2. Introduction
• Alcohol
– the king of liquids
– excites the taste to the highest degree
– various preparation have opened up to mankind
new sources of enjoyment
– a well known social lubricant
– excessive use produce the most harm to society
of all drugs of abuse (NIAA 2005)
3. Alcohol – the molecule
• Alcohol represents a wide series of compounds
• The alcohol suitable for drinking is ethanol
• Ethanol is a small molecule
– With low binding energy
& compared to other drugs
– A high Hill coefficient,
– require much higher concentrations for intoxication
4. Alcohol - Pharmacokinetics
• Universal solvent
• Readily miscible in water &
• Low lipid solubility
• Readily crosses the cell membrane
• Absorption
– 20% in stomach
– 80% in small intestine
• Elimination
– 5~10% excreted unchanged in urine & from lung
– Rest : metabolized in liver
6. Pharmacokinetics & Dependence
Genetic variation in alcohol metabolizing enzymes
Allelic variation in ADH/ALDH system is responsible for
differential alcohol elimination
Inactivation of ALDH2: protective factor against alcohol
dependence
Mutant ALDH2 gene:
Mongoloids: 40~50%
Native Americans: 2~5%
Europeans: 0%
(Goedde 1992)
7. Pharmacokinetics & Dependence
• Metabolic tolerance
– Increased MEOS activity
– P4502E1 is increased 4 times in liver biopsies
of alcoholics
(Tsutsumi 1989)
– increased alcohol dehydrogenase activity
8. Alcohol-Pharmacodynamics
• Old theory:
Alcohol increases membrane fluidity leading to altered
function of macromolecules in the cell membrane
• Recent Evidence :
Alcohol binds to hydrophobic pockets of proteins,
changing their three-dimensional structure and their
function
– Ion channels
– Neurotransmitter receptors
– Enzymes involved in signal transduction
9. Alcohol : CNS Effects
• Alcohol is a CNS depressant
• Apparent stimulatory effects result from
depression of inhibitory control mechanisms in the
brain
• Characteristic response:
– euphoria,
– Anxiolytic like effect,
– impaired thought processes,
– decreased mechanical efficiency
10. Alcohol & CNS
Neurotransmitter systems
• GABAergic system
• Glutaminergic system
• Serotonergic system
• Dopaminergic system
• Nicotinic acetylcholine system
• Glycine neurotransmitter
system
• Nor epinephrine systems
• Endogenous opioid system
• Endocannabinoid system
• Neurosteroids
• neuropeptides
Voltage gated ion channels
• Calcium channel
• Sodium channel
• Potassium channel
Second messenger systems
• Adenosine
Protein kinases
Neurotrophic factors
11. GABA acts on two receptor subtypes GABAa & GABAb
GABAa receptors are pentameric protein connected to a chloride
channel
GABAa receptors have a magnitude of subunits : α β γ δ
GABA
system
12. GABA system
• Renders acute central effects
– Anxiolytic, sedative, anticonvulsant, motor
incoordination
• Enhances GABAergic neurotransmission
– Presynaptic : increase GABA release
– Postsynaptic : agonist to GABAa receptor
• > direct action
• > facilitate GABA binding
(Roberto 2003)
Net effect: increased Cl influx > hyperpolarisation
13. GABA system
• Alcohol potentates GABAa mediated inhibition
– Selective
– depend on the heterogeneity of GABAa receptor
subunit composition (Criswell 2005)
– No single composition implicated
– Presence of α2 subunit increases sensitivity to alcohol
• Also act on GABAb receptor
– Counter the action of GABAa ( Weiner 2004)
14. GABA system
• Alcohol does not increase GABAa mediated inhibition in
all brain regions, all cell types in the same region, nor at all
GABAa receptors on the same neuron
• Molecular basis for the selectivity of the action of alcohol
on the GABAa receptor has been proposed to depend on
the heterogeneity of GABAa receptor subunit composition
(Criswell 2005)
• Various composition have been proposed by different
researchers
• Controversery still present in this regard
15. GABA system
• Effect of chronic alcohol exposure
– Down regulation of GABAa receptor
• Reduced no of GABA-benzodiazepine receptor complex,
especially in frontal lobes
• Reduction of receptors is related to amount of alcohol &
severity of addiction
• Decrease in GABA agonist induced Cl flux
• Reduced gene expression ( mRNA & protein) for alpha1
subunit of GABAa receptor (Malcom 2003)
16. Glutamate system
• Main excitatory neurotransmitter in brain
• 2 categories of receptors
– Ionotropic: NMDA, AMPA, kainate
– Metabotropic: G-protein coupled
• Alcohol : inhibitory effect on NMDA recptors
EPSP
blocks Ca influx inhibits
LTP
• Also inhibits other receptors (Carta 2002)
17. Glutamate system
• Play important role in memory & learning
• Play important role in
– Reinforcing effect in alcohol intake
– Repeating alcohol through learning of environmental
cues
• Glutamate antagonists claimed to suppress conditioning
behavior caused by alcohol
(Shaham 2002)
• Clinical study: reduced cue-induced relapse
(Backstrom 2004)
18. Glutamate system
• Adaptation to chronic alcohol exposure
– Up-regulation of NMDA system
• Increase in receptor subunits
• Increase interaction of NMDA with intracellular messengers :
increase NO synthesis
– Up-regulation of non NMDA pathways
– Increase synaptic glutamate release
• Net result: increased glutamate activity
– In locus ceruleus: withdrawal symptoms
– In neocortex: amnesia
19. Glutamate system
• Protracted withdrawal
– Increased NMDA receptors in VTA
– Hyperexciation in mesolimbic DA pathway
– Depolarization blockade
– Decrease in dopamine release (Rossetti 1998)
• Time course for dissipation of the change in NMDA receptor
properties paralleled the time course for disappearance of protracted
withdrawal symptoms (Snell 1996)
• NMDA antagonists effective in protracted withdrawal
20. Dopaminergic system
• Alcohol increases synthesis & release of dopamine
• Positive reinforcing property of alcohol because of activatation of
mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway
– Dopamine neuron with cell bodies in VTA
– Projections to the NA, amygdala, frontal cortex & other limbic areas
• Proved in animal studies & electrophysiological studies
• Greater increase in alcohol preferring rats
• Administration of dopamine agonists decreased alcohol intake in P
rats (Weiss 1993)
21. Dopaminergic system
• How alcohol increases dopaminergic activity?
– Direct excitatory cellular activation (Brodie 2000)
– Inhibit NMDA receptors (glutamatergic system exerts tonic
inhibitory control on mesolimbic dopaminergic neurons)
(Hoffman 1995)
– Promote binding of opioid agonists to μ receptors present on cell
bodies of dopamine neuron in VTA (Di Chiara 1988)
– Glycine recept in NA also act as a target for alcohol in its
mesolimbic DA activating effect (Molander 2005)
22. Dopaminergic system
• Result of chronic alcohol intake
– Decrease mesostriatal dopamine activity in animal
– Decrease level of dopamine & its metabolites in alcoholic patients
(Diana 1996)
– Adaptive change (increased density) of dopamine receptors
(Rommelspacher 1992)
• Consequences: gradual increase in reward threshold
23. Serotonergic system
• Alcohol stimulate serotonin release in NA
(Yoshimoto 1991)
• 5-HT3 receptor system is implicated in mediating alcohol
sensitivity
– Microinjection of serotonin in VTA enhance dopamine release in
nucleus accumbens
– This dopamine release can be blocked by 5-HT3 antagonist
(Campbell 1995)
24. Serotonergic system
• Some of the pleasurable effects of alcohol are mediated by binding to
5-HT3 receptors
– Shown by co-administration of alcohol & 5-HT3 antagonist
(Johnson 1993)
• Majority of the studies support the hypothesis that increase in
Serotonergic function leads to decrease in alcohol consumption
• Conversely majority of the studies don’t support that decrease in
Serotonergic function leads to increase in alcohol consumption
(LeMarquand 1994)
• Serotonin transporter density was lower in cortex of alcoholic subjects
(Manterew 2002)
25. Endogenous Opioids
• Endogenous opioid systems modulates reinforcing & other
actions of alcohol.
• Reduced alcohol consumption & reduced alcohol-
reinforced operant responding in μ receptor null mutant
mice (Gianoulakis 2001)
• Exact mechanism still not clear
• Increases exrta-cellular β-endorphin levels in nucleus
accumbens (Olive 2001)
26. Endocannabinoid system
• Endocannabinoid & CB1 receptor involved in brain reward
mechanism
• CB1 receptor activation associated with increased DA release in NA
(Gessa 1998)
• CB1 antagonist shown to decrease voluntary alcohol intake in
Sardinian alcohol- preferring rat
(Colombo 1998)
• In mice lacking CB1 receptor gene
– Reduced voluntary intake of alcohol
– Completely lacked alcohol induced DA release as compared to wild mice
(Basalingappa et al 2003)
27. Endocannabinoid system
• Chronic alcohol intake
– increases synthesis of endogenous cannabinoids
– down regulation of CB1 receptors & its signal transduction
(Basavarajappa 2002)
• Above findings
– Provides a novel basis for development of drug targeting CB1
receptor function as a potential treatment for alcohol dependence.
28. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor system
• Ethanol potentiates central n-Ach receptor function
• Ethanol induced activation of mesolimbic dopamine
system is mediated by stimulation of n-Ach receptor in
ventral tagmentum area
• Imply a role in modulation of ethanol’s
reinforcing/motivational effect
(Soderpalm 2000)
29. Neurosteroids
• Ethanol increases de novo synthesis of neurosteroids in
brain by local action independent of HPA axis
– Increase allopregnanolone content in brain without any increase in
plasma corticosteroids
– Modulate GABAa receptor function : increase amplitude of
GABA mediated IPSP
– May contribute to disturbances in reproductive functions &
associated psychiatric disorder Chronic alcohol exposure
decreases the sensitivity of GABA recptors to neurosteroids
(Paolo 2005)
30. Neuropeptides
• Two neuropeptides appear to be involved in
alcohol related stress
– Corticotropin releasing factor : increased stress
response & negative affect
– Neuropeptide Y : anxiolytic properties
31. Neuropeptides
• Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF)
– Behavioral response to stress mediated by CRF occurs
independently of the HPA axis
– Two receptors : CRF1 & CRF 2
– Anti anxiety property of alcohol involve a suppression of brain
CRF system
– Chronic ethanol exposure
• up regulation of CRF receptors
• hypersensitivity to stress
– Abstinence
• Heightened CRF activity
• A key mediator of the anxious state
• Increased susceptibility to relapse (Valdez 2004)
32. Neuropeptides
• Neuropeptide-Y (NPY)
– Alcohol potentiate the activity of NPY
– mediate anti anxiety & sedative action of alcohol
– Chronic alcohol exposure : blunted NPY activity
(Badia 2003)
– Negative reinforcing effects of alcohol
• Alcohol self administration to alleviate anxiety during
withdrawal (Glenn 2004)
33. Norepinephrine
• During initial stage of alcohol withdrawal
– Excess norepinephrine activity in the region of LC (kovacs 2002)
– Increased level norepinephrine in plasma & CSF (Patkar 2003)
• These findings are indirect indicators of alcohol’s
suppressive action on norepinephrine system
(Ertugrul 2006)
34. Calcium channel
• Effect not only NMDA-dependent Ca channel, but also voltage-gated
calcium channel
• Acute alcohol intake inhibit passage through voltage-gated CA
channel
• chronic alcohol intake causes up-regulation of these channel
(Morad 2003)
• Hyper excitation in alcohol withdrawal is partly due to hyperactivity of
these channel
• CA channel inhibitors is considered useful in treatment of alcohol
withdrawal & in prevention of withdrawal sensitization
(Uzbay 2004)
35. Second Messenger system
• Alcohol inhibits adenosine reuptake
increases extra cellular adenosine
promotes activation of adenosine A2 receptor
activation of cAMP-PKA second messenger system
stimulation of cAMP response-element binding protein (CREB)
gene expression changes via stimulation of CREB transcription
• Changes in gene expression is an important reason of down-regulation
or sensitization of different neurotransmitter system
36. Neurotrophic Factors
• Growth factors important for the development &
maintenance of nervous system
• Ethanol increases NGF (nerve-derived growth factor) &
FGF( fibroblast growth factor) induced signal conduction
to nucleus (Roivainen 1996)
– Produce modulatory effects on neuronal signaling & synaptic
plasticity
– Protect neuronal cells against alcohol’s neurotoxic effects
– Helps to maintain tolerance to alcohol’s effects (Valenzuela 1996)
37. Why do Some Become Addicted?
Occasional /controlled/social use
Chronic/compulsive/uncontrollable use
Genetic variables
Environmental factors
Psychosocial factors
Drug related factors
All
?
41. Reinforcing effect of alcohol
• Through wide, but selective action on neurotransmitter
systems in the brain reward system
• GABA system
– Systemic injection of GABAa antagonists decrease operant
alcohol self- administration (Rassnick 1993)
– Selective GABA-b receptor agonist baclofen also decrease alcohol
self administration (Janak 2003)
• Endogenous opioid peptide system (Herz 1997)
– Naltrexone decreases alcohol drinking & self administration in a
variety of animal models (O’Malley 1992)
– clinical use of naltrexone in preventing relapse
42. Reinforcing effect of alcohol
• Mesolimbic dopamine system
– Alcohol self administration increase extra cellular levels of dopamine in
nucleus accumbens in non dependent rats
(Weiss 1993)
– Micro- injections of dopamine receptors antagonists in basal fore-brain
decrease responding for alcohol (Koob 1995)
– Lesion in the mesolimbic dopamine system fail to block operant self
administration of alcohol (Lyness 1992)
• Serotonergic transmission
– increases in the synaptic availability of serotonin with precursor loading
& blockade of serotonin reuptake , decrease alcohol intake
(Sellers 1992)
– Microinjection of 5-HT3 antagonists into amygdala of rats significantly
attenuated alcohol drinking (Kostowski 1995)
43. Reinforcing effect of alcohol
• Other systems attributing to positive
reinforcement
– NMDA glutamate system
– Endocannabinoid system
44. Tolerance
• Progressive shift to right in the concentration-
response function
• gradual decrease in positive reinforcing effects of
alcohol
– Depositional
– Functional : Neuro-adaptive responses to chronic
alcohol exposure
– Down-regulation of GABA, dopamine, endocannabinoids,
neurosteroids, NPY
– Up- regulation of glutamate, calcium channel, CRF
45. Withdrawal & dependence
• A latent state of hyper excitability, representing a
rebound phenomenon from the previously
chronically depressed CNS
• The classic neurotransmitters associated with
regulating the positive reinforcing properties of
alcohol, are compromised during alcohol
withdrawal
46. Withdrawal & dependence
• Negative emotional aspects of withdrawal appear to be more involved
in continued alcohol craving (Glenn 2004)
• Physical withdrawal symptoms are not highly correlated with relapse
in alcoholics
• <25% of the alcoholics attributed physical withdrawal symptoms for
continued drinking whereas >80% of these same patients reported
drinking due to feeling of anxiety, irritability or depressed mood
(Hershon 1997)
• Follow-up study: human alcoholics showed strong correlation between
negative affective symptoms & relapse up to 2 years following
withdrawal (De Soto 1999)
• Rats self-administer alcohol up to 8 weeks post withdrawal in absence
of any physical withdrawal signs (Roberts 2002)
47. Withdrawal & dependence
• protracted withdrawals underscore the chronic nature of
alcohol dependence
• negative affective states are a diving factor in relapse
following long term abstention from alcohol
• The learned association between alcohol & alleviation of
negative affect appears to be critical to excessive drinking
during dependence
48. Withdrawal & dependence
Kindling
• Repeated withdrawals from chronic alcohol intake lead to a
progressive intensification of the withdrawal syndrome
• Increases the severity of physical signs of withdrawals
• Influence the affective & motivational component of withdrawal
• Proved in multiple animal models (Rimodini 2003)
• Results from progressive sensitization of ongoing neuroadaptive
changes with each withdrawal episode
• Stress is capable of facilitating the neuroadaptive processes related to
withdrawal (George 2004)
49. Withdrawal & dependence
Neurochemical basis of physical withdrawal
• Decreased GABA receptor function
• Increased glutamate receptor function
• Increased norepinephrine activity
• Hyperactivity of voltage gated calcium channel
50. Withdrawal & dependence
• Neurobiological basis of the motivational effect of alcohol
withdrawal
– counteradaptive neurochemical events within the brain emotional
system, normally used to maintain emotional homeostasis
(Koob 2001)
– compromised brain reward system as reflected in increase in brain
reward threshold (Schulteis 1996)
• Neurotransmitters involved
– CRF, NPY, dopamine, serotonin, GABA, glutamate
51. Withdrawal & dependence
• Corticotropin-releasing factor
– Increase in extra cellular level of CRF in amygdala during alcohol
withdrawal (Olive 2002)
– Anxiogenic like responses during acute & protracted withdrawal
reversed by intra-cerebral & systemic administration of CRF
antagonist (Breese 2005)
– CRF antagonists that have no effect on alcohol self administration
in non-dependent rats effectively eliminates excessive drinking in
dependent rats
(Valdez 2002)
52. Withdrawal & dependence
• Neuropeptide Y
– Acute withdrawal : decrease in the level of NPY in amygdala & piriform
cortex (Roy 2002)
– NPY administered intra-cerebroventricularly decreases alcohol intake
(Thorsell 2002)
• Dopamine
– Mesolimbic dopamine function is also compromised during alcohol
withdrawal
– Animals self-administered just enough alcohol to return the dopamine
level in the nucleus accumbens back to pre-dependence baseline level
(Weiss 1996
– Reduced dopaminergic neurotransmission is prolonged, outlasting the
physical signs of withdrawal (Bailey 2000)
53. Withdrawal & dependence
• Glutamate receptor system
– Competitive glutamate NMDA antagonists partially
reversed the anxiogenic-like effects of alcohol
withdrawal (Gatch 1999)
• Other systems potentially involved in the
anxiogenic-like effects of alcohol withdrawal
include serotonergic & GABA systems
54. Allostasis
• Allostasis is a concept that was first used to described fluctuation in
blood pressure & immune system function that were inexplicable in
terms of homeostasis.
• Whereas homeostasis refers to the consistency of internal parameters
within a normal range, allostasis describes maintaining a state of
stability outside the normal range in which body varies the parameters
of its physiological systems to match environmental demands
• Allostasis takes into account the concept of tolerance & sensitization
& involves two separate systems : brain reward system & brain stress
regulating system
55. Allostasis
• When alcohol is taken, a positive mood state is experienced followed
by an equally powerful negative affective state.
• Following the negative affect the mood of the alcoholic would return
to a normal homeostatic baseline level
• On repeated administration of alcohol, the positive mood state
diminishes due to tolerance, whereas the subsequent negative affective
state becomes greater due to sensitization
• With progression of time, alcohol use shifts from an state of positive
reinforcement to negative reinforcement state
56. Allostasis
• Chronic elevation in reward threshold
– decrease in the function of GABA, dopamine, serotonin & opioid peptides
in brain reward pathway due to tolerance
• Dysregulation of brain stress system
– involves central nucleus of amygdala, locus ceruleus, & the
hypothalamus
– maintains a balance between CRF & NPY & this balance is crucial in the
regulation of stress, anxiety & depression
– Chronic ethanol intake alter the long term function of CRF & NPY system
• NPY system becomes blunted
• CRF system gets sensitized
57. Allostasis
• Enduring changes in these 2 systems leads to the
development of allostatic state that is represented by
– Chronic deviation of reward set point
– A new set point for mood regulation
• Allostatic state is clinically manifested as loss of control &
compulsive drinking in a failed attempt to regulate their
mood in a homeostatic range
• The neurocircuitry pathology persists into protracted
abstinence, thereby providing a strong motivational basis
for relapse
60. Neurochemical markers Joelle et al 2002
• Whether vulnerability to alcoholism is associated with pre-
existing abnormality within neurotransmitter system?
• Indices of activity of 5 neurotransmitter systems assessed
in Alcoholics & their children
– GABA, 5-HT, DA, NE, B-endorphine
• 3 criteria to be met for identification of a trait marker
– Heritability
– State independent
– Associated with alcoholism in general population
61. Biological markers Joelle et al 2002
• Studies included
– Baseline studies
– Challenge test studies
– Bio-chemical & neuroimaging studies
– Postmortem studies
– Studies compared neurochemical activities between alcoholics &
unrelated non-alcoholic controls
– Twin & adoption studies
– Studies compared neurochemical activities between individuals at
high risk for alcoholism & low-risk controls
62. Biological markers Joelle et al 2002
• Outcomes
– Increased baseline activity of serotonin transporter
– Increased responsiveness of the pituitary B-
endorphin system to challenges
– Decreased responsiveness in GABA neurotransmission
& reduced baseline GABA level in plasma
– Decreased dopamine receptor reactivity & low plasma
dopamine level
63. Biological markers
• Limitations
– Not assessed in family co-segregation studies
• COGA: collaborative study of the genetics of alcoholism
– Candidate genes on chromosome 4 & 11 reported for genetic
linkage to alcohol dependence ( Long et al 1998)
– GABA receptor gene on chromosome 4 & dopamine receptor
gene on chromosome 11
65. Conclusion
• Simplest molecule among all substance of abuse
• Wide & complex interaction with neurobiological systems
• No neurotransmitter system spared
• Despite of extensive research & better understanding of
neurobiological basis of its action over last few decades
– only two molecules with limited efficacy for long term pharmacological
intervention
– still to look forward for a better medication
• Warrants more research : large scale-long term clinical trials with
newer molecules which showed efficacy in preclinical studies & small
scale clinical trials