LED_7th_may_2010_final_assignment

Farhana S. Zaveri Student ID ZAV09076869
Issues faced by Indian teachers in their profession: a human capital and capability
approach perspective.
‘The 2008 Annual Status of Education Report (ASER, 2008) finds that nationally
44% of students of grade 5 cannot fluently read grade 2 level text nor do a
division sum of three digits divided by one digit’
(Kingdon, 2009 p. 1)
Studies reveal that one of the reasons India not producing efficient teachers is its low
quality teacher education (Kingdon and Rao, 2009). Pandey (2006) highlights that the
traditional, teacher-centered, ‘Chalk, T alk and Teach’ method of teaching is obsolete.
This may considerably impact student learning.
Bansal (2004) points out that the quality of teachers play a vital role in determining the
quality of education. It is teachers who help students which in turn help the society at
large, to experience overall development. As stated in the India-UNESCO Country
Programming Document (2008-2009):
• less than 70% inhabitants are literate;
• 2003-04 statistics show 31% drop outs in primary school;
• 2005 research shows only 40% teachers in primary school are graduates;
• 30% are not even secondary school graduates (unesco).
With EFA the Government of India promised quality universal primary education by
2015 (unesco). Bansal (2004) states that this gave tremendous rise to enrollments which
led to scarcity of teachers, especially well-qualified teachers. (Appendix 1). Studies by
Pandey (2006) reveal that in order to cater to the issue of scarcity the government began
recruiting contract/para teachers. She further states that these were initially recruited
either to cater to the remote areas where regular teachers were not willing to travel or
where there were single teacher schools or as job opportunities to well-qualified youths.
More so, she claims that gradually, this objective was ignored due to its cost effectives
and they gradually began being a replacement of a regular teacher which lead to a pool of
around 500,000 para teachers presently in India.
Atherton and Kingdon (working) state that para-teachers is a debatable topic, some
favour recruiting them as they feel it diminishes student teacher ratios, abolishes one
teacher schools, etc. Conversely, some express the lower educational and professional
qualifications as well as the poor salary. Pandey (2006) and Atherton and Kingdon
(working) show that many states also complain about the salary structure and benefits,
therefore states like Maharahstra, Gujarat, Orissa, and Himachal Pradesh have come to a
consensus by converting a para teacher to a regular teacher when a regular teacher retires.
However, these studies reveal that in Bihar even para teachers are permanent, whereas
places like Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka hire very few para teachers as they do not
have extremely high levels of population.
Furthermore, they claim that there are 16% para teachers in primary level and less that
10% in post primary. Also, majority of para teachers are in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,
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Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh which come up
to 68% of the total in the country. Haryana, Punjab, Maharashtra and Gujarat are less
dependent on para teachers. Moreover, they state that many states like Madhya Pradesh
now do not appoint regular teachers but only para teachers in government schools.
Pandey (2006) states that para/contract teachers is a recent initiative taken up by India
and most states have adopted this phenomenon but have given it a different name which
more or less means a volunteer. However she claims that in all states by and large a
para/contract teacher is one who is appointed from the community s/he maintains a
relationship between the school and the community, speaks the same language, the school
is more likely to function, under a para teacher as opposed to a regular teacher as s/he
tends to be more regular and accountable and usually can better cater to the needs of
children being from the same culture and background.
Kingdon and Banerji (2009) argue that the notion that only a regular teacher can enhance
student achievement no longer holds true as results show that students perform as good as
or better when taught by a para teacher. They state this is mainly because though they are
trained less but they tend to spend more time on task which increases their efficiency thus
leading to higher learning levels among students. In fact, in Uttar Pradesh para teachers
are better than regular teachers (Atherton and Kingdon, working).
Quality of teachers
Kingdon and Rao (2009) state that there is hardly any difference between the expected
qualification of a para and regular teacher, except that regular teachers receive an
additional pre-service training before recruitment while para teachers do not posses
professional experience or adequate training or receive a short one on roll.
Kapoor, Sahoo, Lhungdim, Acharaya, (2008) highlights that pre-primary and primary
teachers do not receive upgradation opportunities. They even state that higher education
teachers, neither have an avenue for pre-service education. Bansal (2004) spells out that
the pre-service and in-service trainings also fail to provide sufficient pedagogic and ICT
skills. However, today knowledge is widely available through the web and proficiency in
this would enable student learning.
Pandey, (2006) revealed that the Indian Education Commission stated that a good teacher
education programme is needed to enhance the quality of teachers. This investment
seemed very meagre to them compared to the quality of education that will be received
by the children. Furthermore, she stated that post independence, committees and
commissions like UNESCO, NCTE; professional and good quality training; etc.
developed opportunities for teachers to constantly upgrade themselves in varied
disciplines which lead to enhance the quality of education imparted to students. Besides,
the National Policy on Education stresses the importance of pre-service and in-service
training as indivisible parts in the process of teacher education.
Despite this, there are several factors that affect student learning:
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•Meagre attendance: The study by Kingdon and Banerji (2009) find that enrolment rates
in most states have risen to over 90% which reveals that India is very near to achieving
primary education for all. However, they argue that a wide gap still occurs between the
enrolment and actual attendance as out of the enrolled lot barely 26% in Bihar and 44%
children in Uttar Pradesh are regular in school. Besides, they state that despite external
motives like lunch meal, books, etc. pupils fail to turn up in large numbers. This leads to
poor learning.
•Teacher absenteeism: With 10% increase of teacher absenteeism, student attendance is
lowered by 1.8% (Kremer, Chaudhury, Rogers, Muralidharan and Hammer, 2004).
They further highlight that teacher absenteeism varies in India, for eg. in Maharashtra
around 15% and Jharkhand 42% leading to more absenteeism in poorer areas. Kingdon
and Banerji (2009) maintain that in both, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh teachers tend to take
leaves for more than one day in five working days, of which most leaves are personal.
With this, classes turn into multigrade which considerably hamper the learning of the
students. Kremer et al spells out that teachers with a bachelors or masters tend to be
more absent; ten years more experience leads to 1.0 – 1.5% more absence; head
teachers are 4 – 5% tend to be more absent than regular teachers; private school teachers
tend to be a little less absent compared to public schools teachers and non – formal
school teacher have higher absenteeism than government school teachers. Besides, they
state that there are very little chances of getting fired which leads to higher rates of
absenteeism among teachers. As per their study (visit) only 45% teachers in some
schools were involved in teaching, whereas in a few only 20% engaged in teaching.
•Teachers’ time management: Ramachandran, Pal, Jain, Shekar and Sharma (2005) state
that teacher’s time on task and off task has been a heated issue in Government schools.
Teachers are off task for reasons like:
1. Educational and/or non-education duties outside school.
2. Mark attendance and then leave for personal chores.
3. Personal leaves without informing and sporadically leave absence notes.
4. School holidays due to extreme weather, harvest season, festivals, etc.
5. While away their time in either administrative or personal work which showed
that apparently a teacher teaches for only around 25 minutes a day.
Besides, they state that there is a high drop out rate, therefore around 90% students of
grade five are promoted to grade six regardless of their performance. Also, they point that
the Government of India had spelled out certain policies which state that children need to
be promoted automatically until the upper primary level. Furthermore they highlight that
even the Government of Rajasthan states that students need to be promoted if they have
50% attendance, regardless of their performance. Hence education is not taken seriously
by teachers themselves.
•Poor learning: Kingdon and Banerji (2009) reveal that the learning levels in a given
year appear very poor. Also, they highlight that students who did not perform in the
beginning of the year failed to perform even at the end of the year. Thus, the Indian
Education System does not allow a pupil equipped with the knowledge/skills, etc. in the
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following years if s/he has not acquired those at a particular age. They reveal that health
plays an important role as a child being absent for more than four days due to illness in
a span of three months is likely to perform little lower than his/her counterparts.
Furthermore, mother’s education usually shows that children learn more. Also, they
reveal that children from higher socio economic background perform better. Kingdon
and Banerji (2009) even highlight that learning is many schools is generally not child
centred but rests on the needs and preferences of the teachers.
•Organizational overhauling: Bihar reports having 49% classes running as multigrade
during all the four survey visits. Although 44% fluctuated between monograde and
multigrade; whereas, just 7% were monograde the entire year. This leads to substantial
unsteadiness in forming groups for teaching thus making it complex for teachers to re-
visit her lesson plan and device appropriate strategies. Moreover, just 25% schools
posses a class timetable out of which 35% follow it. This is mainly due to teacher
absenteeism. Also, there is a delay in the opening timings of approximately 54%
schools and about one-third of the sample schools regularly closed before time. All
these issues put forth by Kingdon and Banerji (2009) reveal that these too impact on the
quality of education that students receive.
•Pay package: Kingdon and Rao (2009) reveal that para teachers are paid around 36% of
what a regular teacher earns. However, they state that in West Bengal they are paid even
less i.e. 14% of what a regular teacher receives. Whereas, Atherton and Kingdon
(working) state that the salaries of regular teachers have increased twice, since the
initiation of the Sixth Pay Commission’s proposal. With this the salaries of para
teachers have dropped from 35% to 25% of what a regular teacher receives.
•Teacher Motivation: Kingdon and Teal (2006) reveal that performing teachers are rarely
given the opportunity to climb up the ladder professionally but it is usually on the basis
of seniority. Although they state that in 1950 the Government had initiated varied
awards to motivate teachers, however, present realities reveal that a lot of politics is
involved in making these decisions. Whereas, nowadays Government schools deploy
teachers for life, hence the motivation levels go down compared to private teachers as
their pay package and job depends on their performance.
Govinda and Josephine (2004) further state that having different cadre of teachers (para
and regular) with varying salaries but doing equal amount of work results into
disappointment and differences between the teachers. They claim that regular teachers
feel that they themselves underwent a structured and rigorous selection and training
process which is absent for para teachers.
Ramachandran et al (2005) highlights how various constituencies defined a 'Motivated
Teacher'. Most teachers and administrators felt if s/he was compliant to the school norms.
Most parents felt, being in school for more hours, not hit or abuse children, enabled
pupils to read, write and get educated, etc. However, it was only the educationalists who
argued that a motivated teacher would keep a child in the fore front and try to do
anything possible to ensure his/her overall development.
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Human Capital Theory
The theory of Human capital was put forth by the first economist Adam Smith in the
18th-century. This theory states that individuals develop capacities i.e. investments like
education, abilities, talents, aptitudes, etc. to yield economic benefits in the future
(Baptiste, 2001). Schultz (1959) highlights that individuals form an essential part in the
wealth of nations. By investing in oneself, an individual is able to increase the amount of
wealth earned. In quite a few countries, all other forms of investments together weigh
much lower than the returns to this kind of investment. Baptiste (2001) states that more
education leads to more productivity. He also believes that investment in education
determine a person’s wages.
In addition to this, Little (2003) critiques that quantity i.e. years of schooling determine a
person’s wages. In most cases the employer is concerned with the amount of education
received by a person rather than observing his/her skills, aptitude and talent. Though
negotiation of the salary does take place if the candidate out performs, however, that is
not very significant. The crucial and basic pay is determined without assessing the
person. One the other hand, Carron and Chao (1996) argue that greater number of years
in school does not guarantee enhanced skills.
However, studies by Psacharopoulos and Patrinos (2004) reveal that with one extra year
of education a person’s wage increases by 10% in most developing countries. Thus the
rate of return to education in these countries is higher compared to the industrialized
countries. Also, the rate of return in these countries is concave, i.e. increases with one
extra year of primary education. Conversely, it is convex in developed countries, i.e.
increases with secondary and higher education. However, recent studies by Colclough,
Kingdon, and Patrinos (2009) reveal that the rate of return to post primary education is
now higher even in some developing countries. Besides, it is not conclusive whether all
developing or developed countries have a concave or convex pattern.
One of the reasons for fall in the rate of return to primary education given by Colclough,
et al (2009) is that the number of primary school graduates have increased tremendously.
Kingdon and Banerji (2009) state that the enrolment in most states are above 90%.
Hence, Colclough, et al (2009) claim that there was a huge supply compared to the
demand for this caliber. This they state led to an increase in the demand for secondary
and tertiary level graduates. However, primary education still continues to be significant
as it forms the base for post primary and higher education that would later yield greater
economic benefits. Also, it is important even to look at the non-monetary benefits that
primary education brings.
Another reason for the fall in the rate of return to primary education is that the quality of
schooling is very low. Recent studies by Colclough, et al (2009)point out that in India
basic skills of literacy and numeracy are not certain even after completing five years of
schooling. Similarly even Hanushek and Woessmann (2007) highlight the differences in
quality and quantity of education. They argue that additional years of education do not
guarantee enhanced skills and knowledge, rather the quality of teachers; infrastructure,
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curriculum, as well as the non formal factors like family, background, peer groups, etc.
play a vital role in shaping an individual. Similarly even Atherton and Kingdon (working)
argue that inadequate resources and infrastructure lead to poor learning. Pandey (2006)
further states that the Government of India initiated a 5 fold strategy in 1990s to cater to
the needs of quality. Therefore, measures like adequate infrastructure, teaching learning
materials, pedagogical know how, human resources as well as enhanced curriculum and
teacher training to increase child’s level of learning and achievement were undertaken but
no considerable impact was noticeable.
Besides, if we take a close look at teacher quality Atherton and Kingdon (working) reveal
that only around 28% teachers could accomplish a grade 4 or 5 problem 25% managed to
crack a grade 5 percentage problem. Around 45% knew synonyms of tough words they
could also recapitulate a grade 4 text with difficulty. As many as 60% erred in spelling
whilst preparing a summary of a text. 80% teachers acknowledge experiencing difficulty
solving maths queries of their students.
With regards to infrastructure the study by Ramachandran et al (2005) reveal that many
schools in India have extremely poor infrastructure with limited amenities. These schools
have one or two rooms and teachers, no boundary walls and toilets. Furthermore they
state that in Rajasthan, only 7% schools had electricity while 29% were equipped with
common latrines, this leads to high dropout rates among children, despite the number of
pedagogical and academic training given to teachers.
This issue of quality also brings to light the consistent inequality between the societies.
As stated by Unterhalter (2008) that most stakeholders are interested in the quantity of
schooling, teacher training, etc. They seldom take interest in issues like the quality of the
curriculum, teaching learning process, etc. which affects the quality of learning.
Also, Unterhalter (2008) states that the quality of human capital is largely dependent on
the quality of schools. This means that better quality elite schools usually churn out
students with the calibre of managers, etc. Whereas, the average quality schools usually
churn out semi-skilled workers. This correlation between the quality of schools and
profession hardly give middle and low income families the opportunities to educate their
children in elite schools.
Besides, Ramachandran, et al (2005) reveals that many a times there are stark differences
between the social background of teacher and students, etc. which diminish the level of
support, love and care from the teachers. They state that students from lower class hardly
receive any respect from the teacher and they are treated as untouchables made to feel as
though they are being favoured if they have access to education, moreover, sexually
abusive behaviour towards students is reported in many schools. This results into
emphasizing and reiterating that lower class individuals can never reach great heights.
Also, para teachers usually land up teaching students from lower socio economic levels
and marginalized sections of the society (Atherton and Kingdon, working). All these lead
to widening the gap between the rich and the poor.
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Ramachandran, et al (2005) states that para teachers complain that their training is purely
based on the context of urban schools. Therefore, they find it difficult to cater to children
from poorer sections of the society who are malnourished, hungry, ill, etc. and often their
needs remain unmet. Pandey (2006) states that although quality teachers was at the top of
the agenda however, with the inception of para – teacher scheme which was supposed to
ensure student learning, however with their low qualification, inadequate training,
professional experience and their placement in remote areas lead to poor achievement
among children from the lower social strata. In a sample study she describes that a class
run by a para teacher lacked dynamism, creativity, interactive learning, use of pedagogy
and teaching learning resources, etc. Also, due to the high PTRs the classes were usually
multigrade wherein majority teachers lacked confidence and were unable to effectively
conduct lessons in class. However, studies by Govinda and Josephine (2004) reveal that
regular teachers are victims of some of these issues. A broad policy framework of
monitoring and evaluation is needed.
Also, irrelevant curriculum disables the citizens to apply the knowledge in their context
and yield the benefits compared to the investment they made. How does human capital
theory address these?
Kapoor et al (2008) point out that teacher educators fail to include curriculum reforms in
their programmes. This disables the teacher to contextualize the curriculum. There
sometimes seems to be no link with the curriculum taught and the real world. (Bansal,
2004). Studies by Kingdon and Rao (2009) reveal that only 45% para teachers were given
minimal training and a short induction whereas 18% regular teachers were untrained.
However, the quality of training is mediocre for all teachers and requires re-visiting. The
training of para teachers heavily focuses on rote learning. It does not cater to the teachers
needs as there is a stark difference between the training curriculum and the real
classroom. This is especially true of multigrade set ups.
It is also essential to learn that if a study reveals certain results, who authenticates the
study? If subjects from various countries are taken to understand the economic patterns
then is the urban and rural divide consciously made?
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Capability Approach
The notion of capabilities was pioneered in 1980s by Amartya Sen, an economist. The
capability approach can be summarized as a notion that focuses on living a life one has
reason to value (Robeyns, 2005).
Walker (2005) and Robeyns (2005) state that welfare, good quality of life and
development are main propositions of the capability approach which is not merely what
individuals possess rather what individuals can effectively do and attain. It states that one
should posses the capabilities one considers worth, and one should be able to achieve that
freedom. Therefore, freedom and capability are indivisible (Walker, 2005).
Capability refers to an opportunity that would lead to a desired outcome (Walker and
Unterhalter, 2007) whereas, freedoms are means to meet the ends that people value, this
does not imply abundance in monetary gains or material benefits (Walker, 2005).
Robeyns (2006) states that wealth is important but it will not always give one what s/he
wants; rather it is a means to achieving that. Besides, Robeyns (2005) highlights that only
the ends always do not have innate importance; it is even the means at times which
enable valuable states of being that leads to desirable ends. Saito (2003) says in fact
people should be able to avail of the basic needs that enable well-being.
Robeyns (2005) maintains that a person’s outcomes should not be judged as each one
may value diverse aspects depending on what state is desirable for them. Just as
Unterhalter and Brighouse (2007) state that different genders in schools have different
needs. Therefore, inadequate water supply may be a hindrance for both sexes but more so
for girls as they menstruate. Such functionings comprise of valued states of being.
Robeyns (2005) states that functionings being achieved outcomes, it is essential that
people receive valuable capabilities to lead desired lives that are valuable to them.
Saito (2003) highlights that functionings are sometimes intrinsic and usually people
desire them keeping the available resources in mind as they cannot envisage something
beyond. Pandey (2006) maintains that this is true in the case of para teachers. This is
because of the absence of agency. Agency and autonomy are important aspects and
according to Walker (2005) that is what allows everyone to have equal access to
opportunities and resources. But as Walker and Unterhalter (2007) state that lack of
agency leads to deprivation like some of those para teachers who many a times are better
qualified than regular teachers but still earn much lower salaries and respect compared to
them (Pandey, 2006).
Walker (2005) spells out education as one of the basic capabilities, which happened to
influence the growth formation of various capabilities. Unterhalter (2009) claims that
aspects like good quality education that enhances language, numeracy and other skills,
ability to participate in debates and discussions, seeking respect from teachers and higher
authorities, etc. are some of the significant aspects that capability approach focuses on.
Besides, she states that education is a lot more than just attendance and enrolment, unlike
human capital. Terzi (2007) claims that there seems to be a correlation between education
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and well-being of a person. However, Walker (2005) maintains that if a system of
education does not impart those then it is important to question that system.
Kapoor et al (2008) state that it is important to have passion and commitment for the
profession one pursues. However, very little is seen in the case of Indian teachers. They
argue that majority population considers teaching very ambitious as most gifted and
talented populace generally picks medicine, engineering, etc. as their first choice as it
pays them well and is highly valued. Therefore, it is usually the left overs that consider
teaching as an option. Moreover they reveal that the selection methodology too is based
on interviews, years of education, number of tests, etc. None of these can actually
measure the enthusiasm and dedication for the profession. Ramachandran, et al (2005)
states that many teachers are found to treat this profession as a means/instrument to
achieving something they value more– like fewer working hours, being with the family, a
good salary.
Besides, psychological studies by Muralidharan and Sundararaman (2006) reveal that
many a time several external factors come in the way of intrinsic motivation of a person
which leads to undesirable functionings. They state that in India many government school
teachers genuinely have an intrinsic motivation to teach, they perform well, cater to the
needs of the child etc. However, Ramachandran, et al (2005) states that such teachers
usually get transferred and are loaded with lots of administrative tasks. Also, as per
Muralidharan and Sundararaman (2006) teachers are not always motivated, encouraged
or lauded against those who lax in their work. On the other hand, they claim that many
teachers have good contacts with higher authorities and stake holders, which help them
reach higher levels and receive good remuneration without adequate effort on their part;
hence it demotivates the ones who are sincere and honest. Therefore, they suggest that a
certain level of external motivation should be present to reward and acknowledge the
effort of those teachers to help them attain what they value and maintain consistency in
their performance. They stated that a teacher incentive programme in few government
primary schools in Andhra Pradesh helped increase grades in mathematics and language.
Robeyns (2006) introduces three conversion factors that affect the relation between goods
and functionings to achieve some beings and doings. These include personal, social and
environment conversion factors.
Personal conversion factors refer to the innate feeling of demotivation to teach in
circumstances that are undesirable to teachers (Ramachandran, et al (2005).
Social conversion factors spell out the para teachers desire of turning into a regular
teacher to avail a good pay package along with other benefits which they have reason to
value. This compels them to apply greater effort (Pandey, 2006). Besides, the study of
Ramachandran, et al (2005) reveals that students from lower class are highly ill-treated as
there prevails huge difference in the social background between teachers and students,
teachers fail to build a good rapport, empower, co-operate, support, etc. This leads to
unfreedoms among the students and they experience obstacles in attaining education,
which they have reason to value.
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Kremer et al (2004) points out environmental conversion factors such as good school
infrastructure, paved roads, schools at closer distance, latrines, electricity, library, less
use of multigrade models, etc. that act as motivating factors for teachers which even at
times reduce absenteeism. Unterhalter (2009) highlights that this conversion either limits
or expands the capabilities.
A significant factor in education and capability approach entails one to examine how the
content is transmitted to students (Crespo, 2007). Ramachandran, et al (2005) argues that
teachers complaint regarding the trainings not always being contextualized, i.e. they are
largely based on the context of urban schools. Also, the trainings are mainly during
vacations and teachers who attend are permitted to take leaves later on, which imply that
their teaching days get reduced; whereas many do not attend even one. Therefore, all of
them do not receive equal opportunities.
A model has been developed by Unterhalter and Brighouse (2007) that links capability
approach to education. Three distinct fields of education have been identified, namely,
instrumental, intrinsic and positional value of education.
They consider the instrumental value of education as focusing on the importance of
schooling as a medium to participate in social and political arenas without which it is
difficult to attain well-being and agency which people value.
The intrinsic value of education they highlight throws light on the benefits an individual
gains from education which may not directly link to employment. Also, Little (2006)
highlights that education can be sought as a passion, to learn, perform a task, etc.
They also point to the positional value of education that seeks to compare the benefits of
education of an individual with that of others. Besides, it even includes how well-
qualified the teachers are in order to impart the curriculum without any biases as biases in
the curriculum lead to inequality and injustice.
Robeyns (2005) states that in actual life situations our choices are many a time influenced
or forced by external pressures. Hence it would be limited which wouldn’t necessarily be
negative. Despite this, to what extent can people access their capabilities given the
hindrances and/or negative outcomes they might have to face?
It is argued by Sen and Dreze in Dreze (2002) that though the capability approach is
revolves around well-being of people by focussing on agency, it distinctly involves social
structures so that the agency can be expanded. This they state could be to meet ends or be
means to achieve further freedom. Therefore, individuals and their opportunities are not
isolated rather dependent on relations with people and institutions.
Capability proposes a concept of an ideal world in a real world. It proposes equality and
justice for all people and at all times.
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Conclusion
Unterhalter (2009) concludes that if we look at both these approaches, it reveals that both
have one common aspect, i.e. human beings, wherein human capital emphasizes the fact
that investment in education will lead to economic productivity. However, it overlooks
those who have different learning abilities. Also it is unable to address issues of social
inequities, despite completion of school. Conversely she spells out the capability
approach as not having any substantial data to mark the rate of return to education.
Although it emphasizes on human development in terms of the opportunities and
capabilities. It is also concerned with inequities within the societies.
Kingdon and Rao (2009) suggests that continuous professional development can be
initiated along with a scope for promotion thus demolishing the idea of regular and para
teachers. This idea of development would yield economic as well as social benefits
thereby helping teachers attain the freedoms they value.
Unterhalter (2008) points out that although the policy documents of the UN and other
institutions are influenced by the capability approach, they are usually ignored as there
hardly seems to be a just society. The human capital continues to dominate the systems at
all levels despite acknowledging that education is not only about access to schooling.
It is important to reflect, that although India propounds a child-centered approach, but has
it genuinely ensured consistency in its efforts to achieve it? The state of teachers reveals
that many a time especially in the rural and remote areas teachers themselves are
deprived of several benefits and functionings that they fail to act as change agents.
Therefore, it is extremely significant to address these multiple barriers.
It is also important to explore the means by which a teachers education leads to a
student's overall development. Besides, a vital question is that is learning assessed only
by grades? What measures need to be taken to bring all teachers at par who competently
facilitate at the level of the child in a challenging environment? Is a teacher’s role
confined to exhibit the flow of knowledge as the knower of all things?
Besides, in many rural areas children learn more by practicing than by attending school.
For eg. many practice mathematics very well orally than by classroom methods, as they
sell products in the markets. In such circumstances, individuals demonstrate productivity,
reap economic benefits, but do not have formal education. How does human capital
address this?
It is also thought provoking that war trodden or disaster struck areas with acute poverty
do not have the resources to ensure even basic education. However, in these areas too,
there are people who reap substantial economic benefits. Moreover, many business class
and merchant class populations seldom seek education; still many of them earn much
more compared to highly qualified individuals.
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Sometimes there may be a situation wherein choosing any capability would lead to either
only good outcomes (as in win win situations) or only bad outcomes (as in lose lose
situation). Then, despite agency, autonomy, capability, etc. one lands up with
unfreedoms.
In sum, it would be inappropriate to undermine both the theories entirely as some aspects
still require further analysis. However, still it may be difficult to conclude as all humans
are different and unique. Therefore, one theory may not be applicable to all.
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Appendix: 1
Subject 1950-51 1999-2000
Teachers in Primary 538,000 1.919 million
Teachers in Upper Primary 86,000 1.298 million
Enrolment in Primary 19.2 million 113.61 million
Enrolment in Upper Primary 3 million 42 million
(Govinda and Josephine, 2004)
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Bibliography:
Alkire, S. and Deneulin, S. (2009) Chapter two: The Human Development and Capability
Approach in S. Deneulin and L. Shahani (eds) An Introduction to the Human
Development and Capability Approach: Freedom and Agency. London: Earthscan
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