In-depth case study exploring violations of human rights in Niger, pertaining specifically to the background, causes, and solutions to female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) and child labor; written for PSC 354 (Human Rights & Global Affairs) under the supervision of Hans Peter Schmitz, Ph.D, and Lindsay Burt, Ph.D candidate

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Human Rights Violations in Niger:
Grievances to the Woman and Child
Eric N. Evangelista
PSC 354: Human Rights & Global Affairs
Professor Hans Schmitz, Lindsay Burt
9 December 2014

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Table of Contents
Executive Summary………………………………………………………………………3
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………4
Human Rights Violations
Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C)……………………………………6
Child Labor………………………………………………………………………9
Causes of Violations
Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C)....…………………………………12
Child Labor………………………………………………………………………15
Solutions to Violations
Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C)……………………………………17
Child Labor………………………………………………………………………20
Works Cited……………………………………………………………………………...22

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Executive Summary
According to the International Human Rights Rank Indicator, Niger is currently
ranked 170th in the world for their human rights provision and maintenance. The most
grievous violations, specifically to women and children, are female genital mutilation or
cutting and child labor.
Female genital mutilation or cutting (FGM/C) is defined as any and all procedures
involving partial or total removal of the external female genital organs or other injury to
the female genitalia, for reasons that are specifically cultural or non-therapeutic. FGM/C
violates Articles 2, 5, and 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, causing
severe physical, emotional, and psychological harm to the long-term health of women.
FGM/C is ultimately caused by pressure on women and girls to marry young, remain
faithful to their husbands, and facilitate easier intercourse and childbirth. Solutions to this
grievance include improved legislation, widespread awareness campaigns, and increases
in education.
Child labor is defined as work that deprives children of their childhood, potential,
and dignity, and is harmful to their physical and/or mental development. Child labor is a
violation of Articles 23 and 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, often
costing children their education and causing physical harm. The most commonly cited
cause for child labor is poverty, however, educational barriers, culture and tradition,
economic factors, and inadequate or poor enforcement of legislation and policies also
play a role. Solutions to this grievance include widespread promotion, reformed
legislation, and increased regulation.

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Introduction
Despite a vast supply of natural resources like uranium, coal, gold, and petroleum,
the Republic of Niger is characterized by the Human Development Index as one of the
poorest countries in the world. Located in Western Africa, the 22nd largest country on
Earth has a total area of 1.267 million square kilometers and a population of
approximately 17.5 million. As reported by the Office of the High Commissioner for
Human Rights, Niger historically endures ethnically motivated violence, usually arising
from disputes between the Tuareg and Toubou rebels. In February 2010, a coup d’état
was staged in response to a unilateral change made to the country’s constitution, resulting
in the ousting of President Mamadou Tandja and the dissolution of his government. Since
then, Niger has become a semi-presidential republic led by President Mahamadou
Issoufou, who was elected in 2011.
Niger struggles enormously in a number of areas: high levels of corruption,
perpetuated by a lack of transparency, prevent citizens from sharing in the country’s
wealth. Impunity is also problematic in Niger, and arises, in part, from the scarcity of
legal infrastructure, specifically a lack of qualified staff to administer the justice system.
Those who are legally qualified tend to gravitate towards Niamey, the capital city of
Niger, to seek employment, making it more difficult for people living in other cities and
rural areas to obtain legal representation.
The country also faces food supply shortages on a seasonal basis; approximately
70% of the population depends on local produce and subsistence farming. Citizens’
ability to provide for themselves is affected every year, from June to September, when
crop availability is low. A 2010 national survey revealed that approximately 7 million

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people are affected by food insecurity in Niger (Office of the High Commissioner for
Human Rights).
According to the Central Intelligence Agency, the African nation is 7th in infant
mortality rates (86.27 deaths per 1,000 live births) and 208th in life expectancy (a
staggeringly low median of 54.74 years). Only 28.7% of the population is literate, and the
degree of risk for major infectious diseases like hepatitis A, malaria, and meningococcal
meningitis is extremely high, exacerbated by the fact that there are no more than 0.02
physicians and 0.31 hospital beds per 1,000 members of the population, and only 5.3% of
the gross domestic product is spent on health expenditures (2011), placing Niger 128th in
the world. Furthermore, the GDP per capita is one of the lowest, ranking 222nd of 228,
and 63% of citizens live below the poverty line.
In addition to being politically, legally, medically, and fiscally vulnerable, Niger
also experiences a high number of human rights violations, ranked 170th by the
International Human Rights Rank Indicator. Among the numerous grievances to human
rights, female genital mutilation or cutting and child labor persist in being two of the least
publicized, yet most egregious, infringements on human rights.

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Human Rights Violations: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C)
Female genital mutilation or cutting (FGM/C) is a violation of Article 2 (freedom
from discrimination), Article 5 (freedom from subjection to cruel or inhuman treatment),
and Article 25 (right to adequate standard of health care) of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights (UDHR). Female genital mutilation or cutting is defined as “‘all
procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other
injury to the female genital organs whether for cultural or other non-therapeutic reasons”’
(Nour 9). Although there are many forms of FGM/C, the two most prevalent in Niger are
the dangouria and the clitoridectomy.
Dangouria is described as a procedure during which the hymen of newborn girls
is cut away, and occurs during two stages of adolescence. The first is performed within
the first 10 days after birth, and involves the cutting away of and removal of the
membrane with a traditional razorblade (UNICEF). The second segment of the operation
is performed on girls who are to be married, and whose bodies have not yet fully
matured. Generally performed between the ages of 9 and 15, this procedure involves
creating an incision in the vaginal opening to facilitate sexual intercourse. The
clitoridectomy, considered the simplest form of FGM/C, involves cutting away the skin
covering the tip of the clitoris, known at the prepuce. The most commonly found form of
the clitoridectomy removes all or part of the clitoris, in addition to the narrow ridges of
tissue near the vaginal opening, called the labia minora.
In the article, “Female Genital Mutilation”, by FGM campaigner Efua Dorkenoo
and peace activist Scilla Elworthy, the consequences that result from FGM/C, both
physical and psychological, are identified. Depending on the gravity of the mutilation,

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hygienic conditions, skill of the performer, and struggles of the child, death from
bleeding can occur, and is not uncommon. Long-term complications include chronic
infections of the uterus and vagina, painful menstruation, anxiety, post-traumatic stress,
severe pain during intercourse, sterility, and complications during childbirth (Dorkenoo,
Elworthy).
In 2003, Niger began taking steps to eradicate the practice by revising the penal
code to include provisions on prison sentences and fines for those who perform the
procedure. The Nigerien government has also worked with non-governmental
organizations (NGO’s) and international organizations to launch campaigns aimed at
spreading awareness about the dangers of FGM/C. According to the 2012 Demographic
and Household Survey (DHS), 82.4% of women questioned thought the practice should
not continue, but these operations still take place in Niger, despite campaign efforts and
altered legislation, which has since been translated into all of Niger’s local languages. As
reported by, “Priorities in Child Survival, Education and Protection”, published by the
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 2.2% of women between the ages of 15 and
49 have been subjected to genital mutilation or cutting. This figure, however, conceals
ethnic and regional disparities. Evidence from the Social Institutions and Gender Index
and data from the 2012 DHS demonstrate the shifts ethnic and regional groupings cause
in the prevalence of FGM/C. In the Tillaberi region, up to 9% of respondents reported
having had the procedure performed.
In a June 2007 report from the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women, the United Nations and the Office of the High
Commissioner for Human Rights praised the Nigerien government for its implementation

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of legislation aimed at preventing FGM/C, but expressed concern for the prevalence of
violence against women, including domestic violence, forced and early marriage, and
sexual abuse, in addition to female genital mutilation or cutting. The report also conveyed
concerns about the lack of a comprehensive strategy to combat all forms of violence
against women (Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women).
Female genital mutilation or cutting is a violation of Article 2 of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights because the practice is happening exclusively to women.
According to the UDHR, Article 2 states that all human rights listed in the Declaration
are inalienable, regardless of any bias that may be present. The occurrence of FGM/C is
an example of other articles being violated based on discrimination towards women.
Article 5 of the UDHR, which prevents cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment, is being
violated because FGM/C in its current format is not medicalized, and as a result, the
women who have undergone the operation experience a plethora of health-related issues
that cause long-term complications and even death.
The violation of Article 5 extends to Article 25, which guarantees a standard of
living adequate for the heath and well being of an individual; Article 25 is being violated
because these procedures, in their current form, violate women’s rights to a standard of
health. The previously mentioned consequences of FGM/C cause devastating, long-term
harm to those who experience it, and until the practice is medicalized, a women’s right to
health is being compromised.

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Human Rights Violations: Child Labor
Child labor is a violation of Article 23 (right to just and favorable conditions of
work) and Article 26 (the right to education) of the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights. According to the International Labour Organization, the term child labor is often
defined as work that deprives children of their childhood, potential, and dignity, and is
harmful to their physical and/or mental development. This can refer to work that is
mentally, physically, socially, or morally dangerous or harmful to the child, work that
interferes with schooling, thereby depriving them of the opportunity to attend school or
obliging them to leave school permanently, or requires them to attempt to combine school
attendance with excessively long and/or heavy work.
According to the Central Intelligence Agency, approximately 1.6 million
Nigerien children engage in child labor. The United States Department of Labor reports
that working children make up 47.8% of Niger’s population of citizens between the ages
of 5 and 14, and the 2009 National Child Labor Survey indicated that more than 30% of
children between the ages of 5 and 17 engage in hazardous work, particularly in the
agricultural and mining sectors.
The U.S. Deportment of Labor categorizes the sector and industries children
engage in as agricultural, industrial, and service-based. In the agricultural sector, children
are involved in the production of pepper and rice, the herding of cattle and goats, or
fishing, among other jobs. Approximately 13.6% of working children between the ages of
5 and 14 are employed in the agricultural sector. In the industrial sector, children could
be mining for trona, salt, gypsum, natron, and gold, or quarrying, both of which are
considered by Nigerien national law or regulation to be hazardous. Children could also

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engage in metal work, welding, or mechanical repair, and could be working in
construction, tanneries, or slaughterhouses. Approximately 4.3% of children work in the
industrial sector. Child labor is most prolific in the service industry, where 82.2% of
children find employment. In this sector, children could be doing street work, including
vending, or domestic services.
The worst forms of child labor include the commercial sexual exploitation of
children or domestic service and mining, sometimes as a result of human trafficking.
Forced begging and caste-based servitude, including work as a cattle herder, agricultural
worker, or domestic servant, is also considered to be one of the most severe forms of
child labor (U.S. Department of Labor).
The effects of child labor, even in its most minor forms, have devastating effects
on children, particularly their accessibility to schooling. Working, in any capacity,
eliminates time for children to focus on other pursuits. As written by Eric V. Edmonds, a
Professor of Economics at Dartmouth College, in the Handbook of Development
Economics, “There are fixed number of hours in a day. As such, time spent working
necessarily trades off with other uses of child time such as play, study time, or time in
school” (Edmonds 3640).
Based on calculation from pooled MICS data, Edmonds utilizes a graph depicting
school attendance in comparison to the total number of hours worked by children to
further convey his point. The children who worked ten hours or less each week had
attendance rates between approximately 90% and 100%. Children who worked between
fifty and sixty hours per week were shown to have attendance rates of 60% or less.

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According to the U.S. Department of Labor, approximately 26.3% of children between
the ages of 7 and 14 are combing work and school.
Another consequence of child labor is health-related; working conditions that are
safe and healthy for adults do not always reciprocate to children. According to the Child
Labor Public Education Project of the University of Iowa Labor Center and Center for
Human Rights, consequences of child labor, depending on the industry, can include rapid
skeletal growth, risk of hearing loss, greater need for food and rest, higher chemical
absorption rates, and lower heat tolerance.
Niger has made moderate efforts to eliminate the worst forms of child labor. In
2013, the Nigerien government rescued more than 400 children who were begging on the
streets, secured five child-trafficking convictions, and increased the budget for each
regional labor inspectorate from $6,000 to $12,000. Niger has also ratified all key
international conventions concerning child labor, including the minimum age for work
and hazardous work, protocol on armed conflict, and protocol on trafficking in persons
(U.S. Department of Labor).
Child labor is a violation of Article 23 of the UDHR, which guarantees the right
to just and favorable work conditions. As aforementioned, approximately 30% of
children are engaging in hazardous work, which can cause numerous complications to a
child’s development and/or health. This violation directly relates to the violation of
Article 26 of the UDHR, under which the right to education is guaranteed; children who
work in excess or in particularly draining fields are unable to attend school due to the
lack of available time or energy, preventing proper growth and development.

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Causes of Violations: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C)
Although the causes for female genital mutilation or cutting are numerous and
debatable, it is evident that an overabundance of justifiable explanations exist. One of the
arguments that can be made to suggest the prevalence of FGM/C is a domino effect that
exists in the African continent. According to UNICEF, procedures in Niger most
commonly occur in the Tillaberry region, which borders Burkina Faso and Mali, and the
Diffa region, which borders Chad and Nigeria. All of these nations practice FGM/C, with
more than 80% of women between the ages of 15 and 49 experiencing the procedure in
Mali (UNICEF). Despite the presence of female genital mutilation or cutting in
surrounding states, a regional explanation is not one of the more commonly cited causes
of FGM/C.
Dr. Nawal Nour, board certified Obstetrician/Gynecologist at Brigham and
Women’s Hospital and Associate Professor at Harvard Medical School, discusses the
more common reasons for FGM/C. In her article “Global women’s health - A global
perspective”, she writes, “The main reasons given for perpetuating FGC include
improving hygiene and fertility, preserving chastity, marking a rite of passage, ensuring
marriageability, and enhancing sexual pleasure for men” (9).
Although many women no longer support the practice, the prevalence of FGM/C
is maintained. The article by Dorkenoo and Elworthy further examines the reasoning for
the procedures from a psychological and societal perspective, writing, “An unexcised,
non-infibulated girl is despised and made the target of ridicule, and no one in her
community will marry her. Thus what is clearly understood to be her life’s work, namely
marriage and childbearing, is denied her” (398). The practice is espoused by the necessity

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of marriage for young girls (Nour writes that 75% of girls in Niger are married before the
age of 18, the highest percentage of any nation in the world), and the perception that
FGM/C will result in numerous benefits for both the woman and her future husband.
Additional causes for FGM/C are cited in, “Africa battles to make female genital
mutilation history”, a March 2007 article by author and researcher Wairagala Wakabi. In
his piece, Wakabi highlights the changing attitudes towards female genital mutilation in
nations like Guinea, Egypt, and Kenya, where high amounts of procedures are reported.
This progress, however, was coupled with the acknowledgement that the practice remains
widespread throughout Africa. Wakabi writes, “Many African communities believe
female genital mutilation prevents girls from being unfaithful to their future husbands…”
(Wakabi). The author also determines that, “Poor education and low levels of income
among women in African counties, coupled with inadequate governmental support in
efforts to eradicate the practice, mean it will take longer to stamp out”.
As evidenced in the 2003 law banning FGM/C in Niger, in tandem with
approximately sixteen other nations that have laws banning the practice, the government
is not always to blame for FGM/C’s pervasiveness. As previously reported, Niger is one
of the poorest nations on the planet. Even a nationwide campaign emphasizing the
lethality of FGM/C would not reach rural groups; often times, these are the people who
continue to engage most in the practice, and they often have their own distinct sets of
beliefs and practices, which also makes the causes of FGM/C religious.
According to UNICEF, the groups most-affected by female genital
mutilation/cutting are the Fulanis, the Gurmantches, the Shuwa and Ousta Arabs, and the
Tubus. As reported in “The Cultural Debate over Female Circumcision” by medical

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anthropologist and Purdue University professor Ellen Gruenbaum, FGM/C is practiced
all over the African continent as a way to preserve the cultural, ethnic and religious
heritage of groups like these. Many often believe that it is a critical part of their survival,
and not performing these surgeries would lead to the extinction of their people and way
of life.
Gruenbaum also notes that the global perception could be a cause for the
perpetuation of FGM/C. She writes,
“Efforts to change circumcision practices that have neglected to analyze its causes
- and resort to ‘tradition’ as the sole explanation - are problematic. When
reformers assume that people follow ‘tradition’ for no conscious reason, they
overlook the complexity of decision-making processes within a culture and the
competing demands on individuals. As a result, reform programs can result that
do nothing but preach against ‘ignorance.’ Thus international efforts to ‘eradicate’
female circumcision (as if it were a disease), though often couched in seemingly
progressive feminist rhetoric, sound condescending to many African women. The
response has often been a cultural backlash, characterized by a defense of
traditions by African women against what is perceived as Western cultural
imperialism” (Gruenbaum 456).
The evidence presented by Gruenbaum provides additional insight into an often-
overlooked cause perpetuating FGM/C: the efforts to stop the practice in the first place. If
women in Africa do feel the way Gruenbaum reports, then it is possible that campaigns
by national governments and RSO’s have been ineffective all along.

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Causes of Violations: Child Labor
Child labor is a complex issue, and a number of factors influence whether a child
will work or not. The most compelling reason that emerges for child labor is poverty.
According to the United Nations, poor households spend the majority of their income on
food, and the income generated by the working children is often critical to their survival.
Numerous other factors, however, often play a role, including education, culture and
tradition, economic feasibility, and inadequate/poor enforcement of legislation and
policies.
As aforementioned, a compromised education is often the most devastating effect
of child labor. According to the Central Intelligence Agency, expenditures for education
only constitute 4.2% of Niger’s $7.4 billion gross domestic product. Basic education is
not free or compulsory in all countries, and is not always accessible for all children,
particularly those in remote rural areas. Where schools are available, the education
quality can be poor. Where education is not affordable or accessible, or when parents do
not see value in education, children are sent to work rather than school.
Culture and tradition also play a role in the prevalence of child labor, in Niger and
all over the world. With few educational opportunities open to children, a frequently cited
cultural norm is the utilization of children for labor, which many parents considered to be
the most productive use of a child’s time. Children are expected to follow in their
parents’ footsteps and are often summoned to aid other family members, usually
beginning from a very young age.
Economic factors also maintain the presence of child labor, including market
demand and income shock. Employers may prefer to hire children because they generally

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cost less than adults, and are seen as easily dispensable if labor demands fluctuate.
Children are also considered to be more obedient, and are not expected to easily or often
seek organized protection and support. The effects of income shocks on households also
plays a role in the prevalence of child labor; households that do not have the means to
combat income shocks, like natural disaster, economic or agricultural crises, or medical
burdens such as HIV, AIDS, may resort to child labor as a mechanism for coping.
Finally, inadequate laws and enforcement can be cited as a cause of child labor.
According to the Child Labor Public Education Project, child labor laws around the world
are often not enforced or include exemptions that allow for child labor to persist in
certain sectors, like agriculture or domestic work. According to the U.S. Department of
Labor, Niger has ratified all key international conventions concerning child labor, but
even in countries where strong child labor laws exist, labor departments and inspection
offices are often under-funded and/or under-staffed. The fault may also fall to the courts,
which often fail to enforce the laws. Similarly, many nations allocate few resources to
enforcing child labor laws.

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Solutions to Violations: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C)
There are nearly as many proposed solutions to female genital mutilation/cutting
as there are causes, whether through governmental intervention, education programs,
public relations campaigns, etc. As stated in the Conventions on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination against Women, “The Committee urges the State party to raise
awareness about the law prohibiting female genital mutilation and ensure the
enforcement of this law. It urges the State party to strengthen its awareness-raising and
education efforts, targeted at both men and women, to eliminate the practice of female
genital mutilation and its underlying cultural justifications. It also encourages the State
party to devise programmes for alternate sources of income for those who perform female
genital mutilation as a means of livelihood” (Committee on the Elimination of
Discrimination against Women 10).
For a nation whose gross domestic product is so low, incorporating requests such
as these listed above is easier said than done. It is necessary to note, however, that the key
to education is prevention. In her article, “Global women’s health - A global
perspective”, Dr. Nour writes, “Grassroots, national, and international organizations have
worked to encourage abandonment of this practice. In some nations FGC has been
outlawed, but enforcement is difficult. Educating and empowering girls, women,
families, and religious leaders about the health and human rights issues surrounding FGC
has been an effective means of stopping this practice” (10).
One woman leading the charge for education is Agnes Pareyio, a member of the
Masai tribe in Kenya. As a child who experienced female genital mutilation/cutting,
Pareyio is now an activist who runs the Tasaru Girls Rescue Center, a safe house that

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teaches girls that they can get an education and decide on their own future over the course
of a five-day program. Pareyio was able to begin the program with the support of the
United Nations Population Fund, author/feminist Eve Ensler, and V-Day, Ensler’s non-
profit group that works to end violence against women. After the success of the first safe
house, requests have come to Pareyio from all over Africa, exemplifying the leading role
education is playing in the fight against FGM/C.
The success of Agnes Pareyio comes in two parts, primarily from her creation of a
program to empower and inspire young girls, but also through the coverage her work has
received. Investigative journalist Jan Goodwin published the information noted above in
a 2007 article, titled, “From Mutilation to Salvation”, in Marie Claire magazine. A step
further from nationwide public relation campaigns, stories like this, published in a
popular, globally recognized format, bring issues like female genital mutilation/cutting to
the forefront of discussion and encourage involvement in organizations dedicated to the
prevention, protection, and prosecution of the citizens, victims, and perpetrators of
nations who practice and who have experienced FGM/C.
A far more controversial approach to solving the issue of female genital
mutilation/cutting is medicalization, which initially seems ideal; the individuals who feel
it necessary to have the operations performed would be satisfied, since FGM/C would
still occur. Instead of traditional methods though, procedures would be done with
sterilized instruments, in a secure, professional setting, by experts who would perform the
surgeries correctly. The controversy behind medicalization comes in two parts: first, to
medicalize would be to lose a significant amount of the cultural aspects that have become

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so definitive in the practice of FGM/C. Two, medicalizing the process does not solve the
problem.
As reported in the article, “The medicalization of female ‘circumcision’: harm
reduction or promotion of a dangerous practice?” University of Washington anthropology
professor Bettina Shell-Duncan believes that the medicalization is simply a “harm-
reduction strategy”, and is not in fact a solution to FGM/C, but rather something like a
band aid. Even if this perspective is true, the fact is that if it were possible to medicalize
the process, a large amount of the complications that come as a result of the procedures
would be alleviated.

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Solutions to Violations: Child Labor
There are not many solutions available or feasible to alleviate or reduce child
labor, however, promotion and widespread, public awareness campaigns persist in being
effective. In the article, “Child Labor: Cause, Consequence, and Cure, with Remarks on
International labor Standards”, Kaushik Basu, Senior Vice President and Chief
Economist of the World Bank and Professor of Economics at Cornell University,
emphasizes the role of globalization in bringing information about the conditions of labor
in different nations to academics and activists around the world. He writes,
“What has increased is the awareness of and concern for children who work as
laborers…This has, in turn, brought two very different kinds of people onto the
same platform - individuals who are genuinely concerned about the plight of
children in poor countries, and those who comprise the forces of protectionism in
developed countries. The two have rallied together to support a variety of
interventions in Third World labor markets, ranging from banning imports into
industrialized nations of products ‘tainted’ by child labor inputs, through setting
international labor standards to be monitored by international organizations such
as the WTO or ILO, to labeling products that involved child labor so as to give
the consumer the option to boycott them” (1083).
This increase in awareness and promotion is a necessary component to the eradication of
child labor, not just in Niger, but also around the world. If there is no longer a demand for
products created by children, then there will be no need for labor. Unfortunately, the
sectors of child labor go beyond productions and manufacturing, particularly in Niger,
where most children work in the domestic services and agricultural sector. Spreading

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awareness about child labor isn’t going to alleviate the poverty that runs rampant in
nations like Niger.
As a result, some nations have taken it upon themselves to legalize child labor, as
a way to enable children to generate income while also protecting them. As reported in a
July 2014 NPR article, titled “Bolivia Makes Child Labor Legal, In An Attempt To Make
It Safer”, a new law in Bolivia allows children as young as ten to legally work. Since the
United Nations convention sets a minimum age at 14, this has led to criticism from many
international human rights groups. Supporters for the legislation have stated that law
guarantees legal protection and fair wages for children, many of whom would be working
regardless of the laws in place against it.
The article states, “It allows children who are between 10 and 12 who are
currently working on the streets to work without sort of being moved along by the police.
And children who are 12 to 14, now if they have a problem with their employer, have a
legal leg to stand on. And they're supposed to be paid minimum wage, just like an adult,
and enjoy the same rights as a worker”. If other nations began taking steps similar to
those in Bolivia, child labor would become further regulated, providing increased
security and rights to children working. Legislation that could later be implemented could
include laws that mandate the amount of hours a child is allowed to work per week in
addition to attending school and stringent regulations and greater enforcement on the
types of jobs children could obtain.

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Works Cited
"Africa: Niger." Central Intelligence Agency. Central Intelligence Agency, n.d. Web. 23
Sept. 2014.
Basu, Kaushik. "Child Labor: Cause, Consequence, and Cure, with Remarks on
International Labor Standards." Journal of Economic Literature 37.3 (1999):
1083-119. JSTOR. American Economic Association. Web. 15 Oct. 2014.
"Bolivia Makes Child Labor Legal, In An Attempt To Make It Safer." NPR. NPR, 30
July 2014. Web. 1 Nov. 2014.
"Child Labour." Resources for Speakers on Global Issues. UN, n.d. Web. 15 Oct. 2014.
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. Rep.
United Nations, 11 June 2007. Web. 24 Sept. 2014.
Dorkenoo, Efua, and Scilla Elworthy. "Female Genital Mutilation." (n.d.): 396-403. Print.
Edmunds, Eric V. "Child Labor." Handbook of Development Economics. Ed. T. Paul
Schultz and John A. Strauss. Vol. 4. N.p.: n.p., 2007. 3049-4036. Print.
"Ellen Gruenbaum." Purdue Liberal Arts. Purdue University, n.d. Web. 1 Nov. 2014.
"Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor - Niger." United States Department of
Labor. U.S. Department of Labor, 2012. Web. 26 Sept. 2014.
<http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/niger.htm>.
Goodwin, Jan. "From Mutilation to Salvation." Marie Claire. Hearst Communication
Inc., 7 Dec. 2007. Web. 24 Sept. 2014.
Gruenbaum, Ellen. "The Cultural Debate over Female Circumcision." Wiley. American
Anthropological Association, n.d. Web. 1 Nov. 2014.

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"Health Issues." Child Labor Public Education Project. University of Iowa Labor
CenterUniversity of Iowa Labor Center and Center for Human Rights, n.d.
Web. 1 Nov. 2014.
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