Out 2

An Investigation o f Conceptions o f
Teaching A rt o f Secondary School

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A rt Teachers

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LAM, Bick Har

Ph.D.
H ong K ong P olytech n ic U n iversity

2000

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A bstract of thesis entitled
A n In v estig atio n of C onceptions o f T eaching Act o f Secondary School A rt
T eachers
subm itted by LAM, Bick H ar
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
A t the H ong Kong Polytechnic U niversity originally subm itted in A pril 2000

A bstract

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The stu d y aim ed to gain an understanding of w hether a rt teachers'
conceptions of teaching are related to their approach to teaching in practice.
E nvironm ental influences on teaching and the form ation of teachers'
conception of teaching w ere explored.

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Q ualitative m ethodology w as adopted. The grounded theory approach was
used to discover theory from the data. Eighteen art teachers w ere interview ed
w ith questions th at structured to exam ine their teaching conceptions and
approaches. M ismatches w ere found in that teachers changed their
approaches to teaching in higher form s because of exam ination dem ands. The
conceptions and approaches w ere therefore analyzed for teaching at the junior
level. A pproaches to teaching at the senior level w ere explored separately.
Four conceptions of teaching a rt resulted, nam ely moral development in art,
aesthetic development in art (w ith subcategories nam ed leisure and living and
academic), intellectual development through art, and expression and therapy through
art. Four approaches to teaching w ere identified, nam ely instructional, discipline
inquiry, social interactive, and personal. The conceptions a n d approaches can
both be visualized by the analogy of a continuum , w ith the essentialistcontextualist conceptual label for the form er, and subject-centred and studentcentred for the latter. By intersecting the tw o continua, six conceptionapproach categories w ere resulted. A fram ew ork w as produced to illustrate
the six categories by intersecting the conception and approach continua. The
conception continuum w as used to represent the vertical axis, and the
approach continuum represent the horizontal axis. The term inology of this
fram ew ork can supplem ent the existing literature in identifying teaching
conceptions by m easuring teachers aim s and rationales of teaching. By gaining

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .

a com posite view of teachers' conceptions and approaches, their philosophy of
teaching can be gathered in a deeper sense.
The results of correlating art teaching qualification, and the school academic
status to the categories of teaching held by teachers, suggest th at the
form ulation of teachers' view of teaching is an interplay of factors. N either of
the variables exam ined can be regarded as exclusive in affecting the form of
conceptions teachers hold.

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The finding also show s that exam ination pressure brought radical shifts to a rt
teachers' approaches to teaching. The approach they used for higher form
teaching w as skill-based. Follow-up case studies suggested th a t a teacher
holding a skill-based orientation to teaching a rt had a fulfilling experience in
his career, w hile a teacher holding a student-centred view has experienced
frustration. Implications for research m ethodology, direction of education and
teacher education, and a rt education w ere made.


Acknowledgements

I acknowledge the enormous contribution o f the following parties.

The participation o f the eighteen secondary school art teachers in this study has
been crucial to the success o f this project. They spent long hours in the interview
and their trust was highly appreciated. Particular thanks should be given to the
two teachers in the follow-up study for their tolerance o f being observed and
interviewed for an extensive period. Credit should also be given to Zuni

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Icosahedron, the community art organization, who acted as m y bridge to the

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netw ork o f art teachers.

I am especially thankful to m y chief supervisor, David Kember, for his continued

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tolerance and support. At different stages, he provided critical commentary
which has enlightened my perspectives. M y co-supervisor, Rob Fielding, has
contributed greatly to the art education perspective in this thesis, which was
proved to be significantly important. N o words can express m y thankfulness to
m y husband, Tang Wai Man, who has been supporting me and giving me
inspirations all the w ay through die making o f this work.

Special thanks to the considerable effort given by Jenny Ledesma and Amanda
Li in doing the transcription, Natalie Tsang in editing and proof reading, Zero
Yiu, and Choi M an in solving the technical problems in editing the text.


Contents
Acknowledgements
Abstract
Contents
I

Background and Methodology
Introduction: Formulation of the Study

1

Chapter 2

Literature Review on Conceptions of
Teaching................................................................

17

Literature Review on Conceptions of
Teaching A rt.......................................................

45

Methodology o f Study.......................................

74

Chapter 3
Chapter 4

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Chapter 1

Main Study

Categories of Conceptions o f Teaching A rt..

Chapter 6

Discussion o f the Characterization and
Findings of the Conception Categories

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Approaches to Teaching A r t.............................

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Chapter 7
Chapter 8

Discussion on the Characterization and
Findings of Approaches to Teaching Art

200

Relating Art Teacher’s Conceptions o f
Teaching to Approaches to Teaching

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Approach to Teaching Art in Senior Forms..

237

Chapter 9

Chapter 10
I

III

Follow-up Study
Chapter 11

IV

How Conceptions o f Teaching Operationalized
in Context and How they Affect Teacher’s
Career...................................................................

255

Conclusions and Implications..........................

297

Conclusion
Chapter 12

V

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Chapter 5

References

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355

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Background and Methodology

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I


Chapter1

Introduction: Formulation of tho Study
Values Versus Demands - Issues Drawn from a Case Study into an
Alternative Art Education Program in the Context of Hong Kong

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This chapter illustrates the gap between the view of art education of schools and an art
organization originating from an art-in-education program in 1995. The issues identified
in the case illustrates the background of studying art teachers’ conception of teaching art.
They also help to construct the research design of this PhD project. Since this case study
illustrates the relevancy of the study, it is included in the thesis as the introduction. In
fact, this introductory chapter can be viewed as a crucial part of the thesis, it acted as a
potential thread that linked the issues which emerged in the study in a coherent way, by
recognizing the situation of value conflicts existing in the scenario of art education in
schools.
The chapter will first describe the background o f the arts-in-education program, major
findings o f the case study will be addressed and discussed. It is followed by the research
questions proposed for the main study.

The Background

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In June, 1995, an art organization called Zuni Icosahedron launched a summer arts-ineducation program known as ‘blackbox exercise’ which received great attention from
the public (Zuni Icosahedron, 1995). Due to its experimental nature, teachers’ opinions
to the program varied between two extremes (Lam, 1996).
My interest in the program motivated my intention of researching into the organization’s
art education program. By joining as a participant observer, I commenced the research
on the ‘blackbox exercise’. The administration and presentation of the program were
done by a group of young volunteers recruited by Zuni Icosahedron in the summer of
1995.

Nature of the Organization
Zuni Icosahedron was founded in 1982 with the founder’s commitment to the business
of collective art in the community of Hong Kong. Comments and critics from the press
had focused heavily on Zuni’s political intention exposed in their stage performance ever
since. Some also criticized the stage performance of Zuni in terms of theatre knowledge
and skills, since Zuni developed a special kind of stage performance which emphasizes
body language and repetition of language that they themselves called symbols.
Since it is a membership funded, non-profit making organization, Zuni has been seeking
funds for its art performances. However, relationships with some of the funded parties
worsened because of its controversial and sensitive nature. It did not receive any
administrative funding from the Government in the 80s. In the late eighties, because the
content of a few plays which were said to be ‘politically subversive’ in regard to the
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relationship between China and Hong Kong, Zuni’s faced deficit and underwent a
difficult time financially. In the 1990s, Zuni become active again in the international art
business. Zuni discovered that young people are another audience source, so they began
to put more effort into education programs and started to launch plays and workshops at
secondaiy schools and tertiary institutions. In recent years, Zuni has been active in
performance overseas and devoted great effort to cultural business and education.

Entry to the Case

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The School Program of Zuni was started in 1987. With its theatre performances staged at
secondary schools, it hoped to stimulate young people’s awareness of their surrounding,
through multi-disciplined art forms. It was continued in 1988, 1989, 1990, 1993 and
continuously in 1995 to the present. The school programs do not take place every year,
but they have been developed as a major event of Zuni. The availability of funds also
determines the possibility of running school programs. Their programs have been funded
by Council for the Performing Art (the previous Art Development Council) and the
Urban Council. The rationale behind their school activities is based on free association,
experimentation, and exploration (Lam, 1996). The program o f this case study was
funded by the Urban Council.

I received an invitation from the Zuni Icosahedron in May 1995,1 was attracted by the
art program they offered since my doctoral study proposed at that time needed to find
some artist and school teachers for a pilot study. I went to their program run in Sheung
Wan Cultural Centre on the third day of their program. On arrival, I was amused by the
special ‘blackbox exhibition’. They addressed the issue of education, but doubted about
what education offered to young people nowadays in Hong Kong. For someone who has
studied education and was working in this field, I was particularly intrigued.

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I talked with Zuni artists and met people in the program. It was at that stage I found they
were a good case for study. I started to go to Zuni’s station for meetings. Though I still
did not think of a focus for research at that time, I was trying to locate one, and my role
was already that of a participant. I joined their committee and worked voluntarily for
their program as documenter throughout the summer in 1995, till the program ended. My
other role is a participant researcher in the program.

The Program

Funded by the Urban Council, Zuni and the Urban Council jointly presented a summer
school program for young people and the public. In May, 1995, letters were sent to
schools to recruit participation. In the whole program, the Urban Council was
responsible for providing administrative assistance.
The duration o f the program lasted from May 1995 to August 1995. Since the structure
of the program allowed flexibility to schools in attending the program, not every school
attended all the stages. There were altogether over twenty schools participating in the
program. About ten schools participated all the activities in the program, they were the
main source to gather information for the case study. However, the source of data was
not limited to the full time delegates but also those who came for a particular session
who could reveal their opinion on the program.

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Emerging Issues
In the program the issue that most intrigued me was the values conflict that I sensed on
the conception of art teaching of the community organization and schools. Art education
in schools is dominated by an academic approach, from which traditional forms of art
and knowledge of the discipline are to be taught. The argument that art should be freely
explored by students becomes an issue in developing art curriculum or activities. The
concept of aesthetic experience has frequently been used to imply the uniqueness o f art
that is shared by those who makes art, but the interpretation of which is mainly spilt into
two camps.
The first idea suggests a form of aesthetic education that concentrates on developing
understanding and perceptiveness of visual aesthetic objects or phenomena (Taunton,
1982). The aesthetic experience is essentially gained through the perception of the
organizational structure of visual elements which could be developed through
appreciation and critique of the past traditions.

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The practice of this form of aesthetic knowing is characterized by an intellectual form of
aesthetic inquiry in that aesthetic qualities are to be described, analyzed, interpreted, and
evaluated within various dimensions. Students are trained to use the aesthetic inquiry
framework to evaluate and appreciate art work. They are expected to develop 'aesthetic
cognition' (Remier, 1992) and become connoisseurs of art (Broudy, 1976). This way of
appreciating art has become an academic model to be used in school or university for
teaching students and student teachers.

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The other idea of aesthetic experience in art education is to help students to cultivate the
'(aesthetic) sensuous immediacy1so that direct experience with the world can be
achieved. This approach distinguishes itself from the preceding type by relating aesthetic
experience to every experience that can be generated from human perception and
thinking. It aims to enhance the consciousness of sense experiences that human can feel
by tactile and emotional senses. The senses experience is nourished to a level that is not
influenced by predetermined notions, concepts or theories of reality; sensing the world is
to directly experience the world. This kind of experience is also termed aesthetic, which
pertains to sensuous perception, which will result to 'true' understanding to the full range
of life phenomena, not to works of art in particular (Bersson, 1982).
The idea of this approach has been tested in different programs in different countries.
Though it has not developed a particular methodology to be followed, implications are
suggested from the experimental projects. The revolutionary nature impedes the
development of this approach of art education in the formal art curricula in schools. Yet,
the idea has become an alternative force of aesthetic education in the community.
The two different interpretations of aesthetic education may cause different
implementation of art education. It also leads to different assessment and evaluation
methods. The rationale promoted by the program under study assimilates the latter
conception. T h e investigation o f th e program m ainly addresses th ree m ain research

questions in the case study:
1. what is the rationale of the program offered by Zuni working group
2. what strategies the group adopted to implement the rationale of the program?
3. what can be informed from the evaluation of the program from different voices of
the program participants
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Methodology
Case Study
Case study research attempts to reach understanding through detailed study and portrayal
of individual instances, persons, ideas, institutions and events (Adelman & Walker,
1975). The general design of the case study is best represented by a funnel (Bogdan &
Biklen, 1982), the start of which is the wide end. From this exploratory beginnings to
directed data collection and analysis, the researcher scouts for possible places and people
that might be the subject or the source of data, find the location they think they want to
study, and then make a decision in order to narrow down a focus for the study (Robert,
1984). The above issues have been identified as the starting point o f the study.
The Research Relations

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In observational case studies the researcher participates in the events of the researched
and gets to know their culture. This kind of ‘getting into the natural setting’ of the
researched means that it is best for the researcher to keep a less formal relationship. On
the other hand, being a researcher, I have to join the subject, and remain detached in
another way. In most situations, I learn how the subject thinks, but may not think like the
subject.
It is sometimes to mix with the subjects in the field to enhance rapport, however, the
problem o f ‘over-rapport’ (McCall & Simmons, 1969) should be avoided. Therefore, I
tried to remind participants o f the research relations in the process of study. It is useful
to state the purpose of researching and explain to the researched (Bodgan & Biklen,
1982).
Research Instruments and Data Analysis

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The strength of doing observational case study is to enable a wider source of data to be
gathered in a fieldwork situation. The effort of fieldwork required not only that done on
site but also the in-between analysis and reflection during the research period.
(Stenhouse, 1985). This case study used a number of methods and techniques including
observation, informant and respondent interviewing, document analysis, and
participation with self analysis.
Interview is used to collect the views of the subject in the case. It is conducted in both
semi- or open-structured maimer. Direct observation from the field is used to gather data
most directly representing respondents’ point of view. My participation into the
preparation, implementation, and evaluation of the program enables first hand data to be
gathered.
Historical document analysis is collected to allow me to gain understanding of the social
group and discover the culture inside the organization. Other methods such as diary and
journal keeping are used to help self analyze my participation in the group. Audio and
video recording is used to assist note taking. Journal record sheets are used to gather
other forms of data for moderation of participants’ views.
The three questions stated above have been developed to guide the case study. For
observation from fieldwork, fieldnotes are developed, observer’s comment has been put
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immediately after the observation. Interviews are transcribed. Video tapes are analyzed
by the method of note taking.
A coding system of rationale, strategies, and evaluation outcome for all the instruments
is developed so that data can be manipulated easily for analysis. For final data analysis,
all related categories of data are to be integrated and categorized according to the codes
developed. In each groups of data, characteristics are highlighted and quotations to
support the finding are marked.
Based on the analysis, I produce the following account in a summary version, quotations
from different sources o f data will be displayed. The case report discusses issues about
art education in the secondary school context in Hong Kong. Implications of the case are
discussed which bridges to the formulation of the main study on art teachers’
conceptions, and approaches to teaching.

Theme

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Report on the Program

Blackbox Exercise: Blackbox As A Metaphor o f School

Rationale

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The program was titled ‘ blackbox exercise’, the meaning of which was a metaphor o f
‘
school or ‘classroom ’ in Hong Kong. It denoted that we are not able to see clearly
about the happenings inside the school or classroom. Stubbs & Delamont (1977) has also
used this name when referring to the complicity of the classroom scene. Zuni decided on
this topic as a starting point for artists and people involved to meditate on the subject of
education. They also incorporated this metaphoric meaning into visual form. The
program, which had chosen installation as the form of creation, invited facilitators,
students and all participants to create within the space of a 12”x l2 ”x l0 ” standard
blackbox, a wooden box which is painted black outside.

As defined in the activity leaflet, it was hoped that through exploration and
experimentation with multi-media, young people would be encouraged to take the
initiative to know more about arts, individuals, identities, environments, societies and
culture. The overall aim of the program was not confined to visual art. Although
installation was used as the main media in the program, in regard to its flexible nature, it
is only a suggested form o f expression to encourage students to express freely with less
consideration of skill and techniques.
An objective under the wide open aim was to develop students concepts of expressive
arts and performance.
We try to make students know that art expression can be found in different events with multi-media.
In each activity, w e emphasize the development o f the individuality and originality o f the person, w e
try to make the student the owner o f his/her own action and he/she is free to interpret the events and
situations, (facilitator)

The intention of erasing the traditional concept of art that might influence young
students conception of art expression was suggested.
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We try to relate the activities in the workshop to expression, it aims to widen their thinking towards
art as a mean o f expression. We also open possibilities for students to explore art o f their own
preference, since traditional art might have dominated their thinking, (facilitator)

To achieve this end, the working group tried some methods to stimulate students’
thinking towards relationships with the others in the activities.
We let them explore how to express themselves and at the same time coordinate with the others in
the physical space, w e also extend their concept o f art expression to other elements like stage and
audience and how they can be interacted or related in physical and mental space, (facilitator)

Implementation Strategies

First Stage Exhibition

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The above elaboration suggests the rationale o f the ‘blackbox exercise’ project and the
conception of teaching of the working party. It aims to stimulate students’ interest in art
expression with the use of multi media, such as sound, body movement, video,
photography, etc. The rationale that indicates learning in the program was in an active
experience, from discussion to activities and games for students to experience and
experiment art. The activities were not geared towards any predefined outcomes, they
were exploratory.

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The exhibition lasted for about two weeks. In the exhibition, students were allowed to
explore the concept of installation. The exhibition is the collated effort of eight artists o f
various disciplines. Among them were video artists, literature writers, comic artists,
installation artists, photography artists, and sound artists. They agreed to choose one of
the secondary school subjects as their area of development for the initial exhibition. The
director thus proposed to work around this theme. The working committee also
discussed some of the issues in education like school syllabus, pressure from
examination, teacher and the physical environment of school, etc. The following
subjects were then to be chosen: Home Economics, Physical Education, Literature,
Biology, Religion, History, Art. However, what developed from the subject was free to
the artists, and their idea were then developed within a room of 10’x l0 ’x l2 ’. The
structure of the rooms in the exhibition hall is illustrated in the diagram below.
From the diagram, the big square in the middle of the exhibition hall was the big wooden
house with a total space of 30’x30’x l2 ’, in which rooms are separated by wooden doors
from each other. From outlook, this is a big black box. The audience can approach inside
by opening the outer doors from which they can proceed to other rooms. However, the
doors outside and inside are minimized, provided that every room can be reached by
getting in the box. So for participants who want to have a look at every room, they need
to have a rough plan in mind so that they would not miss any of them.
* See Figure 1.1

The participant at this stage included secondary and primary school teachers and
students, a parent organization of the District of Mei Fu, and also the walk-in public. The
participant schools and students were invited to the exhibition hall at an appointed time.
Students of both senior and upper forms were led by their teachers which are usually
their art teachers. Students from tertiary schools usually came on their own.
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Figure 1.1: Exhibition Hall Plan

Literature

Art

History

Religion

Maths

P.E.

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Biology

Home
Economics

Exploration of the Blackbox

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The exhibition hall was designed as a special feature (refer to the exhibition hall plan).
When the audience entered the hall, they saw a big blackbox. Doors can be opened at
every sides of the blackbox, and if the audience opened a door, they could enter a
particular room which was installed by one of the eight artists and represent one of the
school subjects, and from which the audience needed to find another door inside that led
to another room, which was installed by another artist. So the whole blackbox was
divided into nine rooms, each of which can lead to the other. We have mentioned that
there were eight artists, and the remaining one is decorated by Zuni.
Tour-And-Chat

Participants were asked to explore on their own once they entered the exhibition hall.
They were encouraged to be free to enter any doors from outside and get into the
installed room, where they were really ‘in the exhibition’. Sometimes, the coordinator
and helpers joined the tour at the early stage where they were trying to explore the
blackbox.
Dialogue and Discussion
After about 30 to 40 minutes, the school tour were ushered to the outset of the blackbox
and had a dialogue with the stationed artists and helpers for approximately an hour. The
topics in the discussion started with the theme ‘blackbox’, and people’s view and
opinion on the installed rooms. The focus of the dialogue was the feelings, emotions and
ideas participants gained from the exhibition. Questions were asked to initiate talk
among students, like “Which room do you like the best?”, “Which room pleases you ?”,
“Which room made you feel discomfort?”. However, the discussion was extended to
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other topics related to wider perspectives of understanding art, such as philosophical
inquiry into art expression and appreciation.
Second Stage Activity Workshop
In the second stage, students were enrolled in a series of activity workshops. The
activities took place at schools, the working group therefore went into schools to chair
the workshops. The activities were scheduled as a summer school program. The
activities were designed to enrich their understanding about expression, to let them
appreciate their own view, interest, and also other kind of human emotion which is
pertaining to art expression.

Sound

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The games and activities are categorized under different themes referring to multiple
forms of media, the activities were accompanied by dialogue and diary writing. The
activities and games o f the program were designed on individual and group basis, they
were used interchangeably in the workshops. The content and methodology of the major
activities of the program are discussed below.

This was a game to explore how people interpret sound and how many possibilities can
be used to interpret sound. Each student was asked to prepare one minute o f sound on
options like noise, voice, music, etc. and had it recorded in a cassette tape. The tapes
were played one by one during the workshop. Students were asked to write down how
they felt about each piece of recorded sound. The result of this workshop was used in the
final performance.
Form and Content

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This was a game to show students the possibility of using different ways o f presentation
of the same content, and they can be numerous depending on the owners. Each student
was asked to say three words only, and then link them up into a story within the group.
After the story was developed, students were asked to divide into groups and choose any
form they liked to present the story, be it a horror movie, a talk show, a TV report, an
educational TV program, a cartoon, a fairy tale, of their imagination. Characteristics of
each form used were discussed after the presentation.
Body Movement
At the beginning of each workshop, students usually had a session of physical exercise of
about half an hour. It aimed to exercise students kinetically, develop body movement
patterns, practise bodily coordination, and develop individual expression. Above all, it is
a chance for students to develop relations with each others. There were many ways to do
exercises together. For example, the facilitator initiated one body movement, and then
students followed the same movement one by one. Then another person in the group
initiated another movement for the group to follow. Sometimes the actions were in the
from of a game like ‘throwing handkerchiefs’, the movement can also be silent such as
‘walk but do not make any sound’, Tying on the floor and pretended to sleep’, or just
‘slowly move in the space’.

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Space and Video
The activity was to evaluate and explore ‘real space’ versus the ‘space perceived through
video’. It hoped to extend students’ vision of the artist (performer) and the audience
(recipient), and how they are related to art expression.
The activity started with the task of filling up the space of the classroom or hall where
the activity took place. Students went in the space one by one and were asked to be
aware of where and how the others occupied the space before him/herself. Students
could choose to perform freely with any postures, with and without the aid o f other
objects in the venue. Students then could explore the possibilities in the space with their
bodies, with or without thinking of the others in the group.

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The task was repeated a second time. At this time students were required to look through
the video camera set before the space before they went into the space, so the space
perceived through the video was made known to them. Without restriction on how they
themselves performed in the space, students were free to make postures with or without
other aids. This time they could also think of or not think of whether they wanted to be
captured in the space perceived through the video camera.
Video and Photography Hands-on Practice

Students were grouped to attend a brief session to learn the basic techniques o f using a
camera to capture motion and pictures. They were allowed to film the environment o f
die school that interested them. They were free to explore images in the visual
environment by playing with different skills. From the activities, students had the chance
to explore space in the environment. They looked at each others' work together and
learned the different perspectives of perceiving the environment. Different elements
such as time, space, and their relationship were discussed.

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Vocal Practice

Vocal sound is a natural means to express emotions and create moods. This is an
exercise to practise voice projection in different pitches, beats and melodies. The
exercise aims to offer students a chance to make vocal practice and listen to its effect
when practising it. There were altogether three exercises under this theme.
Students were divided into groups, each group needed to play the game in turns. The
group members had to line up in a straight line facing the audience. Starting from the
first person on the left, he/she had to stand before one of his/her group member and sing
the first four verses of a song to him/her, when finished, he/she had to go back to his/her
place. Then the second of the left continued the first person’s practice, till all the persons
had their turn to sing.
With the same group basis, students were required to select a song. At the first round,
they just take turn to sing the song together to the other groups. At the second round, the
group was required to sing the song with a different beat. While students may not know
music theory, they were told just to invent ways of modifying the flow of the song. At
the end, each person in the group needed to sing one sound of the song until the whole
song had been sung.
Students were free to group themselves again in this task. Each group occupied a comer
of the hall, each member went over to the diagonal o f the other side to make a sound as
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loudly as they could and repeated that in various ways. Each of them then take turn to
make a sound just audible to their group from the same distance.
Final Stage: Blackbox Installation Exercise
After students have developed concepts from the exhibits, and given chances to learn
different expressions in relation to their own feelings and physical body. They had a
chance to experiment with art expression in installation. There were over fifty school
students participated in the workshops, most o f them were secondary students. Students
were given a mini blackbox of 12”xl2”x l0 ”, in which participants were encouraged to
transfer their thought into visual elements, and made a 3-dimensional installation in this
small space. This section lasted about one and a half hour. Participants stayed and talked
on their own ideas and methods in the installation work.
Experimental Nature

EV
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The mini blackbox installation was an experiment for all participants. There was no
topic assigned, no fixed rules given, participants mainly developed ideas of their own
and experimented with installation techniques. The facilitators of these hands-on
workshops were mainly the coordinator and volunteer helpers including one secondary
school art teacher who was intending to find some ideas for her own teaching in
installation art. A few artists came to several sessions, joined in the discussion and also
did their own small box installation. At the end, the audience was told either to bring the
box home and take it back to the exhibition venue when the installation was finished.
Alternatively they could go to the main station of Zuni which is in Happy Valley, where
a studio was provided so that participants could finish their work there and send the
boxes back to the exhibition hall.

PR

The blackbox was presented in a creative way, with different media effect including the
exercises students did during the program, such as the projection of video and pictures,
and the recorded vocal sound, etc. The final exercise can be considered as a student
learning outcome.

Evaluation of Program

The evaluation of the program was done in a participatory, responsive manner (Stake,
1985). The opinions of students, teachers, and facilitators in the working party were used
to analyze the outcome in a way to represent different voices. With this approach, the
researcher has to know the background, concern, or needs of each groups involved in the
evaluation, so as to make an analysis to illuminate perspectives and issues arisen from
the case (Elliott, 1986). The description in this chapter aims to illustrate the issue of the
conflict in values towards art education o f the participants involved in the case. The
evaluation will relate participant’s views to the overall aim of the project. The working
group’s attempt to improve the project during the project process will be discussed.
Issues emerging from the program will be highlighted and discussed.

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Student Learning Outcome
Motivate Student Interest and Encourage Participation
This program was an experiment for all participants. There was no topic assigned, no
fixed rules given, participants mainly developed idea of their own and experimented
together at different stages in the program. In this environment, students seemed to feel
comfortable to express and explore new ways of presentation.
I like this way o f learning, I can say what I want to say and I don’t need to be frightened about
saying the wrong thing. The people allow us to talk about anything and whatever I feel, I feel happy
because I don’t need to learn particular skills which I am not interested in. I can do something on my
own and create something together, (student)

Some o f the facilitators were also impressed with students' interest and motivation, and
their creative learning outcomes all gathered from the use of the exploratory format of
the activities in the project.

EV
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The students are really creative, they started with embarrassment but ended with enthusiasm and
interest. In the activity workshops they made a lot o f creative body movement and pattern to express
ideas and feelings, because they didn’t have a framework or model to follow, they become bold and
free to create possibilities. This is the kind o f learning they missed and the program has promoted it
quite significantly, (facilitator)

Dialogue to Promote S e lf Reflection

PR

Discussion and conversation promotes dialogue between participants, which was the
main part of the program. The focus of the dialogue was free, mainly referring to the
experience participants gained from the activities. Questions were asked to initiate talk
among students, like “Which aspects do you like the best?”, “Which thing pleases you ?”,
“What makes you feel discomfort?”, “Do you think this is art, why?”. The techniques of
highlighting main points from students’ conversation and to challenge or rephrase the
points to initiate further responses to the same issue were used. This enhances the depth
and breadth of the conversation, students can also understand multiple points of view to
a single problem.
The question was asked to gain the direct response of students. Positive feedback about
the use o f conversation was registered by students.
The conversation helps us to think more. By thinking more and knowing about others perspectives I
discovered more about m yself and the environment. I also feel easy in joining the program because I
can raise my opinion and idea without afraid o f making a wrong answer, I feel happy to learn,
(student)

Before the workshop ended, participants were asked to note down their comments and
feedback on a leaflet designed for collecting student reflection, on which they can also
express their interest in the forthcoming workshops. Students expressed their positive
attitude towards different forms of reflection and suggested how they learned from the
reflection.
They (the facilitators o f the working party) are friendly and talked to us, they asked us many
questions, at first I was not used to answer their questions, because it is difficult and require us to
think out something, make a reason. Later I got used to the discussion, and asked them questions
that I found from the program, I think I think more about art and performance, and know more
about them. I think I need to think before I try to learn it for myself, (student)

page 11


Break Through Traditional Concepts o f Art

In the program, students have shown appreciation and interest in different ways of
presenting art. They suggested their delight in discovering the flexibility of making art,
and seemed to enjoy the freedom of making art in such a free context.
I never thought that art can be done in this way, it is different from what I have done in art lessons, I
found that I can express and communicate through this channel which is so natural and true to
myself, and I feel good by interacting with others in workshops and working on the installation,
(student)

Students seemed to appreciate the expressive quality in art. The notion of art as
technique has been commented on as too narrowly focused by students. They break
through the idea of skill development in learning art.
In school I have to do a lot o f work that I am not interested, and I can’t find any relationship
between m yself and my work, but I like what w e did together in the program, it is something related
to my body, my thinking, and the environment, and how I put them together. It is not just fun, it
helps me to think, and I start to think about the environment and myself, I think that art should be
something more than a skill, it is something personal indeed, (student)

EV
IE
W

The blackboxes students made were the exhibits of the final exhibition. The boxes were
open to exhibit the content and at the same time students’ idea and creativity to the
audience. There was a lot of sharing from the blackbox owner with the coordinator when
they come to the exhibition. Reflections o f some are provided below:
If I need to conclude and find a topic for it, it could be my feeling to my own future, the rainbow
here represent the achievement, the papers inside mixed with examination papers and the certificate I
obtained, (student)
This is how I feel about the space o f the box and how I can made use o f which to communicate to
the audience, it integrate my expression to the environment, (student)

PR

The intention of including multi media expression in the program with students
exploration in form, content, and emotion proved effective in leading students to
understand art expression in the accomplishment they showed in the exhibition.
Psychological Therapy

Positive influence was found on some students who lacked motivation and interest in
school life through participation in the program. It was suggested by the reflection of
both the teacher and the facilitators in the working group.
At first, they didn’t like to come. They posed challenge to us and were hostile when w e tried to talk
with them and discuss the activities with them. The teacher didn’t think w e could continue the
program in their school, but later through the games and performance, they seemed to find some
interest from the events, they were less unfriendly, although there was still a great distance in
between. It was towards the end o f the workshop, w e mixed together in rehearsing some expressive
body actions, and other games with students from different schools, we felt enjoyable about the
relationship, and they started to talk to us about themselves, what they like and dislike, w e
understand them more and became friends. We also observed that they made friends with each other
and became involved in activities that developed their social relations with the others. I found the
program has made some effect on the psychological status on the students, through the media o f art,
or the chance o f exploring themselves and the environment, they learned something, (facilitator)
I think they learned something, not explicitly the skill o f installation or art, but in social and
emotional growth, I am contended about this as their teacher, (teacher)

page 12


The media of art was used to achieve therapeutic value in the program for the students
who may be low in self image, lack of confidence and attention, or in need of care and
friendship. This was especially revealing in students participation in the activity
workshops.
I observed that students released their emotion freely when they were together in the workshop, they
did the exercises with their inner self, they release the pressure loaded on them by school or parents.
You can see that they destroyed all the rules, and they also showed you how they developed their
own pattern, showed you what they have developed and the things they liked to do. The program
has achieved some very important things in education, as a teacher, I feel impressed, (teacher)
I think sometimes we have taken the role o f counsellor, or doing therapy on students. We have
developed intimate relationship and trust, and I found it does help in their study, they may find it
more meaning if teachers can observe their feeling and needs inside them, (facilitator)

Issues and Difficulties
Learning Orientation and Style

EV
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In the program, the facilitators of the working encountered a problem o f adjusting to
individual learning styles of students. According to the program, students were
encouraged to explore themselves in the program context and learn about art expression
or anything related to themselves and the environment, they were not supposed to be
intervened in learning. During the program, it was discovered that to facilitate students
to learn in this way is not easy, students were already used to the traditional learning
method o f learning in school and found difficulty in adjusting to this approach.
I don’t know what they are doing in the program, sometimes I feel lost because I don’t know how to
participate, (student)
I: What do you expect from them in doing the activities? (researcher)

PR

Perhaps I need more directions before I can do anything, I just cannot do anything with nothing
being said, (student)

The exhibition was misleading to some participants, students felt ambiguous because o f
the free exploration nature of the discussion and the activities. Hence, some of the
students left the program, or only showed occasional presence.
We discussed about the problem o f individual learning needs among the working members, I found it
a problem, because by engaging them in sort o f exploratory activities, w e mean also to fit them into
our system, our goal and expectation. On the other hand, they have their own style o f learning, and
some students are used to their own style, and they expected something different. This is a problem
w e have to tackle, because some o f the students have left at once, or some only showed up
occasionally, when the others are playing happily in the program, (facilitator)

In view o f this, the facilitating group tried to adjust their method to one that could
accommodate different learning styles among students. In this way some students who
want to pursue particular goals can also achieve through the program, and they were
assisted to understand the wider meaning of art.
We do our program in a different way from that which school teaching does. The presentation o f the
final performance is also a format that differs from traditional presentation that students used to see,
or do in their drama club. In order not to arouse too much discomfort, w e do allow them to pursue
something they want in the program, so we try to give freedom for students if they want to do it
their own way. For example if they want to do something more traditional, we would assist them by
addressing to their intention o f doing it, so that they have developed their thinking along the way, we
page 13


try to bring them out from just sticking to the format, but doing something o f and with themselves,
because w e consider it as art. (facilitator)

Demandsfrom School
Some teachers seemed to expect different things from the program, they did not think
that learning from self exploration in such a loose way can guarantee learning, their
expectation was some concrete knowledge and skill.
I think the program has led me to the wrong direction. I supposed that you will teach them to use
different methods and media to make art, but in turn, they could not gain anything concrete to be
used for their performance. I think what I expected was not found in your program, (teacher)
In fact I expect more from the program, not just students own exploration, I can see that student can
learn something by your methodology, but it is not specific, students may get lost on the way, or
they may not get the thing you supposed them to get, they need very specific instructions so that
they know how to respond and react. Perhaps it is the practice o f the school, but to do something
with secondary school students you have got to understand this agenda, (teacher)

EV
IE
W

The whole philosophy of the program is not consistent with those held by schools. What
the program expected is student personal development, which contrast with the idea of
knowledge development dominated in school. The group felt under pressure about the
school demand on art knowledge, as this expectation contradicted their rationale of
teaching. A positive resolution has been made was to give a clearer indication of the
rationale of the program to school teachers, and inform them about the advantages and
positive outcomes students gained from their methodology of learning.

PR

I sense the pressure when teachers came to observe their class, or students may communicate what
they have learnt to teachers and they may think what w e do is not agreed by them. They are looking
for something very specific, as we found by talking to them, they also want more directions. At that
time we discovered this point, we tried to send them a note to clarify the rationale o f the program, by
addressing students self exploration with the environment and self development, and the art media
introduced in the workshop. After reading that teachers may have a better understanding o f us.
Perhaps more discussion between teacher and the members in our working group would also help,
(facilitator)

The working group also felt the limitation of chairing workshops in schools, since the
space in school activity room is small and the setting cannot accommodate special
facilitation for the workshops such as video, projection, and sound. The facilitators could
only modify the activities which may sacrify the actual impact.

Implications
What Kind of Aesthetic Experience Should be Promoted in Schools?
The case study has illustrated positive learning outcome of students through the program.
It also portrays students ability to break through traditional knowledge of art. This
projects the issue o f what should be provided for art education in schools. The academic
model adopted for school art teaching usually guides students to learn in a rational and
systematic model, with certain frameworks to guide student understanding. This
approach may act as a stimulus, but it may also confine student understanding and
development.
The program opens another perspective o f gaining aesthetic experience by sharpening
students perception, it has helped them to develop their own understanding o f art and use
page 14


it as media of expression, through which students are developed. Current art education in
Hong Kong has laid the focus of art on skill and knowledge, teaching is confined to
classroom instruction, wider learning outcomes can hardly be achieved. The program has
presented an alternative model o f learner-focused teaching which can be integrated into
school activities. The learning outcomes presented on widening students conception of
art, achieving emotional therapy, developing motivation and interest in learning, etc.
have been evidence of student learning, that are worth promoting in schools.
Values versus Demands in Implementing W ider Educational Aims

EV
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W

The implementation of alternative art education in school has met with obstacles, such
as teachers’ expectation of knowledge, students’ demand on guidance and direction, and
other administrative problems. This has been reflected above. The working group and
the schools have suggested different values about education, and they are in fact
contradictory to each other. The conflict has created difficulties for art programs which
seek for wider educational meaning to be actualized. Today, the Hong Kong Education
Commission (1999a, 1999b) advocates a quality, balanced education in schools. To
effect the change in schools in regard to the new ideology, a need is perceived in
orientation change on schools, teachers, and even parents. The structure of school
curriculum and administration should also be changed with regard to this vision.

PR

The school authority should give up past conceptions of developing elites, and allow
students to develop themselves in different dimensions. Among different areas of
learning, art education can be utilized in different ways to enhance student learning with
the idea of providing aesthetic experience. The program has provided a sample case for
teachers and administrators in designing curricula in schools. They should make use of
the flexibility of school based development to effect meaningful learning for students.
The idea of a comprehensive curriculum can help integrate art education in a formal
curriculum. There is no single way to implement education, it all depends on educators
creativity, insight, and their willingness to change.
Student-Teacher Collaboration in Education
In the program, students were allowed to pursue study on their own, and they were given
chances to express their ideas and problems with the facilitators. Communication
through the teacher-facilitator relationship enhances student learning. Students are
willing to share their opinions and problems in the education process, since their
problems are listened to and tried to be resolved by the facilitators, the program is able
to be fine-tune according to contextual needs, based upon the overall aim of the program.
In traditional school settings, teachers and students do not maintain a balanced status in
the classroom, and the curriculum is rigid without the flexibility to accommodate
changes that emerged as important in the process of learning. The case has illuminated
the importance of upholding a reflective norm in teaching, with the spirit of action
research to continuously seek improvement. This attitude can encourage a closer
teacher-student relationship, which promotes the morale of both parties and enhance
effective teaching-learning outcome.

page 15


Formulation of the Subsequent Study
The above case has identified the gap of the expectation of teaching art between the
program working group and some of the school teachers and students. It has been seen
that teachers’ opinion on both sides are documented in the case study. Some teachers
have recognized the limitations o f school art education and appreciated an open
conception of art education similar to that implemented by the art organization. The case
illustrates that there are indeed different conceptions of teaching art among art teachers.
It is queried that whether teachers holding different conceptions of teaching can teach
according to their view, and how teaching methods may differ about teachers who hold
different views to teaching.

EV
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W

In the art education literature much has been said about the context of teaching art that
provides evidence of the special nature of art teaching compared with other subjects.
The main argument is that art teaching is not constrained by textbooks and great
flexibility is allowed to teachers own imagination in designing the content of teaching.
Because of this art teaching has relied much on art teachers’ own conception or view to
art. This assumption further support research on teachers’ conception of teaching art to
inform about how art teaching has been implemented in school realities.
The answer to these questions may also help in the development o f art education in the
present situation in Hong Kong. With the establishment o f Art Development Council, art
education is considered as the priority of development to enhance the cultural business
of Hong Kong (HKADC, 1996). The implementation of art curriculum in primary and
secondary school in 1995 and 1996 respectively also shows the intention of the
education department in developing the subject. However, not much baseline data is
available to inform about the situation of art teaching in schools at present. The
investigation of art teachers’ conception of teaching can provide information for
educators in constructing a plan to improve art education.

PR

A study on art teachers conception of teachers addressing the questions below is
proposed:
What are the conceptions of teaching art among art teachers in schools?
What are the approaches they used for teaching in implementation?
Is there any gap found between conceptions and approaches?
If there is, what has caused the gap?
Based on these guiding questions, it is hoped that a general picture of teaching art can be
sketched to inform about the situation and the problems existed so as to seek
improvement.

page 16


Chapter 2

literature Review on Ceneepdens of Teaching
Conceptions o f teaching is a research construct used by educational researchers which
generally means the study of teachers’ views or ideas about teaching. There is a
substantial amount of literature related to teacher’s conceptions and it belongs to a wider
field which is termed broadly as teacher thinking (Yinger, 1977; Ben-Petrez, Bromme, &
Halkes, 1986; Pope, 1993).

EV
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An inherent problem in this field of research has made the review a difficult task. The
study of conceptions of teaching has been framed by different constructs and researched
with different methodologies. With the diversity in conceptualizing teacher conceptions,
the scope of study in this topic is wide which involves different variables. The situation
has caused a problem of two sides. One is that an enormous amount o f relevant work
coming from the search has made the task difficult to manage. Also, the lack of
consensus among teacher thinking researchers in defining research constructs and
therefore in operationalizing research objects have made comparison o f results of this
large quantity of data less straight forward. In view of this, a working rationale was
developed to govern the review to ensure a worthwhile outcome.

PR

First was to locate the major foci or topics of research related to conceptions o f teaching
in the light of the whole teacher thinking research. Discussion of constructs that have
been used with similar meaning as conceptions of teaching will be made. By doing so
the differences and consensus of the constructs used by the research community was
sought. Discussion of the findings on major topics was also made. From this review,
directions are drawn to inform how this research can be carried out and structured. It
will clear some of the ambiguities which have emerged from the teacher thinking
literature, while presenting a basic and broad examination on the topic. On the other
hand, the review aims to identify possible ideas and issues related to the topic proposed
on school art teachers’ conception of and approach to teaching, to discover whether the
topic is o f common interest in this field, and which aspects o f the proposed study are
likely to bring new input to research in this field. The aim of the review is therefore not
simply a matter of consultation for building up reasonable hypotheses or theoretical
models to guide the study, it is itself a process of discovery to sensitize myself as a
researcher in making sense o f the data gathered from the subsequent study, which is
helpful for me to generate the result into meaningful theories and knowledge.
This review was conducted by an additive process with consultation of both primary and
secondary sources. The method of doing this is to first identify materials from the library
catalogue and the ERIC database by running a keyword search on ‘conception’ and its
related terms such as ‘belief’, ‘personal theory’, etc. From the result of the survey a
number of reviews and edited volumes published at different periods are identified as the
key documents of this field. Work published in recent years have to be added to the
report as they are not included in the aforementioned documents. The materials are to be
compared and analyzed in the light of the topic I am interested in, namely school art
teachers’ conceptions and approaches to teaching, with which issues and highlights are
noted to both suggest parameters and potential of discovery of my study.
page 17


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