Acts of the Apostles

1. Luke's Second Volume: The Book of Acts
Dating the Book of Acts
When a few days had passed, King Agrippa and Bernice arrived in Caesarea on a visit to Festus.
Acts 25.13
Luke assumes a knowledge of who this Bernice was in his Greco-Roman readers. This
would be most easily assumed after she had been made famous by her affair with the
emperor Titus in c. 69 CE. She is mentioned by several Greco-Roman writers, including
Juvenal, Josephus and Suetonius; it appears that her affair with the emperor rocketed
her to celebrity status in the first century. This lends to the probability of a post-70 date
of Acts.
Ignatius of Antioch may have quoted Acts 1.25 in his Letter to the Magnesians written
in ~100 CE. The next direct quote of Acts does not appear until the mid second century.
Yes, everything is coming to and end, and we stand before this choice -- death or life -- and everyone, will go "to his own place". Once might say
similarly, there are two coinages, one God's, the other the world's. Each bears its own stamp -- unbelievers that of this world; believers, who are
spurred by love, the stamp of God the Father through Jesus Christ. And if we do not willingly die in union with his Passion, we do not have his life
in us.
Letter to the Magnesians 5.1
21So one of the men who have accompanied us throughout the time that the Lord Jesus went in and out among us, 22beginning from the baptism
of John until the day when he was taken up from us—one of these must become a witness with us to his resurrection.’ 23So they proposed two,
Joseph called Barsabbas, who was also known as Justus, and Matthias. 24Then they prayed and said, ‘Lord, you know everyone’s heart. Show us
which one of these two you have chosen 25to take the place in this ministry and apostleship from which Judas turned aside to go to his own place.’
26And they cast lots for them, and the lot fell on Matthias; and he was added to the eleven apostles.
Acts 1.21-25

2. Acts and Josephus
Acts 11:27-28
At that time prophets came down from Jerusalem to Antioch. One of them named Agabus stood up and predicted by the Spirit that there would
be a server famine over all the world; and this took place during the reign of Claudius. The disciples determined that according to their ability,
each would send relief to the believers living in Judea; this they did, sending it to the elders by Barnabas and Saul.
Antiquities 20.2.5 49-53
Her arrival was very advantageous to the people of Jerusalem; for a famine oppressed them at that time, and many people died for want of
money to procure food. Queen Helena sent some of her servants to Alexandria with money to buy a great quantity of grain, and others of them to
Cyprus to bring back a cargo of dried figs. They quickly returned with the provisions, which she immediately distributed to those that need. She
has thus left a most excellent memorial by the beneficence which she bestowed upon our nation. And when her son Izates was informed of this
famine, he sent great sums of money to the principal men in Jerusalem.
Antiquities 20.5.2 101 The successor of Fadus was Tiberius Alexander [governors of Judea during the rule of Claudius] ...it was in that (or their)
administration that the great famine occurred in Judea, during which Queen Helen bought grain from Egypt for large sums and distributed it to
the needy, as I have stated above.
A date for Luke-Acts in the 90s of the first century or first decade of the second century would account for all the evidence,
including the alleged use of Josephus and even the traditionally claimed authorship by Luke, a sometime companion of
Paul. For complete analysis of the Luke-Josephus connection, see: Josephus-Luke connection.

3. The “We” Passages
A feature of Acts that might lead one to assume that its author had personal familiarity with Paul is a set of five sections
known as the “we passages” of Acts. Each of these stands in the context of reporting Paul’s journeys, and in each the author
seems to cast himself as one of Paul’s companions on the trip. The first of these is Acts 16.10-17, which reports Paul and his
companions traveling to Macedonia in response to a vision, beginning with their stay in Philippi, where Paul and Silas were
jailed. The peculiarity of these “we passages” can be illustrated from this case, where the switch to a first person narrative
at its onset is sudden and jarring:
“6They [Paul and his traveling companions] went through the region of Phrygia and Galatia, having been forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the
word in Asia. 7 When they had come opposite Mysia, they attempted to go into Bithynia, but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them; 8 So, passing
by Mysia, they went down to Troas. 9During the night Paul had a vision: there stood a man of Macedonia pleading with him and saying, “Come
over to Macedonia and help us.” 10 When he had seen the vision, we immediately tried to cross over to Macedonia, being convinced that God had
called us to proclaim the good news to them. 11We set sail from Troas and took a straight course to Samothrace, the following day to Neapolis,
12and from there to Philippi, which is a leading city of the district of Macedonia and a Roman colony. We remained in this city for some days.”
Acts 16.6-12
While the initial verses report the activities of Paul and his companions as things they did, suddenly in v. 10 the narrator
includes himself in this group that responded to Paul’s vision, even to the point of seeing the mission of proclaiming the
good news being as much his as any of the others accompanying Paul. This first person narrative continues through a report
that they were followed by a clairvoyant who kept announcing that they represented the Most High God. But when Paul is
arrested for exorcising the clairvoyant, and thus depriving her masters of income, Silas is the only companion jailed with
Paul, and the narrator again speaks of what happens to them. That narrative perspective persists through the story of
imprisonment and release, the outcome of which is reported at chapter’s end: “After leaving the prison they went to Lydia’s
home; and having seen and encouraged the brothers and sisters there, they departed.” Then chapter 17 opens with the
report, “After Paul and Silas had passed through Amphipolis and Apollonia, they came to Thessalonica,” with the narrator
reporting the continuation of the journey without including himself in Paul’s company.

4. The “We” Passages
V. K. Robbins offered examples of ‘we’ used in such sea travels from 1800 BC to 400 BCE in Greco-Roman literature.
However, examples of this literary use of ‘we’ are not directly analogous to the book of Acts (Egyptian, Greek, Latin; epic,
poetry, prose narrative, oratory, fantasy, autobiography, romance or novel, scientific prose, etc) which leaves the theory
wanting; and it is far from clear that they explain satisfactorily the usage of Acts. If ‘we’ is purely conventional, why does
this pronominal usage not appear throughout all the sea-journeying in Acts instead of in only a few sections separated by
years in the narrative? Moreover, in the first ‘we’ passage (Acts 16:10-17), Paul is on land at Philippi in all but two verses.
(See also 20:7-12; 21:15-18 within the second and third ‘we’ passages.). However, the same could be said of the assumption
that the use of ‘we’ is autobiographical—why is the author of Acts inconsistent with his incorporation of himself into the
narrative?
Explaining inconsistencies:

5. Paul and Luke
The reference to Paul’s involvement in persecuting the church in Jerusalem (Acts 8:1-3),
contrary to Galatians 1:22, where Paul remained unknown to believers in Judea.
The three accounts in Acts of Paul’s conversion (Acts 9:1-9; 22:4-11; 26:9-18) are
inconsistent with each other.
Luke’s unwillingness to acknowledge that the Damascus experience was a resurrection
appearance.
Luke’s reluctance to acknowledge Paul as an apostle (he functions as a missionary, sent
out by and reporting back to the Antioch church, Acts 13:1-3; 14:14-28).
The substantially different account of the Jerusalem conference (Compare Acts with
Galatians).
It becomes difficult to support the assumption that the author of Acts was a travelling companion of Paul when one
compares Act’s portrayal of Paul with Paul’s own reports about himself in his epistles. Some inconsistencies that arise are:
Why wouldn’t Paul highlight his miraculous conversion from persecutor to faithful servant of the Lord?
If Luke knew Paul personally, why does Luke report three dissimilar conversion accounts?
If Luke were a disciple of Paul, why does he not call Paul an apostle and validate Paul’s experience of the resurrected Christ?
Paul openly professes himself to be an apostle in his letters and clearly indicates that the resurrected Christ has appeared to
him.
How can a critical biblical scholar account for these possible conflicts?
Questions that require attention:

6. The Title: “Acts of the Apostles”
The title, Acts of the Apostles, is a curious title for Luke's second volume. Most of the 12 disciples are not prominently featured in the narrative.
As already discussed, the titles of the New Testament books were not original but were added by later Christian scribes. In this case, at least, the
title is not at all apt: the book is not about the deeds of the apostles per se but rather about the spread of the Christian religion through the
labors of only a few Christian missionaries. Indeed, there are only two main characters in the book, Peter and Paul. Furthermore, it is interesting
to note that Paul cannot be counted among one of the 12 disciples. Calling him an apostle is wholly dependent on his conversion experience and
is a bit of a stretch; not to mention, the author of Acts is reluctant to bestow this title upon Paul.
The apparent definition of
“Apostle” according to the
author of Acts: any of the
original 12 disciples called
by Jesus to preach the
gospel: Simon Peter, the
brothers James and John,
Andrew, Philip,
Bartholomew, Matthew,
Thomas, James the son of
Alpheus, Thaddaeus, Simon
the Zealot, Judas Iscariot.
Meanwhile Saul, still breathing threats and
murder against the disciples of the Lord, went
to the high priest 2
and asked him for letters to
the synagogues at Damascus, so that if he found
any who belonged to the Way, men or women,
he might bring them bound to Jerusalem.
3
Now
as he was going along and approaching
Damascus, suddenly a light from heaven
flashed around him.
4
He fell to the ground and
heard a voice saying to him, ‘Saul, Saul, why
do you persecute me?’
5
He asked, ‘Who are
you, Lord?’ The reply came, ‘I am Jesus, whom
you are persecuting.
6
But get up and enter the
city, and you will be told what you are to do.’
7
The men who were travelling with him stood
speechless because they heard the voice but
saw no one.
8
Saul got up from the ground, and
though his eyes were open, he could see
nothing; so they led him by the hand and
brought him into Damascus.
9
For three days he
was without sight, and neither ate nor drank.
Acts 9.1-9
4
I persecuted this Way up to the point of death
by binding both men and women and putting
them in prison, 5
as the high priest and the whole
council of elders can testify about me. From
them I also received letters to the brothers in
Damascus, and I went there in order to bind
those who were there and to bring them back to
Jerusalem for punishment. 6 ‘While I was on
my way and approaching Damascus, about
noon a great light from heaven suddenly shone
about me.
7
I fell to the ground and heard a
voice saying to me, “Saul, Saul, why are you
persecuting me?”
8
I answered, “Who are you,
Lord?” Then he said to me, “I am Jesus of
Nazareth whom you are persecuting.”
9
Now
those who were with me saw the light but did
not hear the voice of the one who was speaking
to me.
10
I asked, “What am I to do, Lord?” The
Lord said to me, “Get up and go to Damascus;
there you will be told everything that has been
assigned to you to do.”
11
Since I could not see
because of the brightness of that light, those
who were with me took my hand and led me to
Damascus.
Acts 22.4-11
9 ‘Indeed, I myself was convinced that I ought
to do many things against the name of Jesus of
Nazareth. 10
And that is what I did in Jerusalem;
with authority received from the chief priests, I
not only locked up many of the saints in prison,
but I also cast my vote against them when they
were being condemned to death. 11
By punishing
them often in all the synagogues I tried to force
them to blaspheme; and since I was so furiously
enraged at them, I pursued them even to foreign
cities. 12 ‘With this in mind, I was travelling to
Damascus with the authority and commission
of the chief priests,
13
when at midday along the
road, your Excellency, I saw a light from
heaven, brighter than the sun, shining around
me and my companions. 14
When we had all
fallen to the ground, I heard a voice saying to
me in the Hebrew language, “Saul, Saul, why
are you persecuting me? It hurts you to kick
against the goads.”
15
I asked, “Who are you,
Lord?” The Lord answered, “I am Jesus whom
you are persecuting. 16
But get up and stand on
your feet; for I have appeared to you for this
purpose, to appoint you to serve and testify to
the things in which you have seen me and to
those in which I will appear to you.
17
I will
rescue you from your people and from the
Gentiles—to whom I am sending you
18
to open
their eyes so that they may turn from darkness
to light and from the power of Satan to God, so
that they may receive forgiveness of sins and a
place among those who are sanctified by faith
in me.”
Acts 26.9-18
Note that in none of these
accounts does the author
of Acts indicate that Paul
and the resurrected Jesus
actually met; compare
Paul’s experience of the
resurrected Jesus to those
of the “apostles.”

7. Ancient Biography and Ancient History Compared
In comparison to Luke, the book of Acts is quite different. Here there is no solitary figure as a main character; instead, the
book sketches the history of Christianity from the time of Jesus’ resurrection to the Roman house arrest of the apostle Paul.
The book of Acts is concerned with the historical development of the Christian church. Moreover, the narrative is set within
the chronological framework that begins with the origin of the movement. In these respects, the Acts of the Apostles is
closely related to other histories produced in antiquity.
Unlike biographies, ancient histories have a number of leading characters, sometimes, as in Josephus, a large number of
them. Like biographies, however, they tend to utilize a wide range of subgenres, such as travel narratives, anecdotes, private
letters, dialogues, and public speeches. On the whole, histories in Greco-Roman antiquity were creative literary exercises
rather than simple regurgitations of names and dates. Ancient historians were necessarily inventive in the ways they
collected and conveyed the information that they set forth.
The dedication to Theophilus and the accurate
summary of the 1st volume, as well as similar
themes and consistent writing style of Luke and
Acts have convinced virtually all scholars that
the same author produced these two books.
However, some persons there were who desired to know
our history, and so exhorted me to go on with it; and, above
all the rest, Epaphroditus, a man who is a lover of all kind
of learning, but is principally delighted with the knowledge
of history, and this on account of his having been himself
concerned in great affairs, and many turns of fortune, and
having shown a wonderful rigor of an excellent nature, and
an immovable virtuous resolution in them all. I yielded to
this man's persuasions, who always excites such as have
abilities in what is useful and acceptable, to join their
endeavors with his.
Josephus’ dedication of Antiquities to Epaphroditus

8. The Bias of History Persists (even toady)
All histories, however, whether from the ancient world or the modern, cannot
be seen, ultimately, as objective accounts of what happened in the past.
Because so many things happen in the course of history (actually, billions of
things, every minute of every day), historians are compelled to pick and
choose what to mention and what to describe as significant. They do so
according to their own values, beliefs, and priorities. Thus, we can almost
always assume that the historian has narrated events in a way that
encapsulates his or her understanding of the meaning of those events. If we
look closely at the historian’s report, we can uncover his/her bias and often
times discover an underlying motive or set of values coloring the account.
Thus began the history, five hundred years ago, of the European invasion of the Indian settlements in the Americas. That beginning, when you
read Las Casas-even if his figures are exaggerations (were there 3 million Indians to begin with, as he says, or less than a million, as some
historians have calculated, or 8 million as others now believe?)-is conquest, slavery, death. When we read the history books given to children in
the United States, it all starts with heroic adventure-there is no bloodshed-and Columbus Day is a celebration.
Past the elementary and high schools, there are only occasional hints of something else. Samuel Eliot Morison, the Harvard historian, was the
most distinguished writer on Columbus, the author of a multivolume biography, and was himself a sailor who retraced Columbus's route across
the Atlantic. In his popular book Christopher Columbus, Mariner, written in 1954, he tells about the enslavement and the killing: "The cruel policy
initiated by Columbus and pursued by his successors resulted in complete genocide.”
That is on one page, buried halfway into the telling of a grand romance. In the book's last paragraph, Morison sums up his view of Columbus:
He had his faults and his defects, but they were largely the defects of the qualities that made him great-his indomitable will, his superb faith
in God and in his own mission as the Christ-bearer to lands beyond the seas, his stubborn persistence despite neglect, poverty and
discouragement. But there was no flaw, no dark side to the most outstanding and essential of all his qualities-his seamanship.
A modern equivalent: Howard Zinn

9. The Character of Ancient Histories
This aspect of limited objectivity is particularly obvious in
the case of historians writing in antiquity. Theirs was a
world of few written records but abundant oral tradition.
Indeed, many ancient historians expressed a preference
for hearing an account from an oral source rather than
finding it in a written record. This approach stands
somewhat at odds with the modern distrust of “mere
hearsay” but there is some logic behind it: unlike written
documents, oral sources can be interrogated to clarify
ambiguities. Still, one can imagine the difficulties of
determining what really happened on the basis of oral
accounts. As we have discussed, oral accounts are more
malleable than written ones and often take on a life of
their own as they are passed from one or orator to the
next.
Moreover, when it came to the written record, ancient
historians obviously had no access to modern techniques
of data retrieval. Due to the scarcity and obscurity of
many written accounts is easy to understand how written
records could be lost, overlooked, or simply ignored by
the ancient historian. For these reasons, ancient
historians generally had little concern for and less chance
of, getting everything “right,” at least in the modern
sense.

10. The Book of Acts as a Greco-Roman History
When we read the book of acts as an ancient history, we should expect to find a narration of events that the author
considered significant for understanding the early Christian movement. Furthermore, if we are interested in reading this
book as an ancient reader would, we should not evaluated it strictly in terms of factual accuracy. In addition we should be
looking for themes and points of view that parallel those found in volume one, the gospel of Luke.
As with most ancient histories, speeches figure prominently in the
book of acts. Indeed, they take up nearly 1/4 of the entire narrative,
about average for histories of the period.
The two following elements of the book of Acts clearly establish the
theme intended by the author:
1. the opening scene, which relates the work back to what has
already transpired in the gospel of Luke and anticipates what
will take place in the narrative to follow, and
2. 2. the speeches of the main characters, which are scattered
throughout the text and appear to represent compositions of
the author himself.
In the first book, Theophilus, I wrote about all that Jesus did and taught from
the beginning 2until the day when he was taken up to heaven, after giving
instructions through the Spirit to the apostles whom he had chosen. 3After his
suffering he presented himself alive to them by many convincing proofs,
appearing to them over the course of forty days and speaking about the
kingdom of God. 4While staying with them, he ordered them not to leave
Jerusalem, but to wait there for the promise of the Father. ‘This’, he said, ‘is
what you have heard from me; 5for John baptized with water, but you [plural]
will be baptized with the Holy Spirit not many days from now.’
Acts 1.1-5
This kind of opening summary statement was common in multivolume
works of history in antiquity.

11. Speeches in Ancient Histories
Ancient historians typically made up the speeches of their main characters. As a result, by examining the speeches of an
ancient narrative, you can get some insights into what the real author of the speeches (in this case, “Luke”) wanted to
emphasize.
On average, speeches take up nearly a quarter of the entire narrative in typical Greco-Roman histories. What is striking is
that ancient historians who reflected on the art of their craft, like the Greek historian Thucydides (5th century BCE),
admitted that speeches could never be reconstructed as they were really given: no one took notes or memorized long
orations on the spot. As a result, historians quite consciously made up the speeches found in their accounts themselves,
composing discourses that seemed to fit both the character of the speaker and the occasion. Often, under close analysis,
we can discern the hand of the historian formulating these speeches: writers often employ the same devices, patterns and
phrases…
Men of Boeotia, no one among us generals should ever
have allowed the thought to enter his mind that we ought
not to fight with the Athenians, even although we may not
overtake them on Boeotian soil. They have crossed our
frontier; it is Boeotia in which they have built a fort, and
Boeotia which they intend to lay waste. Our enemies they
clearly are wherever we find them, and therefore in that
country out of which they came and did us mischief. But
perhaps not to fight may appear to some one to be the
safer course. Well then, let him who thinks so think again.
When a man being in full possession of his own goes out
of his way to attack others because he covets more, he
cannot reflect too much; but when a man is attacked by
another and has to fight for his own, prudence does not
allow of reflection….
Thucydides 4.92
Men of Athens, there is not much time for exhortation, but
to the brave a few words are as good as many; I am only
going to remind, not to admonish you. Let no man think
that because we are on foreign soil we are running into
great danger without cause. Although in Boeotian
territory we shall be fighting for our own. If we are victors,
the Peloponnesians, deprived of the Boeotian cavalry, will
never invade our land again, so that in one battle you win
Boeotia and win at the same time for Attica a more
complete freedom. Meet them in a spirit worthy of the
first city in Hellas-of that Athens which we are all proud to
call our country; in a spirit too worthy of our fathers, who
in times past under Myronides at Oenophyta overcame
these very Boeotians and conquered their land.’
Thucydides 4.95

12. Speeches in the Book of Acts
In Acts, both Peter and Paul preach sermons to Jewish crowds, and what they have to say is in many respects remarkably
similar.

13. Themes in the Book of Acts
These themes include:
1. A focus on Jerusalem
2. The Jewishness of the Christian movement
3. The proclamation of the gospel beginning with the Jews and then to the Gentiles
4. The necessary delay of the end while the Christian message spreads
4. The direct connection between the early Christian church and Jesus through the disciples who are filled with the spirit
sent by God.
Rejection in Jerusalem
In keeping with Luke's emphasis in volume one on Jerusalem as the place to which salvation came, the disciples are told to
remain in Jerusalem until they receive the powerful Spirit. In Acts the message of God's redemption goes forth from the
holy city because it is rejected there. Just as Jesus, the prophet, was rejected by his own people in Jerusalem, so to his
apostles will be rejected in Jerusalem. The spreading of the message was anticipated in the sermon of Jesus in Luke chapter
4: because Jews will reject the message, it will be taken outside, to the Gentiles. The book of Acts is largely about this
movement of the gospel from Jew to Gentile, from Jerusalem to the ends of the earth.
Jewishness of Christianity
Jesus was a Jew, sent from the Jewish God is a Jewish
prophet to the Jewish people, and the fulfillment of the
Jewish Scriptures, then isn't this religion Jewish? Surely for a
person to become a follower of Jesus he or she must adopt
Judaism. The author of Acts does not think so. As we shall
see, he devotes a good portion of his history to explaining
why.

14. The Jewishness of Christianity
At the infamous Jerusalem Council, according to the book of Acts, Paul and Barnabas are confronted by Christians from
Judea who insist that Gentile men must be circumcised to experience salvation. This leads to a major controversy. Paul,
Barnabas, and several others are appointed to go to Jerusalem to discuss the matter with the apostles. At this conference,
Peter and James (the “brother of Jesus”) give their opinions in speeches delivered to the assembled body of believers.
Once the apostles, along with the other leaders of the Jerusalem church, have heard the speeches, they are unified in their
judgment and write a letter to the Gentile churches explaining their decision. If this letter ever existed we unfortunately no
longer have a copy (save for the one reported in Acts). The net result is that not just the Jerusalem church but all the
churches in the Empire stand under the leadership of the apostles, the original eyewitnesses of Jesus, who are themselves
totally unified in their teaching. Note that a very different story is told by Paul in Galatians.
The Connection to Jesus
In the book of Acts, the works and events of the disciples’ lives often mirror those of Jesus own life. These parallels are not
simply interesting coincidences. One author has produced both books, and uses the parallel accounts to make a major
point: the apostles continued to do Jesus's work and thereby prolong his mission through the power of the same spirit. Thus
they engage in similar activities, experience similar receptions, and suffer similar fates.
22 Then the apostles and the elders, with the consent of the whole church, decided to choose men from
among their members and to send them to Antioch with Paul and Barnabas. They sent Judas called
Barsabbas, and Silas, leaders among the brothers, 23with the following letter: ‘The brothers, both the
apostles and the elders, to the believers of Gentile origin in Antioch and Syria and Cilicia, greetings.
24Since we have heard that certain persons who have gone out from us, though with no instructions
from us, have said things to disturb you and have unsettled your minds, 25we have decided
unanimously to choose representatives and send them to you, along with our beloved Barnabas and
Paul, 26who have risked their lives for the sake of our Lord Jesus Christ. 27We have therefore sent Judas
and Silas, who themselves will tell you the same things by word of mouth. 28For it has seemed good to
the Holy Spirit and to us to impose on you no further burden than these essentials: 29that you abstain
from what has been sacrificed to idols and from blood and from what is strangled and from fornication.
If you keep yourselves from these, you will do well. Farewell.’
Acts 15.22-29

15. Themes in the Book of Acts
Delay of the End Times
The disciples inquire whether this is the time that the kingdom will be brought to Israel. They expect that now is the time in
which their apocalyptic hopes will be realized, when God will intervene in history and establish his glorious kingdom for his
people. We saw in Luke’s gospel that the author rejected the idea that the end was to occur during the lifetime of Jesus'
disciples. Here as well Jesus tells his disciples not to be concerned about when the end will come. Instead they are to work
in the present to spread the gospel through the power of the Spirit.
7He replied, ‘It is not for you to know the
times or periods that the Father has set
by his own authority. 8But you will
receive power when the Holy Spirit has
come upon you; and you will be my
witnesses in Jerusalem, in all Judea and
Samaria, and to the ends of the earth.’
Acts 1.7-8
31So also, when you see these
things taking place, you know
that the kingdom of God is near.
32Truly I tell you, this generation
will not pass away until all
things have taken place.
Luke 21.31-32
These words of comfort to the apostles may suggest that for Luke, even though
the end of the age was not coming in their lifetime, it was still destined to come
soon. Indeed, Luke may have anticipated that it would come in his own lifetime;
Jesus had yet to return on the clouds of heaven and judgment to set up his
kingdom on earth. Or perhaps Luke and his community believed that the
kingdom could be manifested by a multitude of the faithful. For Luke, the end is
still is at hand, and the gospel needs to be proclaimed with yet greater urgency,
as Jew and Gentile joined together in their faith in the Christ/Messiah of God.
..nor will they say, ‘Look, here it is!’ or ‘There it is!’ For, in fact, the kingdom of
God is among you.”
Luke 17:21

16. The Reversal of the Babel Event: Pentecost
For Luke the Pentecost event most likely signals the beginning all thought restoration of the earth through the
establishment of the kingdom of God.
Immediately following the coming of the Spirit in Acts is the
Pentecost event. The 12 begin to speak in foreign languages that
none of them has previously learned. A large number of Jews from
around the world have gathered in Jerusalem for the feast of of
Weeks (Shavout). Crowds descend upon the spirit filled apostles
and their colleagues; the foreigners are shocked to hear Galileans
speaking to them in their own native language.
20 Once Jesus was asked by the Pharisees when the kingdom of God
was coming, and he answered, ‘The kingdom of God is not coming
with things that can be observed; 21nor will they say, “Look, here it
is!” or “There it is!” For, in fact, the kingdom of God is among you.’
Luke 17.20-21
8Whenever you enter a town and its people welcome you, eat what is set
before you; 9cure the sick who are there, and say to them, “The kingdom of
God has come near to you.”
Luke 10.8-9
2And suddenly from heaven there came a sound like the rush of a violent wind, and it
filled the entire house where they were sitting. 3Divided tongues, as of fire, appeared
among them, and a tongue rested on each of them. 4All of them were filled with the
Holy Spirit and began to speak in other languages, as the Spirit gave them ability.
5 Now there were devout Jews from every nation under heaven living in Jerusalem.
6And at this sound the crowd gathered and was bewildered, because each one heard
them speaking in the native language of each.
Acts 2.2-6
Now the whole earth had one language and the same words. 2And as they migrated from the east, they came upon a plain in the land of Shinar and settled
there. 3And they said to one another, ‘Come, let us make bricks, and burn them thoroughly.’ And they had brick for stone, and bitumen for mortar. 4Then they
said, ‘Come, let us build ourselves a city, and a tower with its top in the heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves; otherwise we shall be scattered abroad
upon the face of the whole earth.’ 5The Lord came down to see the city and the tower, which mortals had built. 6And the Lord said, ‘Look, they are one people,
and they have all one language; and this is only the beginning of what they will do; nothing that they propose to do will now be impossible for them. 7Come, let
us go down, and confuse their language there, so that they will not understand one another’s speech.’ 8So the Lord scattered them abroad from there over the
face of all the earth, and they left off building the city. 9Therefore it was called Babel, because there the Lord confused the language of all the earth; and from
there the Lord scattered them abroad over the face of all the earth.
Genesis 11.1-9

17. To the Ends of the Earth: From Jerusalem to Rome
The geographical spread of the Christian church is not Luke's only concern in Acts. In some ways, he's even more dedicated
to showing how the gospel traveled across ethnic boundaries. Indeed, he goes to great lengths to explain, and justify, how
the Christian Gospel ceased being a message only to Jews. To be sure, the earliest converts were Jews: his closest disciples,
who stand in contrast to the many Jews who rejected the gospel. According to Luke, God therefore opened up the faith to
the non-Jews. This first happens in Acts in chapter 8 with the conversion of a number of Samaritans, people who lived in
Samaria who were considered to be only “half Jews” by many who lived in Judea. Soon thereafter, the apostle Peter learns
through a vision that God means for the Gentiles also to hear and accept the message of salvation in Christ.
Much of the rest of the book
shows how the gospel meets
continual opposition among
Jews in every province to which
it goes but finds ready
acceptance among Gentiles,
especially those associated with
the Jewish synagogues. The
main character involved in
spreading this gospel is Paul
whose ministry ends in the very
heart of the empire, Rome. This
appears to fulfill the anticipation
that the gospel would go to the
“ends of the earth,” for the
message of Christ has now
spread far and wide, and is
proclaimed in the in the capital
city itself.

18. The Jesus Connection
Indeed, even though the 12 apostles rarely appear individually (with the chief exception of Peter), they play a prominent
role in the founding of the church at least at the outset of the narrative.
They are present en masse when Peter preaches his 1st evangelistic sermon, converting several thousand Jews (2:14)
They are the teachers of the newfound community of faith, a community unified around their instruction (2:42)
They perform miracles, convincing others to believe (2:43; 5:12)
They instruct believers/converts by testifying to the resurrection of Jesus (4:33)
They organize and run that early community, distributing funds that are raised and taking care of those in need (4:35–36)
By and large, however, the establishment of the early Christian church is primarily credited two individuals in the book of
Acts: Peter and Paul.
32 Now the whole group of those who believed were of one heart and
soul, and no one claimed private ownership of any possessions, but
everything they owned was held in common. 33With great power the
apostles gave their testimony to the resurrection of the Lord Jesus, and
great grace was upon them all. 34There was not a needy person among
them, for as many as owned lands or houses sold them and brought
the proceeds of what was sold. 35They laid it at the apostles’ feet, and
it was distributed to each as any had need. 36There was a Levite, a
native of Cyprus, Joseph, to whom the apostles gave the name
Barnabas (which means ‘son of encouragement’). 37He sold a field that
belonged to him, then brought the money, and laid it at the apostles’
feet.
Acts 4.32-37

19. Similarities between Peter and Paul
Both perform amazing miracles; both, for example, cure the sick without having any direct contact with them: Peter’s
shadow can healing, as can Paul's handkerchief.
Both are violently opposed by leaders among the Jewish but vindicated by God; they are imprisoned for their teachings yet
delivered from their chains by divine intervention.
Perhaps most important of all in Acts, both become absolutely convinced, on the grounds of divine revelation and the
success of their ministry, that God has decided to admit Gentiles into the kingdom without their first becoming Jews.
so that they even carried out the sick into the streets, and laid them on
cots and mats, in order that Peter’s shadow might fall on some of them
as he came by.
Acts 5.15
so that when the handkerchiefs or aprons that had touched his skin were
brought to the sick, their diseases left them, and the evil spirits came out
of them.
Acts 19.12
Peter Paul
6 The very night before Herod was going to bring him out, Peter, bound
with two chains, was sleeping between two soldiers, while guards in
front of the door were keeping watch over the prison. 7Suddenly an angel
of the Lord appeared and a light shone in the cell. He tapped Peter on the
side and woke him, saying, ‘Get up quickly.’ And the chains fell off his
wrists.
Acts 12.6-8
23After they had given them a severe flogging, they threw them into
prison and ordered the jailer to keep them securely. 24Following these
instructions, he put them in the innermost cell and fastened their feet in
the stocks. 25 About midnight Paul and Silas were praying and singing
hymns to God, and the prisoners were listening to them. 26Suddenly there
was an earthquake, so violent that the foundations of the prison were
shaken; and immediately all the doors were opened and everyone’s
chains were unfastened.
Acts 16.23-26
Peter Paul
34 Then Peter began to speak to them: ‘I truly understand that God
shows no partiality, 35but in every nation anyone who fears him and does
what is right is acceptable to him… 44 While Peter was still speaking, the
Holy Spirit fell upon all who heard the word. 45The circumcised believers
who had come with Peter were astounded that the gift of the Holy Spirit
had been poured out even on the Gentiles…
Acts 10.34, 44
11On the contrary, we believe that we will be saved through the
grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will.’ 12 The whole assembly
kept silence, and listened to Barnabas and Paul as they told of all
the signs and wonders that God had done through them among
the Gentiles.
Acts 15.11-12
Peter Paul
Could the author of Acts have followed a “formula” as he crafted his historical narrative of his two main characters in the
same why he may have followed a formula when (re)constructing speeches?

20. The Cruciform Life (according to Luke)
Readers of the New Testament have long noticed many clear similarities between what happens to Jesus in the Gospel of
Luke and to Christian believers in the book of Acts.
These parallels show that Luke was no mere chronicler of events, set on providing an objective account of the early years of
the Christian movement. He compiled his history with a clear agenda, part of which was to show that the hand of God was
behind the mission of the church as much as it was behind the mission of Jesus himself.
For example, at the beginning of Jesus's ministry in Luke, he
is baptized and receives the spirit; when new believers are
baptized in the book of Acts, they also received the spirit.
The spirit empowers Jesus to do miracles and to preach in
Luke; so too it empowers the apostles to do miracles and to
preach in Acts.
In Luke, Jesus heals the sick, casts out demons, and raises
the dead; and in Acts the apostles heal the sick, cast out
demons, and raise the dead.
The Jewish authorities in Jerusalem confront Jesus in Luke;
the same authorities confront the apostles and Acts.
Jesus is imprisoned, condemned, and executed in Luke;
some of his followers are imprisoned, condemned, and
executed in Acts. Origen: "Peter was crucified at Rome with his head
downwards, as he himself had desired to suffer."

21. The “Passion” of Paul
Near the end of the narrative, Paul makes a final fateful trip to Jerusalem (compare Jesus in the gospel of Luke).
There, Paul is arrested by the authorities at the instigation of the unbelieving Jews and forced to stand trial, for his faith.
Paul's arrest and trials take up a substantial portion of the narrative in Acts (chapters 21–28; comparable to the space
devoted to Jesus's last days in Luke).
In Chapter 28:17–20 we are provided a brief but telling speech.
The characteristic themes of Paul speech should sound familiar:
1. He has done nothing against the Jewish people or Jewish customs, but on
the contrary continues to subscribe in every way to the religion of Judaism
2. He was found to be innocent by the Roman authorities
3. His current problems are entirely the fault of unbelieving Jewish leaders
The clear parallel between Luke’s depiction of Jesus in his gospel and Paul in the Acts of the Apostles cannot be denied.
17 Three days later he called together the local leaders of the Jews. When they had assembled, he said to them, ‘Brothers, though I had done
nothing against our people or the customs of our ancestors, yet I was arrested in Jerusalem and handed over to the Romans. 18When they had
examined me, the Romans wanted to release me, because there was no reason for the death penalty in my case. 19But when the Jews objected, I
was compelled to appeal to the emperor—even though I had no charge to bring against my nation. 20For this reason therefore I have asked to see
you and speak with you, since it is for the sake of the hope of Israel that I am bound with this chain.’ 21They replied, ‘We have received no letters
from Judea about you, and none of the brothers coming here has reported or spoken anything evil about you. 22But we would like to hear from
you what you think, for with regard to this sect we know that everywhere it is spoken against.’
26 ‘My brothers, you descendants of Abraham’s family, and others who fear God, to us the message of
this salvation has been sent. 27Because the residents of Jerusalem and their leaders did not recognize him
or understand the words of the prophets that are read every Sabbath, they fulfilled those words by
condemning him. 28Even though they found no cause for a sentence of death, they asked Pilate to have
him killed.
Acts 13.26-28 (Paul’s perspective on Jesus’ arrest and death in Acts)

22. The Jewishness of Paul in Acts
Just as Jesus is portrayed as fully Jewish in the Gospel of Luke so too is Paul shown to be devoted to his ancestral traditions
even after his conversion in Acts: Paul is a Jewish Christian who does nothing at any time contrary to law of Moses.
To be sure, he's accused of violating the law–when he is arrested in Chapter 21, he's charged with bringing Gentiles into an
area of the Temple reserved for Jews–but Luke goes out of his way to show that the charges categorically false.
This portrayal of Paul is consistent throughout the entire narrative of Acts.
Never does Paul renounce his faith in the God of Israel, never does he violate any of the dictates of the Torah, never does he
spurn Jewish customs or practices. His sole “faults” are his decisions to believe in Jesus and to take his message to the
Gentiles.
For Paul himself, however, neither his newfound faith nor his Gentile mission compromises Jewish religion; quite the
contrary, these represent the fulfillments Judaism.
27 When the seven days were almost completed, the Jews from Asia, who had seen him in
the temple, stirred up the whole crowd. They seized him, 28shouting, ‘Fellow-Israelites, help!
This is the man who is teaching everyone everywhere against our people, our law, and this
place; more than that, he has actually brought Greeks into the temple and has defiled this
holy place.’ 29For they had previously seen Trophimus the Ephesian with him in the city, and
they supposed that Paul had brought him into the temple. 30Then all the city was aroused, and
the people rushed together. They seized Paul and dragged him out of the temple, and
immediately the doors were shut. 31While they were trying to kill him, word came to the
tribune of the cohort that all Jerusalem was in an uproar. 32Immediately he took soldiers and
centurions and ran down to them. When they saw the tribune and the soldiers, they stopped
beating Paul. 33Then the tribune came, arrested him, and ordered him to be bound with two
chains; he inquired who he was and what he had done. 34Some in the crowd shouted one
thing, some another; and as he could not learn the facts because of the uproar, he ordered
him to be brought into the barracks. 35When Paul came to the steps, the violence of the mob
was so great that he had to be carried by the soldiers. 36The crowd that followed kept
shouting, ‘Away with him!’
Acts 21.27-36
“No foreigner may enter within the railing and
enclosure surrounding the temple. Whoever is
captured will have himself to blame for his
subsequent death.”
-Inscription found at the entrance to the
inner-court at Herod’s Temple

23. A Pharisee of Pharisees
Moreover, Paul insists that belief in the resurrection is the cornerstone of the Jewish religion.
For him failure to believe in Jesus's resurrection results from a failure to believe that God raises the dead.
Failure to believe that God raises the dead is to doubt the Scriptures and deny the central affirmation of Pharisaic Judaism.
For this reason, according to Paul's speeches, faith in Jesus's resurrection is an affirmation of Judaism, not a rejection of it.
This does not mean that Paul maintains that Gentiles have to become Jews in order to belong to the gospel of God.
In fact, Gentiles are allowed to remain Gentiles and are not compelled to practice circumcision or to keep kosher food laws.
For Luke this is far from a rejection of Judaism; throughout his book, Jews like Paul remained Jewish, even after coming to
the faith in Christ.
22To this day I have had help from God, and so I
stand here, testifying to both small and great,
saying nothing but what the prophets and
Moses said would take place: 23that the Messiah
must suffer, and that, by being the first to rise
from the dead, he would proclaim light both to
our people and to the Gentiles.’ 24 While he was
making this defense, Festus exclaimed, ‘You are
out of your mind, Paul! Too much learning is
driving you insane!’ 25But Paul said, ‘I am not
out of my mind, most excellent Festus, but I am
speaking the sober truth. 26Indeed the king
knows about these things, and to him I speak
freely; for I am certain that none of these things
has escaped his notice, for this was not done in
a corner. 27King Agrippa, do you believe the
prophets? I know that you believe.’
Acts 26.22-26
32And we bring you the good news that what God promised to our ancestors 33he has fulfilled for us, their
children, by raising Jesus; as also it is written in the second psalm, “You are my Son; today I have
begotten you.” 34As to his raising him from the dead, no more to return to corruption, he has spoken in
this way, “I will give you the holy promises made to David.” 35Therefore he has also said in another
psalm, “You will not let your Holy One experience corruption.” 36For David, after he had served the
purpose of God in his own generation, died, was laid beside his ancestors, and experienced corruption;
37but he whom God raised up experienced no corruption. 38Let it be known to you therefore, my brothers,
that through this man forgiveness of sins is proclaimed to you; 39by this Jesus everyone who believes is set
free from all those sins from which you could not be freed by the law of Moses. 40Beware, therefore, that
what the prophets said does not happen to you: 41 “Look, you scoffers! Be amazed and perish, for in
your days I am doing a work, a work that you will never believe, even if someone tells you.” ’
42 As Paul and Barnabas were going out, the people urged them to speak about these things again the
next Sabbath. 43When the meeting of the synagogue broke up, many Jews and devout converts to
Judaism followed Paul and Barnabas, who spoke to them and urged them to continue in the grace of God.
Acts 13.32-42

24. Death of Judas
Only two passages of the New Testament describe the death of Judas: Acts 1:18–19 and Matthew 27:3–10.
It is interesting to compare their similarities and differences.
Is it possible that there actually was a field in Jerusalem made up of red clay and called the Field of Blood because of its
color? A slight piece of evidence for this conclusion derives from Matthew, who indicates that it was a “Potters Field”
(27:10), that is, a field from which clay was extracted for pottery. It is difficult to decide whether Judas actually killed himself
there, whether he was at some point its owner, or whether his blood money was used to purchase it, or a combination of
any of these.
At the least, we can say that later Christians came to associate this clay lot with the disciple who had betrayed his master
and then experienced a violent death.

25. The Theology of Luke
Luke portrayed Jesus as a mighty prophet who did fantastic miracles, who is lawlessly executed by evil leadership but is
vindicated by God, who raised him from the dead in fulfillment of the Scriptures in his Gospel.
This portrayal is consistent throughout the book of Acts.
For Luke, Jesus' death does not bring atonement directly. Nor does Jesus's resurrection, in itself, bring salvation. Instead,
Jesus's resurrection demonstrates a vindication by God. For Luke, when people recognize how maliciously Jesus was
treated, they realize their own guilt before God–even if they were not present at Jesus's trial. For Luke, all have committed
sins and the death of Jesus is a symbol of the worst sin imaginable, the execution of the prophet chosen by God. If God can
vindicate the sin associated with the execution of Jesus, so to can God forgive your unrighteousness. All one need do is
repent and believe in the power of God.
The news of Jesus' death and vindication drives people to their knees in repentance. When they turn from their sin and join
the community of Christian believers, they are forgiven and granted salvation.
Thus, salvation for Luke does not come through the death of Jesus per se; it comes through repentance and the forgiveness
of sins.
13The God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, the God of our ancestors has glorified his servant Jesus, whom you handed over and rejected
in the presence of Pilate, though he had decided to release him. 14But you rejected the Holy and Righteous One and asked to have a murderer given to you…
22Moses said, “The Lord your God will raise up for you from your own people a prophet like me. You must listen to whatever he tells you. 23And it will be that
everyone who does not listen to that prophet will be utterly rooted out from the people.” 24And all the prophets, as many as have spoken, from Samuel and
those after him, also predicted these days. 25You are the descendants of the prophets and of the covenant that God gave to your ancestors, saying to
Abraham, “And in your descendants all the families of the earth shall be blessed.” 26When God raised up his servant, he sent him first to you, to bless you by
turning each of you from your wicked ways.’
Acts 3.13-14; 22-26

26. The Theology of Luke: Fulfillment Citations
In the opinion of most Jews of the first century, those who proclaimed Jesus as the Messiah had not only lost touch with
their Jewish roots, they had also violated the clear teaching of Scripture.
For Luke, the entire Christian movement after Jesus is a fulfillment of Scripture.
This theme is played out in the narrative of Acts and is anticipated already by the opening words of Peter's first speech.
Peter argues that the death of Judas, and the need to replace him with someone else, was predicted by David in the Psalms.
Taken in context it is difficult to understand how anyone could think that these psalms predict what was going to happen
hundreds of years later to one of Jesus's followers.
15 In those days Peter stood up among the believers (together the crowd numbered about one hundred and twenty people) and said, 16‘Friends,
the scripture had to be fulfilled, which the Holy Spirit through David foretold concerning Judas, who became a guide for those who arrested
Jesus…
Acts 1.15-16
To the leader. Of David. A Psalm.
1 Do not be silent, O God of my praise. 2
For wicked and deceitful mouths are
opened against me, speaking against
me with lying tongues. 3 They beset me
with words of hate, and attack me
without cause. 4 In return for my love
they accuse me, even while I make
prayer for them. 5 So they reward me
evil for good, and hatred for my love.
20 May that be the reward of my
accusers from the Lord, of those who
speak evil against my life.
Psalm 109.1-10, 20
To the leader: according to Lilies. Of David.
Save me, O God,
for the waters have come up to my neck.
2 I sink in deep mire,
where there is no foothold;
I have come into deep waters,
and the flood sweeps over me.
3 I am weary with my crying;
my throat is parched.
My eyes grow dim
with waiting for my God.
4 More in number than the hairs of my head
are those who hate me without cause;
many are those who would destroy me,
my enemies who accuse me falsely.
22 Let their table be a trap for them,
a snare for their allies.
23 Let their eyes be darkened so that they cannot see,
and make their loins tremble continually.
24 Pour out your indignation upon them,
and let your burning anger overtake them.
25 May their camp be a desolation;
let no one live in their tents.
26 For they persecute those whom you have struck down,
and those whom you have wounded, they attack still more.*
27 Add guilt to their guilt;
may they have no acquittal from you.
28 Let them be blotted out of the book of the living;
let them not be enrolled among the righteous.
29 But I am lowly and in pain;
let your salvation, O God, protect me.
Psalm 69.1-3, 22-29
17for he was numbered among us and was allotted his share in this ministry.’ 18(Now this man acquired a field with the reward of his wickedness;
and falling headlong, he burst open in the middle and all his bowels gushed out. 19This became known to all the residents of Jerusalem, so that
the field was called in their language Hakeldama, that is, Field of Blood.) 20‘For it is written in the book of Psalms, “Let his homestead become
desolate, and let there be no one to live in it”; and “Let another take his position of overseer.”
Acts 1.17-20

27. The Theology of Luke: Fulfillment Citations
Luke's interpretation of the Psalms tell us something about what was happening at the time of Luke within the Christian
community.
Christians were evidently combing the Jewish Scriptures to find indications of what had been fulfilled in their midst, not
only in the life of Jesus but also in the life of their own communities.
The fact that Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John all demonstrate in their own unique ways that Jesus is the fulfillment of the
Jewish Scriptures ought not to be overlooked.
In fact, the attempt to reconcile the events with prophecy found in Scripture was a widespread practice within first century
apocalyptic and eschatological minded Jews. The following a a very short list of such scriptures in the Rabbinical literature:
Luke's view that Christianity is of the fulfillment of Scripture indicates that God himself was behind the Christian movement.
This indeed is perhaps the overarching theme of the entire narrative.
33 When they heard this, they were enraged and wanted to kill them. 34But a Pharisee in the council named Gamaliel, a teacher of the law,
respected by all the people, stood up and ordered the men to be put outside for a short time. 35Then he said to them, ‘Fellow-Israelites, consider
carefully what you propose to do to these men. 36For some time ago Theudas rose up, claiming to be somebody, and a number of men, about four
hundred, joined him; but he was killed, and all who followed him were dispersed and disappeared. 37After him Judas the Galilean rose up at the
time of the census and got people to follow him; he also perished, and all who followed him were scattered. 38So in the present case, I tell you,
keep away from these men and let them alone; because if this plan or this undertaking is of human origin, it will fail; 39but if it is of God, you will
not be able to overthrow them—in that case you may even be found fighting against God!’
They were convinced by him…
Acts 5.33-39
1. Gen 1.2 (Isa 11.2, Lam.
2.19)
2. Gen 2.4 (Gen 3.15, Ruth
4.18)
3. Gen 4.25 (Ber. R. 23; m.
Ruth 4.19)
4. Gen 5.1 (Ber. R. 24)
5. Gen 14.1 (Ber. R. 42)
6. Gen 15.18 (Ber. R. 44)
7. Gen 19.32 (Ber. R. 51)
8. Gen 22.18 (Bemid. R. 2)
9. Gen 33.1 (the midrash co-
joins this with Is 66.7,
notes that the before the
first oppressor was born,
the last Redeemer was
already born.
10. Gen 38.1,2 (Ber. R. 85)
11. Gen 49.1 (Ber. R. 98)
12. Gen 49.9 (Yalkut 160 and
Ber. R. 98)
13. Gen 49.10 (Yalkut u.s.;
midrash on Gen 49.10, on
Prov 19.21, or Lan 1.16; all
the targums)
14. Gen 49.12 (targum ps-jon
and the jeru.targ)
15. Gen 49.17 (last clause, in
the Midrash--Ber.R.98)
16. Gen 49.19 (Ber. R. 99, but
cf. Ber. R. 71)
17. Gen 50.10 (at the close of
Ber.R.)
18. Ex 4.22 (midr on Ps 2.7)
19. Ex 12.2 (Shem r. 15)
20. Ex 12.42 (jeru.targ)
21. Ex 15.1 (mekilta)
22. Ex 16.25 (Jer. Taan. 64a)
23. Ex 16.33 (Mechil)
24. Ex 17.16 (ps-J.targ)
25. Ex 21.1 (Shem R. 30)
26. Ex 40.9,11 (ps-J.targ)
27. Lev 26.12 (Yalkut 62)
28. Lev 26.13 (Ber. R. 12)
29. Num 6.26 (Siphre on Num
par. 42)
30. Num 7.12 (Bem. R. 13)
31. Num 11.26 (J.targ)
32. Num 23.21 (ps-J.targ; see
also Num 24.7 in the
J.targ)Num 24.17
(onk.targ; ps-J.targ; Jer.
Taan. 4.8; Deb r. 1; Midr.
on Lament 2.2)