically organizing the classroom environ-
ment. Due to conflicting obligations, Laura did not attend two sessions about
teaching art to talented young adolescents that the Co-Directors held for
IUSAI faculty before the classes began. The first day of class, she expected that
the painting studio would be set up, students would have their own supplies,
179

ENID ZIMMERMAN
and they would clean-up without directions. On the second day, however, she
spent over an hour before class arranging furniture for the students. Laura
realized that she would have to be specific in her directions to students about
what supplies they needed and how to organize those supplies. She told them
how to set up their palettes, clean their brushes, cover their paints so they would
not dry out, and what colors and how much paint they would need, where to
store their in-progress work, and where to get and return their art supplies.
Laura did not make an effort to get the students to clean-up. She abdicated
this responsibility to me and the three teacher-observers. At the end of each
class session, I often gave oral instructions; one teacher-observer helped stu-
dents clean-up at the sink, and the other helped them put away their supplies.
Mark had taught a painting class at the IUSAI the year before so he knew the
need to arrange the studio room prior to the first day of class. He greeted
students at the classroom door, told them what supplies they would need, and
directed them to the supply table where the day's supplies were located. Mark
usually gave oral instructions in which he described explicit clean-up directions;
generally clean-up was accomplished quickly.
Student Responses
Students were unanimous in their approval of both Mark and Laura as
teachers. Compared to regular art classes in their schools, these students felt
they learned much more in their Institute classes. Seventy-five percent of the
students expressed a fondness for Laura, felt that she was a good teacher, and
stated they enjoyed the painting class. "I like the way she treats people. If
something is wrong, she'll tell you, and she won't give you the feeling like you
are a failure. She'll give you a suggestion about what to do." Students felt that
she was patient, listened to them, gave them individual attention, and allowed
them to create paintings rather than just do exercises. Laura also was viewed by
the students as cheerful and having a positive attitude. Thirty percent of the
students expressed a need for more time to complete projects and to be "more
precise" in their painting techniques.
Two students thought Laura was a "pretty good teacher, but she is used to
teaching college kids and when we get noisy she just keeps talking, and we don't
hear anything." "Things went too quickly," one commented. After Laura pre-
sented a slide show of her art work, nine students indicated that they thought
she was a professional and that they admired her. One student who admired her
work noted, "She knows how to paint a lot better than anybody else I've worked
with." Four students commented about Laura's use of individual critiques: "She
actually teaches me personally and tells me what to do and how to do it."
Acquisition of painting skills and techniques was viewed as the most impor-
tant aspect of Laura's painting class. Twelve students cited acquiring skills such
as learning about color, negative and positive space, contours, light and shade,
and underpainting. "I've never done these things before," one student said,
"and I never realized it would help so much."
In individual critiques, Laura either painted on students' paintings or sug-
gested ways that they could improve their paintings. The students were im-
pressed that Laura asked their permission before she altered their art work.
Two students said, "She doesn't force you to change ... she hints [that] you can
do it if you want." Two students felt that for the first time they developed an
understanding of how to paint. "I've painted before," one commented, "but I
didn't understand what I was doing ... and here I understand." Although most
180

students liked the way Laura spoke to them individually, five felt that she took
too long to explain things to the entire class. On a less positive note, one student
who attended the previous summer noted that she was "learning something
practical and getting some experience, but I'm not learning anything else."
Sixty-five percent of the students mentioned Mark's teaching methods as
helping them learn to paint, look at things differently, and understand basic
structures. Students cited his demonstrations as important for understanding
techniques and concepts. Two students cited his group critiques as "a means to
learn from our own mistakes and from someone else's, too." A visit to Mark's
studio by the entire class impressed 25% of the students. Mark's sense of humor
and the relaxed atmosphere he created were appreciated by 40% of the stu-
dents. His stories were mentioned as reducing tension, promoting alertness,
and being informative by 90%. Mark's sentiments about students' working
when they are frustrated impressed one student who noted that "when you are
down and you really feel bored, he pushes you through it."
Adult Observer Responses
Student art classes at the Institute also were field-experience observation
sites for art teachers enrolled for practicum credit. Two art teacher-observers
were in Mark's room; three were in Laura's room every day for all class meet-
ings.
Laura did not mind that there would be observers in the room who were art
teachers; in fact, she encouraged the observers to go around the room and help
students with their work. Gleaned from a conversation I had with the three
observers and from what they wrote in their journals, it became apparent that
they felt that being a practicing artist was positive and in Laura's favor, "since
all year long the students are taught by teacher-artists." Unfortunately, "she
was definitely an artist and less a teacher ... who did not know much about
managing a class of young people." Two of the observers felt Laura might have
been more successful as a teacher if she had had previous experience with
students this age. The consensus was that the students learned skills and tech-
niques and that the still-life paintings the students created "were outstanding."
However, one observer noted that Laura also needed to organize both the
lesson content and clean-up, include art history in her lessons, and control,
prepare, and anticipate what would be happening in her painting classes.
The three observers concluded that Laura was not comfortable teaching
IUSAI students. "She never connected with them. There was no close bond-
ing." She envisioned herself, the observers thought, only as a visiting artist "who
would go around and critique the students' work." Laura's teaching on a one-to-
one basis, in individual critique sessions, was praised. "She worked very well on
a one-to-one basis," an observer wrote. "It was the 24 with whom she had
trouble." Another concurred: "She would explain the same instructions at least
three times to the whole class, although she usually did not have the attention of
most of the students." According to two observers a "summary evaluation was
lacking and needed. It would have given the students time to reflect on what
they had accomplished and [helped them] compare their paintings to those of
others."
Laura did not attend the final art exhibit, and this indicated to the three
observers "how little she cared." On a more positive note, when Laura walked
through the gallery and saw her students' art work the day before the final
exhibit, she commented to an observer, "I'm stunned. By the time these kids are
181

ENID ZIMMERMAN
my age they will be pushing me out the door."
Mark also did not mind that there would be observers in the room, but he did
stipulate that they were only to observe and not interfere with his teaching. One
observer found Mark to be "entertaining and humorous," "aware of the stu-
dents' attention spans and levels of interest," and "open and revealing about his
approach to art and life." Mark encouraged students to analyze their own work
and make critical judgments and corrections which also impressed this observ-
er. The other observer noted that Mark was "charismatic... he is is own person
in every way," and she "loved the way he introduced art history, art criticism,
and aesthetics into a studio class" by informally interrelating art from the past
with contemporary concerns. This person found him to be "encouraging, posi-
tive, and definite to the end."
Discussion
Both teachers appeared to have achieved most goals they set for their paint-
ing classes. Laura's goal for her students-to learn to paint as realistically as
possible- was accomplished to a great extent. Her emphases were on develop-
ing skills and techniques and giving individual attention to her students rather
than introducing them to the world of art or asking them to relate their work to
their personal feelings. She critiqued students' work in respect to how skills and
techniques related to their art making activities. She did not attend to class
control, preparation, and organization or to anticipating student problems.
Mark's goal for students in his painting class - to learn about themselves and
their art work-appears to have been met. His emphasis on both conceptual
and affective skills was evident throughout all phases of his teaching. Like
Laura, his belief that technical skills of painting can be taught was a pervasive
factor in his teaching practices. Sometimes boredom and frustration prevented
students from learning, but Mark was able to recognize when they were not
performing adequately and acted to help them reach their potential. Dominant
characteristics of Mark's instruction were his emphasis on art skills and con-
cepts, knowledge about art, empathy with students, pre-planned teaching meth-
ods, and ability to make class challenging and interesting through humor and
storytelling (Zimmerman, 1991).
If an outsider were to measure the success of Mark's or Laura's painting
classes based only on the students' art works and their interview responses, he
or she would arrive at a very positive conclusion about both painting classes. In
1986 and 1987, students at IU Summer Arts Institutes who were interviewed
thought that Institute teachers: (a) challenged them more than those in their
regular schools, (b) taught them to use new media, (c) made them think about
what they were doing and consider new ways of looking, (d) made them observe
more carefully and accurately, and (e) taught them how to express themselves
through the use of studio techniques (Clark & Zimmerman, 1988). Both Mark
and Laura met these five criteria for successful teaching set by previous Insti-
tute participants.
According to Carr (1991), "a teacher should enable talented young artists to
become self-generating by making them aware of their own context for their art
work and stimulating them to widen and deepen that context" (p. 71). Carr also
distinguished among four types of teachers appropriate for talented art stu-
dents. The first teacher, the first-rate artist, creates a context for selfless dedica-
tion to an ideal; however, he or she may lack interest in individual student
sensibilities. The second teacher, an exponent of a particular system, can pre-
182

sent a limited point of view yet also provides a setting for students to begin to
find a context for their own sensibilities. The third teacher, the inspired lover of
learning, communicates enthusiasm and intuitive appreciation rather than a
system of teaching or a body of beliefs. This type of teacher is usually more
student-oriented than system-focused teachers are. The fourth teacher, the
nurturer of young talent, does not have a particular point of view but, by
attempting to understand each student's sensibility, encourages students to
discriminate between what is genuine and personal from what is superficial and
borrowed. This type of teacher attempts to bring students from a naive to a
more sophisticated context in which to create art work.
Different methods of teaching talented art students were presented in this
study. Laura demonstrated some behaviors associated with the teacher-as-
artist who is not interested in individual sensibilities and who is an exponent of a
system. Mark, by teaching to each individual student's needs and abilities,
demonstrated some traits associated with the teacher who is an artist, an
exponent of a system, and a nurturer of young talent.
Bloom (1985) and his colleagues described characteristics of teachers of
individuals who had attained specific world-class accomplishments before age
35. The visual art group of individuals studied were sculptors who noted that the
most important part of their professional art education was studying with
teachers who were professional artists. They felt that being surrounded by
professional artists was an inspiration for them to be committed to what they
were doing and also to aspire to be artists themselves. As they progressed in
their education, these sculptors related that they were taught less about skills
and techniques and more about "art issues" (p. 127) that included becoming
intensely involved in the study of art history or art criticism. Through projects,
classes, interactions with teachers, and "copying" the work of artists, these
individuals slowly learned the "language, the history, the rituals, and the tech-
niques of making art" (p. 128).
Laura and Mark were both artists who presented a context for teaching
talented adolescents. Both stressed acquiring skills and techniques through a
system of teaching; one taught students how to paint a still-life and the other
how to paint a portrait. Mark also helped students become sophisticated in
thinking about art contexts in which they were creating their work by combining
attention to their individual sensibilities with effective teaching strategies. Most
students in the Institute were at developmental levels where they needed to
acquire more advanced skills and techniques and concurrently learn about what
sculptors in Bloom's (1985) study referred to as art issues that went well beyond
acquiring skills and techniques. Laura provided an opportunity for skill devel-
opment, whereas Mark, in addition to skill development, provided an environ-
ment in which students were able to expand the context in which they created
art and to examine their own reasons for creating art work.
Mark was able to teach proactively; Laura came to the painting class with a
set view of how things should be and what should be taught. She did not, until
the second week of class, make any major adjustments based on the ages and
abilities of her students. Laura was not involved in introducing students to art
and the art world or having them solve problems, other than technical ones,
through their own art work or by viewing the art work of others.
Mark was able to be critically reflective about his role as a teacher and
present his students with mediated learning experiences as described by Feuer-
183

ENID ZIMMERMAN
stein (1990). He was able, for example, to mediate meaning, feelings of compe-
tence, and shared behaviors; promote goal seeking, setting, and planning for
achieving behaviors; encourage searches for novelty and complexity; and pro-
vide a feeling of belonging. Mark also engaged in what Greene (1978) describes
as critical reflection about his own art experiences that allowed him to discover
relationships among art forms, understand the role of art traditions in his own
life, and recognize the need to make heritages from the past accessible to
others.
Conclusion and Recommendations
In the 1988 and 1989 segments of this comparative study, classes at the
Institute met for only 11 instructional days and did not resemble typical junior
or senior high school art classes. In many programs for talented art students,
adult professionals such as scientists, artists, and writers have been employed as
teachers. It would appear that although these people have knowledge about a
subject, there is no assurance that they also will be successful teachers of
talented students. Data from the 1988 and 1989 case studies suggest that
preparation of professional artists before they enter a secondary level class-
room environment is of paramount importance. If Laura had not had help from
teacher-observers, her classes might have been more chaotic, with less time
available for teaching her students. It would appear that art teachers of talented
art students, therefore, should be knowledgeable about pedagogy as well as
possess art making skills; moreover, they should be able to relate this knowl-
edge about teaching to their knowledge about the art world.
These two case studies of painting teachers at the IUSAI have yielded two
models of teaching highly able young adolescents who were identified as talent-
ed in the visual arts. One teacher met the students' needs for developing skills
and techniques; the other teacher, in addition to teaching skills and techniques,
encouraged students to become engaged in art issues and to think reflectively
about the context in which they were creating art. The latter teacher mirrored
more qualities associated with teachers who were identified in the Bloom
(1985) study as successful art teachers for talented students. It may be conclud-
ed from this comparative study that if artists teach talented art students they
should be aware that their students may have needs for knowledge and under-
standings that include becoming aware of the contexts in which they make art,
examining their reasons for creating art, and becoming intensely involved in art
issues that go beyond the acquisition of art skills and techniques. It is suggested
that teachers of talented students understand each student's sensibilities, teach
proactively, present mediated learning experiences, and reflect critically about
their teaching practices. They also should have preparatory experiences in
learning how to organize art classes for students who are in pre-college pro-
grams. Other case studies of teachers of artistically talented students should be
undertaken at other sites with different populations and teachers so that gener-
alizations from this study about teaching art to talented art students may be
accepted or refuted.
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