Kuchler Maps Project Report (2)

The Dynamics to Vegetation Mapping: An Ode to A.W. Küchler
Dale Hathaway, Meghan Jones, Ross Keasling, Courtney Misich
Miami University

ii of 44
[ii]
Table of Contents
Executive Summary........................................................................................................................ 1
Introduction and Project Definition: Meghan Jones and Courtney Misich .................................... 2
Literature Review............................................................................................................................ 3
Historical Approaches: Ross Keasling ........................................................................................ 5
Küchler Maps Georeferencing........................................................................................................ 8
Methods: Dale Hathaway............................................................................................................ 8
Results: Courtney Misich.......................................................................................................... 10
Example Uses of Georeferenced Küchler Map Collection........................................................... 12
Discovery in the United States and Spread since 2002: Dale Hathaway.................................. 15
Results: Dale Hathaway............................................................................................................ 19
Discussion: Dale Hathaway ...................................................................................................... 21
Urban Growth: No One Settles in the Upper Peninsula ............................................................... 22
Introduction: Meghan Jones...................................................................................................... 22
Development of Urban Areas in Michigan: Courtney Misich .................................................. 24
Methods and Workflow: Courtney Misich................................................................................ 27
Results: Meghan Jones and Courtney Misich ........................................................................... 30
Discussion: Courtney Misich and Meghan Jones ..................................................................... 33
Historic Küchler Maps, 1830-1940: Courtney Misich.......................................................... 33
1966 Natural Potential Vegetation and Urban Areas: Meghan Jones ................................... 35
Bibliography.................................................................................................................................. 36
Appendix....................................................................................................................................... 37

1 of 44
[1]
Executive Summary
The Miami University Libraries acquired a collection of over two-thousand A.W.
Küchler vegetation maps in the 1980s. They have since, scanned the collection and teamed up
with the Geography 442 course to begin the georeferencing process. Many goals were set in the
beginning of the project, one being to provide uses for the maps in analysis. Two concepts were
created to achieve this goal; both selecting the study area of Michigan The first dedicated to
analyzing the migratory and infestation patterns of the invasive, Emerald Ash Borer. The second
utilizes Küchler's Potential Natural Vegetation map and various others to analyze potential loss
of vegetation as a result of urban sprawl. Together, these concepts used to achieve this goal use
similar methodologies in employing the use of GIS and Miami Universities Küchler map
collection. In conclusion, the team has utilized their newly georeferenced maps to aid in the
overall analysis of the dynamics to vegetation in Michigan.

2 of 44
[2]
Introduction and Project Definition: Meghan Jones and Courtney Misich
In 1986, John Vankat, previously a Professor of Botany led Miami University in
acquiring over two-thousand vegetation maps from the Augustus W. Küchler collection
(Grabach). Since, this collection has been archived and preserved. Starting in the fall of 2015,
Miami University Libraries, specifically Eric Johnson the Numerical and Spatial Data Services
Librarian and Ken Graback the Maps Librarian, have teamed up with Robbyn Abbitt’s Advanced
Geographic Information Systems course for the purpose of placing the maps into a web interface
to ensure their survival and availability for research. They have already undergone the process of
scanning and storing onto a web-drive; now in the third semester of this continuous project,
group members, Dale Hathaway, Meghan Jones, Ross Keasling, and Courtney Misich have been
working diligently to aid in this process.
There were five goals set by the librarians, Eric and Ken, for this project. These include:
(1) recording the map’s legend into a common spreadsheet, (2) create collarless images of the
maps, (3) georectify the collarless images, (4) record bounding longitude and latitude for use by
the library catalogue, and (5) to provide uses for the maps by analyzing them in various aspects.
The team aiding Miami University Libraries this year has chosen to use the Küchler vegetation
maps to analyze two factors: how invasive species like Emerald Ash Borer have affected
vegetation, like Ash trees, and how urbanization land-use trends in have affected vegetation;
both utilize the study area of the state of Michigan.
The project report has been divided into individual chapters with sections in each for
methods and workflow, results, and discussion. This decision was made in order for the research
results to stand on their own hypotheses and data in order to provide users with a comprehensive
and concise report for each data and analysis product. First, the group presents an overview of

3 of 44
[3]
the Küchler map collection and its impact on vegetation mapping. Then, the team indulges in a
literature review to address how geographic information systems can interpret the vegetation
maps in order to update the current maps and analyze historical trends and contemporary issues
facing vegetation. The Küchler map project section discusses the workflow and methods of
digitizing the vegetation map collection, which is four of the five goals, set out by the client.
Moreover, in the results and discussion section the group reflects on the completed maps as well
as how problems and setbacks were managed.
Then the team presents the final goal; finding uses for analysis involving the Küchler
collection, in separate sections describing the two factors: invasive species like Emerald Ash
Borer and urbanization trends in land-use maps. Each section will contain its own methods,
results, and discussion in order to provide a unique case study on how to utilize the Küchler
maps in contemporary research. In the conclusion, the implications of the Küchler maps are
demonstrated by connecting the digitization process with the two cases studies.
Literature Review
Vegetation Mapping: Meghan Jones
In order to discuss the goals and workflow of the Küchler collection project, there is a
need to form a better understanding of vegetation mapping and the importance in georeferencing
historical documents. Vegetation maps derive from the union of botany and geography (Küchler
and Zonneveld, 1); while they are diverse in their use and type. There are two broad categories:
physiognomy and floristic (Küchler, 160). The physiognomy approach provides information on
the description of the appearance of vegetation and the floristic approach focuses on the
distribution of individual plant species (Küchler, 161), which is the predominant portion of

4 of 44
[4]
Miami’s Küchler collection. In his book, Küchler states three main uses of vegetation maps. The
first being a scientific tool for analyzing the environment and their relationships with vegetation
and their location. The second states they are valuable in measuring changes in vegetation and
the third is that maps can serve as a basis for planning future land-use (Küchler and Zonneveld,
1).
The process of georeferencing delivers spatial information to paper documents providing
the ability to align with real-world geographic features (Fleet et al.). In the case of Miami
University, the historic vegetation maps are given spatial reference points that coincide with their
real-world representations, giving them the ability to correlate with reality. Advantages to
georeferencing historic documents include: an improved retrieval mechanism, a better
understanding of early map contents and how they were constructed, combining map data (in
regards to the Küchler collection, vegetation) with other physiological aspects for further
analysis, and comparing multiple historic, georeferenced maps to understand change (Fleet et al.)
Tsioukas (1) states that creating a georeferenced digital-image file can prove beneficial for the
study and comparative analysis of historic landscapes.
One problem in mapping out vegetation, though, is that it is dynamic in the sense that it
continuously evolves. Recognizing this is important and using both, a historical and
technological approach can aid in the process of identifying change. Küchler and Zonneveld
suggests that comparing maps of the same location from different dates can shed light on, “…the
exact rate and direction of change …and, in turn, can show the nature of the processes involved
in this evolution” (321). In reference to land-use, vegetation maps are very useful in detecting
change and can show improvement or deterioration of vegetation from anthropogenic forces
(Küchler and Zonneveld, 326).

5 of 44
[5]
Historical Approaches: Ross Keasling
In the era, that A.W. Küchler was performing his mapping and forest surveys, tools and
processes were much different from the modern methods of the twenty-first century. Formal
forestry mapping within the United States and more specifically the Great Lakes region started in
1922 with the Land Economic Survey Program (Chase, 2). This program was initiated in
response to the rapid depletion of natural resources, especially that of timber.
Land surveyors of this time utilized tools and instruments adequate for the job; however,
they were much more laborious and less efficient in comparison to those of today’s standards.
The primary tool of the day was a “chain”(Figure 1); these chains were ruggedly constructed but
precise measuring tools. They were calibrated often but could be dragged through rough terrain
for years (Backsight Magazine, 1). At this point in history, one important aspect of using the
chain as a form of measurement was, the chain had been the preferred unit of measure on most
prior United States land survey to date. Its use included the surveying of millions of mapped
acres charted in sections, townships and ranges. Foresters prefer using the same system and units
of measure that were originally used to survey most forest boundaries on public lands. (Nix, 1)
These chains could be
obtained in various styles and by
different names. Those used in
the forest service were called a
“Gunter” or land surveyors chain
and were sixty-six feet long
consisting of one hundred, equal
sized, oval links, each connected with two round rings. Each link including the rings were seven

6 of 44
[6]
and ninety-two hundredths inch long. Each chain set had handles at each end and formed the end
links. In addition, included in the Gunter style chain were ‘tallies” marking the ten, twenty,
thirty and fortieth links with the fiftieth being rounded to distinguish it from the others
(Backsight Magazine, 1). The methodology was equally lacking advancement. In the past, land
surveying results were not highly accurate, not due to the abilities of the land surveyors
themselves, but due to the inaccuracy of the tools to which they had access. Another tool used in
conjunction with the chains were a common compass (Land Surveyors.com, un-named author)
Gifford Pinchot developed the primary method of land survey and assessment in the early
1930’s; he developed a plan of systematic inventories in which strip sampling was used. The
methodology utilized samples, which were “1-chain wide and 10-chains long”. Crews of three
persons, consisting of two measurers and one tallyman (LaBau, 14), laid out these small square
plots.
These strip methods were utilized by various surveyors of the time. Also used was a
method known as the line plot method. This was somewhat like the cruise line; however, it used
a system of following compass lines, spaced parallel, and ten miles apart. On these lines were
quarter acre plots at intervals of 660 feet (ten chains) apart. The circular, quarter acre plots had a
radius of 58.87 feet. It was later discovered that problems arose with the line plot method and in
the late 1930’s; statisticians recommended abandoning the strip and line plot methods. The
surveying methods, however, did not change much until after World War II when sampling
methods incorporated photogrammetric techniques (LaBau, 14).
Technological Approaches: Meghan Jones
Next to the historical approach is a technological one. Introduced in Küchler and
Zonneveld’s Vegetation Mapping (1988), the use of geographic information systems (GIS) is a

7 of 44
[7]
beneficial way to store and analyze multiple data together (163). Pros to the use of GIS in terms
of vegetation change analysis is that the user can combine geographic and non-geographic
aspects together like time, elevation, location, and vegetation type; but can also retrieve specific
aspects for analysis. This is time and cost effective (Küchler and Zonneveld, 165-180).
Franklin et al. and Peterson et al. provide real-world case studies of the application of
GIS in regards to forest resource management and historical land-cover analysis, respectively.
From their article, Franklin et al. used vegetation maps to assess forest resources and provide a
baseline for land-cover; they stated that change in vegetation could present information like
ecosystem distribution, habitat suitability, and more (1211). Their methods include both remote
sensing and GIS aspects; processing was done at the pixel value, but all was later converted into
vector format. They used georeferenced data, Landsat images, terrain models, and other GIS data
to analyze forest health and change. Overall, the map they derived was cost efficient, and very
accurate to aid in land management decisions (Franklin et al. 1212-1213). The methods used can
relate to the analysis of invasive species effects on vegetation change, their results can similarly
be used in forest health, and management practices.
Peterson et al. uses a Küchler potential natural vegetation (PNV) map to compare to a
current (study completed in 2004) map of Kansas. This was used to reflect on change induced
from anthropogenic forces since European settlement, similar to the urbanization analysis
completed with the Miami Küchler collection on Michigan. They manually digitized the PNV
map, converted it to raster format, recoded the legend to eight classes, and completed a change
analysis based on the vegetation classes (Peterson et al. 106-107). They accounted for error with
classification differenced but concluded that significant changes have occurred with different

8 of 44
[8]
vegetation types. This study and methods can be directly involved in the team’s Michigan
change analysis.
Küchler Maps Georeferencing
Workflow: Ross Keasling (Appendix A)
Methods: Dale Hathaway
The Küchler Map collection workflow (Figure 2) was broken down into multiple steps in
order to project maps within the ArcMap program and have them shown on an online database.
Through this online database, all can reference the Küchler Map collection. A portion of this
large collection was given to our group in order to digitize these maps through the semester. The
files were provided for us to use through the CIM lab computers; this was saved on a hard drive,
in order for us to use numerous computers within the lab.
The first step in the process was to collect metadata. This process began with reading the
map and recording the items that were located within the legend. These were uploaded into a
spreadsheet and labeled as a point, polygon, or line for later software manipulation purposes. If
the group was unable to find the column corresponding to the specific vegetation type, then
inserting a new column in alphabetical order to upload that information was necessary. The team

9 of 44
[9]
also uploaded information involving the scale of the map, and any other data that would be
useful but not in the legend.
The next step within the workflow process was to use Adobe Photoshop in order to
prepare our collarless map data. This includes removal of the legend, and surrounding geological
data that increased file size. It is very important to try to make the data look as clean as possible,
in order to project a nice map. We used the crop tool in order to get the image to its minimal size,
and implicated tools to remove the unneeded data. The eraser tool was very useful in the
extraction of this data, along with select by polygon tool. We selected these items, moved them
to a new layer and then deleted the data. Once this is done, the next step of digitization is
performed.
Digitization is a very tricky step, in order to project a nice map, the initial points have to
be represented perfectly or it could distort the map projection. The team would place a base map
and the file in ArcMap, and then would connect them through the process of geo-referencing.
First, locate a point on the Küchler Map, and then locate that exact location on the base map. It is
important to spread out the first couple of points, before articulating into detail. Once a user
reaches 40 to 50 points, they should then choose projection, this can be in 1st, 2nd, or 3rd order
polynomial. Once the data points are collected, the group went back to the datasheet and
uploaded the map coordinates of the image.
Once all of the data has been documented and saved, the next step is to rectify. We save
the collarless rectified version of this map in order for it to be projected into the online database
accurately and with minimal hard drive space used. This final step is the most important step
within this project, it is very important that this be done correctly. The file format should be a
.PNG or a .GIF and once opened again later, will have all spatial recognition saved.

10 of 44
[10]
Results: Courtney Misich
The selection of maps provided focused on the United States with the exception of a few
world maps. The group completed maps in the states of Maine Connecticut, Virginia, North
Carolina, Tennessee, Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, and Arkansas (Figure 3). Overall, the team
finished a total of forty maps that have their metadata in the spreadsheet and are collarless and
georeferenced (Appendix B). The group completed forty completed maps prepared to be entered
into a searchable database about the Küchler maps for researchers in addition to past groups
work. The database is a work in progress and is still unavailable to the public. The Metadata
contained a wide variety and combinations of land cover that were added to the spreadsheet
(Figure 4). Additionally, the legends caused issue due to the extensive items under one category
such as " but the spreadsheet was corrected to have combinations and land covers with multiple
categories to all have a standard format as the client requested. Data that was in foreign
languages was translated to English and copied in its original language as well to provide

11 of 44
[11]
additional options for search ability. Overall, the group collected all the Metadata from the
maps, which prepare these maps to be placed into a database as well as being reduced down to
their study area.
The process of reducing the maps down to their study area or “collarless” proved difficult
at times due to the detailed and intricate nature of the borders of some study areas. A few maps
need clarification on where the edge of the study area is however; their Metadata was still put
into the spreadsheet. The team utilized Photoshop to limit the file down to only the study area
even in when there were difficulties with the shape of the edges and borders. Furthermore, when
the team georeferenced the maps, members researched the areas of that the map covered to
ensure that the study area would be in the correct location while accounting for changes in the
landscape. This is the more difficult aspect of digitizing the maps where an incorrect format of
file, unclear study area border, or ill placed georeferenced point can create issues in finishing
georeferencing a map. Overall, the greatest challenge in georeferencing and digitizing the maps
was a result of natural forces on the landscape such as erosion and soil deposits and the accuracy
of the hand drawn maps. Each member faced challenges in completing maps with these
difficulties but ultimately all prevailed and finished georeferencing the maps.
Ultimately, the results of the first four goals aided the group in determining which maps
and aspects of land cover to analyze in order to provide uses for the maps when the database of
the Küchler collection is completed. Ross Keasling and Dale Hathaway determined that there
was a variety of maps that covered the Midwest to analyze the Emerald Ash Borer’s progression
beginning in Michigan and the areas of migration. Meghan Jones and Courtney Misich were
interested in how the land cover had changed over the time span of the collection. They noticed
that the state of Michigan had a higher number of maps from the mid-nineteenth century to the

12 of 44
[12]
1960s. Overall, the completion of forty Küchler maps not only prepared the maps for the
database while also providing King Library with examples to demonstrate the significance of this
collection.
Example Uses of Georeferenced Küchler Map Collection
Example #1: Emerald Ash Borer
Introduction: Ross Keasling
Emerald Ash Borer, an invasive species, has infested the continental United States since the
early 1990's and formally recognized in the year 2002. This exotic beetle having a short life span
maintains the ability to initiate the death of an ash tree while still in the larvae stage of its life.
Sources report countless billions of ash trees have been killed off and estimates are that ninety-
nine percent of all ash tree populations will be affected. To date, there has been no remedies
found to fight the infestation and the spread has now covered nearly half of the states within the
continental United States in addition to Canadian provinces.
Origin and Migration to U.S.: Ross Keasling
The Agrilus planipennis fairmaire, more commonly known as the Emerald Ash Borer
(EAB) is currently found in twenty-two North American States and two Canadian provinces
(McCullough) this insect is of the exotic beetle family and adult species are approximately
15mm in length and 7mm wide (Figure 5). The common name is derived from the emerald green
sheen found covering most the body coupled with the fact they bore into ash tree’s (EABinfo).

13 of 44
[13]
The emerald ash borer is believed to have its origins in Asia and more specifically China
(Bray, 1). This fact was secured when researchers collected EAB samples from the countries of
Japan, South Korea and China; these were then compared to adjacent samples collected from
North America in the states of Michigan, Indiana, Ohio and Ontario in Canada. The testing
consisted of various forms of DNA (mtDNA and AFLP-fragment length polymorphisms) which
resulted in a matching of 139 scoreable bands (markers) between the Asian and North American
specimen, excepting those obtained from Japan.
Regarding this DNA testing of EAB between the Asian and North American varieties, it
was noted that due to the rarity of the emerald ash borer in Mongolia, Taiwan and Russia, no
samples have yet to be found for genetic testing (Bray, 1).
When these shiny green beetles first became apparent within the United States, specialists
at the Smithsonian Institute and London’s Museum of Natural History could not identify them.
Eventually, an entomologist in Slovakia, who intensely studied these and other beetles, could
identify the specimens. Still the species had no common name until the MSU entomologist and
their colleagues came up with “emerald ash borer” (McCullough).

14 of 44
[14]
Emerald ash borers are believed to have a life cycle of one year, with a few making a full
two-year cycle. The female beetles lay their eggs in bark cracks. The tiny white larvae hatch
from eggs with one week and then bore through the bark and into the cambium layer of the tree.
Larvae feed under ash tree bark from mid-summer through the following spring. Pupation occurs
in spring and the generation of adults emerges shortly thereafter (Entomology)
Regarding the emerald ash borer migration to the United States, all sources point to some
means of un-identified cargo vessel from or passing through Asia and most likely China. The
cargo would have contained solid wood packaging material made of ash wood and could have
been crating, pallets or stabilizing boards (Entomology).
The first detected and documented emerald ash borer was in south-east Michigan near
Detroit in the year 2002; however, scientist believe they could have been within U.S. borders a
decade earlier yet undetected. A study conducted and published in the journal Diversity and
Distributions; show that EAB’s were feasting on ash trees in southeast Michigan by the early
1990’s (McCullough). This study, by utilizing slender core samples found ash trees killed as
early as 1997.
With a death loss time of two to three years from infestation to complete tree death, this
would have trees dead in 1997 infested as early as 1994. The study, which made this important
identification, consisted of a study area more than 5,800 square miles in Michigan. The study
also showed that while some of the infestation was “natural” (adult beetles moving from tree to
tree); new satellite populations were started by people transporting infested ash trees, wood and
lumber. By 2003, the EAB problem had spread beyond the six county (5800 square mile) study
area (McCullough).

15 of 44
[15]
Discovery in the United States and Spread since 2002: Dale Hathaway
The Emerald Ash Borer (EAB) was possibly transported to the United States through an
international cargo plane through wood packing material. The location where this species was
first found was in Detroit, Michigan. In the summer of 2002, the first indications of EAB were
found in the area. Although they were unable to confirm, scientists believe they have been in the
area for a couple years, and detection of the species took some lapsed time. The tendencies of
EAB within the United States are much different from their original habitat within Asia. Here,
the species has heavily repopulated and migrated across over most of the Midwest, New
England, and Southern states. In Asia, the species never generates a large population and
migrates at a smaller scale.
In the year of 2002, the state of Michigan concluded that there were six counties that
have reported the species within their jurisdiction. The insufficient information on the Emerald
Ash Borer caused problems and confusion as to why the species overtook 16 new counties in
2003. Michigan State University conducted research into the Emerald Ash Borer and some of the
possible treatments that could be involved in order to help stop or prolong the pest. It was found
that many of the products that were initially implemented to fight this pest were insufficient in
maintaining the tree from infestation. It was also stated that the inability to see long-term effects
of the pesticides concluded that there was no proof if a tree could fully survive after treatment.
Their prognosis was that EAB would soon become a national crisis. The reproduction rates and
inability to stop the pest may result in massive ash tree loss. Professionals stated that we should
donate more efforts to possible treatment options in order to maximize potential to combat this
pest. Currently in 2016, there is still no cure from keeping this pest away from our ash trees.
(Roberts)

16 of 44
[16]
Once Emerald Ash Borer has been reported in an area, it will soon experience total
infestation. The Michigan State University research study was correct in predicting that this was
a possible national crisis. Today, the species has evolved into becoming resistant to certain types
of pesticides, and funding to update these pesticides are just currently unavailable. We found that
there is no fight against this pest, and current pesticides and treatments used today are not
guaranteed. These pesticides are completely experimental and are designed to be applied only by
professional arborists (Herms).
What we have now is a country with over 700 counties that have documented reports of
Emerald Ash Borer. It was very hard to predict the growth of this species, and it is difficult to
believe that anyone predicted that the species would experience so much growth within a small
amount of time. All states east of the Mississippi River excluding Maine, Louisiana, and Florida
have reported instances of trees found with EAB. This infestation is nothing compared to the
EAB inhabitants of Asia, that portion of the species did not experience the same growth of those
found within the United States. In Asia, it was considered a minimal pest of the ash species;
therefore, no scientific studies were performed in order to predict biology, ecology, enemies, or
management solutions (Bauer).
The growth within the state of Michigan was consistent, and within four years over 80%
of the counties in Michigan experienced problems with ash. The national government had to
intervene, in order to combat these pests. The United States introduced three different types of
stingless wasps in order to help combat the EAB on the edges of infected areas in order to help
stop the spreading of the species. Almost one million wasps have since been generated in order
to help fight EAB and studies have shown that this is the most productive use of our money to
fight EAB since we began research. (Miller)

17 of 44
[17]
The current infestation we are experiencing with EAB may regress with the introduction
of these wasps, but the results are still yet to be seen. As we have seen that these wasps are not
allowing the population to increase at its dramatic rate, but it is still increasing, and we are still
losing trees and may continue to do so. We chose to look at the Küchler Maps in the state of
Michigan, so we could correlate forestry types, with the infestation of counties. An area analysis
can show us the amount of infestation during an amount of time. This information will not only
tell us the migratory patterns of the EAB, but also an estimation of tree loss and concentration of
funding to areas slightly or not affected by EAB.
Workflow (Figure 6)

18 of 44
[18]
Methods: Dale Hathaway
In order to detect ash tree loss due to Emerald Ash Borer, Küchler maps were
investigated for having depicted forestry types related to ash trees. The group conducted an
analysis that was performed within seven different steps. The first objective of the group was to
locate two maps, one map that was able to indicate forestry types in a timeframe slightly before
the introduction of Emerald Ash Borer within the United States. The next map to be used was of
indication through field records, a map that depicted forestry pre-European development. The
survey map was located within the Library special collections library. The map was configured
from field records prior to European expansion. The vegetation map was a map that belonged to
the Michigan Geographic Alliance, with resources from Central Michigan University and
produced in 1991. These images were then uploaded into Photoshop in order to create a
collarless version. Using the magic eraser, and the polygonal lasso tool, group members
produced two collarless versions of these maps. One map was produced of the entire lower
peninsula of the state of Michigan. The second map produced was a collarless version of only
ash tree forestry types.
Both of these images were then uploaded to ArcMap to undergo proper digitization. The
first image uploaded for both datasets were the maps produced including the entire lower
peninsula of Michigan. This map was digitized through 50 points and then was chosen within 2nd
order polynomial. The image depicting only forestry types that included ash was then overplayed
and polygons were recognized and were digitized in order to match original data map. This map
was also digitized with 50 points and was chosen as second order polynomial. The completion of
both maps gave ability to give spatial recognition and giving opportunity to proceed to next step.

19 of 44
[19]
Using editor tool, polygons were formed with dataset involving forestry types that
involved ash trees. With the creation of a new shapefile, these polygons were drawn in order to
replicate the forestry types that included ash trees. The necessary map data for the analysis was
converted into these shapefiles in order to get spatial analysis information. The data was then to
be divided up into a yearly statistic.
Selection of counties by year was performed using the select by attributes tool. Years
2002-2006 were performed on a yearly basis, the years of 2007-2011 included a small amount of
data so they were combined and included within the same dataset. Once this county data was
divided by year it was then time to clip the shapefile using the parameters of the yearly county
detection file. All timeframes were used resulting in our complete analysis by year.
In each year, the attribute table was opened in order to add a field to calculate the area in
square miles. A new field was created named SQMiles, and the calculate geometry tool was
performed within the new field. This calculation gave us the square miles of ash included
forestry loss to EAB by year. This data was then replicated in excel in order to find sum of
values, and analysis was conducted in both datasets that involved 1 ash tree per every 60 feet of
forestry.
Results: Dale Hathaway
Results were concluded and the data related to ash tree loss was in the hundreds of
millions. Datasets were examined, ash related forestry types of 1991 and ash related forestry pre-
European development. In both instances, we saw an increase of 300% from year one to year
two. Within the pre-European settlement dataset, 92% of counties containing ash related forestry
types were infected within the first 5 years. Within ash related forestry types of 1991, we see
only 79% of ash related forestry infected within the first five years. The explanation behind this

20 of 44
[20]
is directly related to the separation of ash related forestry types within the north central portion of
the peninsula. The ash species migrated up the western seaboard in order to get to the northern
part of the peninsula thus creating the high infection in later years. In addition, these forestry
types are considered secondary forestry because of these ash related forestry types did not exist
in the pre European settlement map. Both maps predicted over 100 million ash tree deaths
occurred within the state of Michigan over the span of the infestation of Emerald Ash Borer. The
loss within pre European settlement was over 118 million specimens, and the estimated loss with
1991 dataset gave us a loss of over 113 million. In-between the pre European map and the map
of 1991, primary forestry within the northern part of the peninsula was phased out and the
introduction of ash related forestry accumulated land mass.
The dataset involving 1991 was a broader area as to where the pre-European dataset was
more condensed and a larger area located specifically in the southern half of the state. The initial
introduction into the area gave the EAB the ability to move freely within the first year and
accumulate square footage of infestation. Once the species became land-locked within the
peninsula, this is when population growth began to level out, and species migrated south in order
to find new specimens of ash. Within the first ten years of the infestation, all ash populations
were infected in the state of Michigan. Now as a country we have over 700 counties infected,
this is about 1/3rd of our country infected with this species and that statistic does include counties
that do not contain ash trees. The calculation is actually much worse; the recent introduction into
Kansas has many scientists worried. On the other hand, The United States still have states east of
the Mississippi like Maine, and Florida who have yet to experience the pest. The conclusion that
can be drawn is that the population will triple within the first year of introduction to a new

21 of 44
[21]
environment. When there is no confinement from spatial attributes, the population grows
dramatically until it is spatially confined.
Discussion: Dale Hathaway
The information found in this data analysis was calculated into a formula in order to
calculate total ash tree loss. The x-factor within the formula is the determination that calculated
one ash tree for 3600 square feet. The results exemplify that in a situation of the introduction to a
new environment the species will triple within the first year of inhabitance. In the discussion of
newly inhabited Kansas and Louisiana, the data used from Michigan analysis could be replicated
to approximate the intrusion of the species. This information could be relayed to the state in
order to determine the calculated area and determination of tree loss in relation to the events that
occurred within the state of Michigan. Without the use of new technology, it is to be expected
that Emerald Ash Borer will see similar growth patterns to the EAB inhabitants within the state
of Michigan. The EAB has the ability to repopulate at increasing rates as long as there is new
area to develop for future EAB. The population saw steady growth after a spike from the first
year of inhabitance until the land mass was all inhabited by EAB. There is no deterrent as to
results concluded that temperature changes to not prohibit expansion of population of EAB it
only slows the process of migration. The single deterrent of EAB population growth is the
inhabitance of all ash related forestry, thus creating competition and eventually migration or
death.

22 of 44
[22]
Urban Growth: No One Settles in the Upper Peninsula
Introduction: Meghan Jones
After the process of converting map files into georeferenced, rectified images the group
was asked to complete the fifth goal of the project and find uses of the Küchler collection. Two
ideas were formed, one being the impact of invasive species on vegetation and the second being
how urbanization trends have affected potential vegetation; both analyzing within the state of
Michigan. For this section of the Küchler collection project the Michigan maps as well as
potential natural vegetation (PNV) map will be the baseline for the total change analysis. The
PNVM is based on the United States before European contact. As stated within the literature
review, there have been various methodologies in the creation of historic maps. Similarly, in
regards to Küchler’s PNV map a certain methodology was utilized to understand and then map
out the potential, climax vegetation of an area.
The term succession refers to a long-term development of plant populations and
communities that are gradually replaced by others. It is thought that without anthropogenic
forces, the plant succession would end in stable climax vegetation (Küchler and Zonneveld, 375).
This climax stage can be referred to as the ‘natural vegetation’. The phrase ‘potential natural
vegetation’ is explained as an indication of the production-potential of a habitat, being a symbol
of both, the existing and possible vegetation types of that habitat (Küchler and Zonneveld, 376).
This can produce questions on how man-made factors are removed from the process of creating
these maps, but the following steps provided from Küchler and Zonneveld’s book, Vegetation
Mapping, by the author’s, Tüxen and Trautmann offer a methodology on how to do so.
(1) Recognize and describe the near-natural plant communities of the selected area to be
mapped. (Pollen research can aid in understanding change and stability in vegetation.) (2) In

23 of 44
[23]
forested areas, the shrubs and trees can provide a sense of the woody elements of the climax
stage. (When creating this type of map, one should not include instances of individual or small
patches of species since potential natural vegetation is set on a wider scale.) (3) Secondary (or
replacement) plant communities form from human impact and can be indicators on natural or
near-natural vegetation. Assessing what secondary community belongs to the different types of
natural vegetation is vital. Moreover (4) the soil profile of the location to be mapped is
important. Other geologic factors such as elevation and exposition are useful indicators as well
(Küchler and Zonneveld 379-384). Peterson et al. provide a case-study example in using
Küchler's PNV map in a forestry services analysis. Küchler (1988) states in his text that it may
be useful when creating or using a large-scale PNV map to include the actual vegetation for
analysis (385); this is what the group decided to do.

24 of 44
[24]
Along with the use of Küchler's potential natural vegetation map, others from the
collection were utilized to complete a change analysis over time. There are three other maps of
the state of Michigan that range from 1830 to 1970 within the forty completed this semester
(Figure 8). Additional data was used from The National Map (their USGS land-cover maps) to
aid in representing the urbanization trends in the state. Together, all of the Michigan maps were
combined with literature to complete a change analysis.
Development of Urban Areas in Michigan: Courtney Misich
The impact of human intervention has altered the landscape and in Michigan the
difference is seen by the development of the urban areas mainly in the southern peninsula.
Kathryn Flint describe the influence of humans, “across landscapes throughout the world that
support human habitation agriculture has been a dominant form of disturbance shaping natural
communities. Many regions have experience successive changes, with phases of forest clearance
followed by agricultural abandonment and forest recovery” (Flinn et al., 440). This process of
human intervention impacts the vegetation with agriculture which is center in Michigan's
economy and how man has chosen to settle across the earth. Dr. Schaetzl’s “GEO 33: Geography
of Michigan and the Great Lakes Region” describes the development of Michigan’s vegetation
from prior to European settlement to modern day, this is significant to describe how Michigan's
developing urban and rural areas.
Michigan’s Pre-settlement vegetation types were covered by complex forest cover
conditions. The forests were described as primarily deciduous trees with maples, oaks, and beech
in the Lower Peninsula developing into mixed deciduous and coniferous trees as they move
north. The Upper Peninsula was ruled with northern hardwood forests along with large areas of
sandy plains. Most of the development occurred in the south that removed a majority of the

25 of 44
[25]
forests and developed into farmlands and suburban areas. Schaetzl describes the impact of
human influence on land cover, “human intervention, such as harvesting, fire and clearing for
development, has profoundly affected the composition of Michigan’s forest base. While the area
of forest coverage has generally rebounded since the timber boom of the last century, few
regions of the State contain the same mixture of tree species that existed prior to settlement”
(Schaetzl, Flora). The estimated difference " for Michigan’s pre-European landscape are not
directly comparable on a class by class basis because of major differences in how they were
derived (satellite image classification versus interpolation of land surveyor notes), the major
changes in land cover are evident. The State of Michigan was 90% forested pre-European
settlement and is about 50% forested today" (Donovan, 6). Supporting examples are available in
Küchler and Zonneveld (379-284). Human impact on the vegetation of Michigan is the focus of
our study and Schaetzl describes why this question is so significant to understand the effects on
humans on the land.
Michigan was beginning to be populated during the 1830 with the Erie Canal. The
population began to grow during the mid-nineteenth and twentieth centuries with the waves of
people moving west. In 1830, almost all the population was in the southeast with the central
Michigan and Upper Peninsula neglected due to the poor soil and short growing season. The
census of 1850 has a quarter of the state's total area containing over 98% of the state's
population. This benefits the vegetation in the North by keeping it relatively constant without
human interaction. During the second half of the nineteenth century Michigan developed a
mining industry in the Upper Peninsula, they mine copper and iron ore, which brought new
populations into the peninsula and begin the process unsettling the Upper Peninsula. Diverse
trees throughout Michigan also created a lumber industry, which would clear much of the land.

26 of 44
[26]
Lumber and mining were the main non-agricultural industries throughout Michigan and which
drove the settling of the Northern areas of the state until the early twentieth century. The wealth
from the lumber and mining industries helped build the auto industry in Detroit due to the large
fortunes made. However, the major legacy of the lumber and mining industries was the
settlement, subsequent failure of farmers, and then declining industry in the central and Upper
Peninsula. Both areas of Michigan are currently utilized for recreation and conservation.
(Schaetzl, European Settlement)
Furthermore, Michigan has historically and largely been an agricultural Society. Most of
the Farmland is in the southern part of Lower Michigan. (Schaetzl, Agriculture) While the other
major land cover is forest, Michigan has a history of active human intervention through
harvesting, fire and clearing the forest. There is actually no virgin forest left in Michigan due to
the logging industry and clearing first settlement. Traditionally in the Northern areas there are
pine and pine-oak species that flourish areas hemlock, fir and spruce. Most of the densely
forested area in Michigan is located in the Upper Peninsula where it was more difficult to gain
access and is less populated in the south. The regrowth of forest has been seen largely in the
central and Upper Peninsula where land values are lower and the demand's less for agriculture.
The increased woodlands are due to State ownership over land and were agriculture is difficult.
(Schaetzl, Forestry)
Between 1910 and 1940, Michigan three distinct areas the South central and upper
peninsula had three different population trends. The decline of the Upper Peninsula is due to the
large world population with only a handful of urban centers. As the central region’s decline
continued slowly, again due to it's a large largely rural status. The urban areas in Michigan in the
south, containing more than half of the State's population, dominant the state’s resources,

27 of 44
[27]
landscape, and economy. It is easy to see this trend stem from the growing automobile industry
at the time. (Schaetzl, Change through Time) As the suburbs became the norm during the fifties
and sixties, the urban areas begin to sprawl out from the center. This caused urban sprawl with
smaller cities surrounding large centers and changing the landscape once again. (Schaetzl,
Changes in Michigan’s Cities: Urban Sprawl)
In order to summarize the impact of urban growth, the Michigan Gap Report published
their findings in 2001. They stated that before European settlement, Michigan was composed of
vast forests, grasslands, and wetlands. However, by 2004, the Southern Lower Peninsula suffered
deforestation, plowing of grasslands, and the wetlands were drained. In their place are
agricultural lands, large areas of land used for urban planning, and cities. The Northern Lower
Peninsula lost its forests to clearing and fires, been cleared for agriculture, and then abandoned.
Now the area has a large public land bases and is becoming a recreation destination. While the
Upper Peninsula lost its mining industry and most of its industrial logging. It currently has small
urban centers along the shores in contrast to its vast wetlands and forests (Donovan, 70-71).
Methods and Workflow: Courtney Misich
The initial vegetation maps derives from the Miami University Library Küchler Maps
Collection that has eight maps that utilize Michigan as its study area with the majority created in
the 1920s to the 1960s while also containing a vegetation map from the 1830s. This provides a
hundred-thirty-year period of land cover data for the state of Michigan. For more recent land
cover maps of the state, the National Land Cover Dataset run by USGS which has available land
cover for the years 2001, 2006, and 2011. Additional land cover maps utilized from Michigan
Information Center, the University of Michigan, and the Conservation Biology Institute in order
to had data between 1960 and 2000. However the maps will be examined based upon there

28 of 44
[28]
different methods, scale, and land cover classification. Land cover will be referenced as the map
is and hand drawn maps will be analyzed separately from the more modern maps. The maps and
their metadata recorded into a table in order to provide a timeline for the maps. Then all maps
are projected into Web Mercator with the WGS 1984 datum from their original projections as the
preference of King Library.
Then all the data was prepared to the extent of Michigan through either clip or mask
depending on the data type. The vector data was the potential natural vegetation and historical
maps then were clipped. While the raster data was the NLCD from USGS that was masked to the
state outline. Next was to digitize the urban areas of the NLCD and historic urban maps from the
years of 1994 to 2011. Digitizing the maps requires for a new shape file to be created and the
polygon to be drawn in an edit session, the creation of new polygons makes the data subjective.
They have been created for our analysis to be understood for our bias and abilities. For the
NLCD’s polygons, the land cover described as low, medium, and high developed was selected
by attribute. Then polygons were drawn over the selected areas to best represent urban areas that
are clearly represented towns or cities. Moreover, for the historic urban maps the urban areas
were clearly defined in relation to the rural areas. For the 1999 metro areas map, the legend
defines three kinds of metropolitan areas: metropolitan statistical area consolidated metropolitan
statistical area, and primary metropolitan statistical area. The area selected to draw polygons was
the primary metropolitan statistical area since it was determined to represent the variety of urban
areas of Michigan (Figure 9). These processes are similar to Flinn, Vellend, and Mark's methods
in digitizing historical maps and aerial photographs in order to create land-use maps for central
New York (Flinn et al., 441-443).

29 of 44
[29]
Next, these urban areas were summarized for total area. The urban areas were then used to
intersect the potential natural vegetation, which would be used to determine the impact of
urbanization on the potential natural vegetation (Figure10).
In order to compare either the growth or decline of
urban areas in Michigan, all of the urban areas are combined
with a union and have a total area summary for all of the
urban areas. Additionally, each urban area will have a total
area summary in order to provide quantitative evidence for
the differences between the urban areas. Then in order
address how each potential vegetation type has been affected

30 of 44
[30]
or impacted by the growth of urban areas, the clipped potential natural vegetation will be
compared for each year and total area (km/sq) within the urban polygons; this will be done using
the intersect tool for each year of analysis. For each intersected urban areas of potential natural
vegetation, the vegetation types will be summarized to show the total area for each type that will
be used to compare changes over time. These comparisons for both the urban areas and potential
natural vegetation will be summarized in a table to demonstrate how the areas have changed over
the two-hundred-year period.
Results: Meghan Jones and Courtney Misich
The second portion of discovering ways to utilize the Küchler Map collection was
decided on analyzing urban sprawl’s impact on potential natural vegetation within Michigan.
One way the group decided to do this was through using the geoprocessing tool; intersect. The
potential natural vegetation map was combined with urban areas in the state of Michigan only
where they overlap. To bring the analysis out further, the group created a time sequence of urban
areas starting in 1994 with sequential steps in the years of 1999, 2001, 2006, and 2011. An
intersect was done for each of these years. The results proved interesting between the years as
well as between the upper and Lower Peninsula.
First, the team will provide visuals for a better understanding of the results. Appendix C
displays the major cities within the state of Michigan to use as reference through the results and
discussion. Visually, the difference between urban areas changes slightly within the seventeen-
year span from 1994 to 2011, Figure 11 displays each year’s urban areas individually, Appendix
D displays all urban areas together, and Appendix E displays the urban areas overlaying the
potential natural vegetation.

31 of 44
[31]
In regards to the intersection of urban areas with potential natural vegetation, five tables
were created with the results (Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5). There were six
dominant vegetation categories located within the urban polygons of Michigan: Beech/Maple,
Elm/Ash, Great Lakes Pine, Tall Grass Savanna, Northern Hardwoods, Northern Hardwoods/Fir,
and Oak/Hickory (reference Appendix E). The most predominant vegetation type throughout the
span was Oak/Hickory Forests; this takes up the majority of Detroit, Flint, and Lansing, some of
the largest cities in the state. Its average total percentage of urban cover was 61.74%, much
higher than the other vegetation types. The second most occurring potential vegetation to occur
in the urban areas of Michigan was the Beech/Maple forests; their average total occurrence
within the seventeen-year span was 16.78%.
The lower occurring potential types include the Elm/Ash and Northern Hardwoods
forests; their average occurrence percentage resided at 8.56% and 2.16% respectively. There are
two potential vegetation types that had minimal to no occurrences across the time span. Those
are the Tall Grass Savanna and the Northern Hardwoods/Fir forests. The Tall Grass Savanna
occurs with less than one percent in the years of 1994, 1999, 2001, and 2011, and does not occur
in 2006. The Northern Hardwoods/Fir only occur in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, where
urban areas were not show in in the 1990 images, but are included in the NLCD images from
2001 to 2011. These are why there are no occurrences in tables 1 and 2, but have minimal

32 of 44
[32]
relevance with an average of 1.61% after the year of 2001 and 0.97% throughout the seventeen-
year span.

33 of 44
[33]
Discussion: Courtney Misich and Meghan Jones
Historic Küchler Maps, 1830-1940: Courtney Misich
When examining these historical vegetation maps, the extent of impacted vegetation is
interesting. It is important to remember, "Michigan’s current land cover is not only the result of
past “natural factors”, such as glaciers and climate, but also 200 years of “very active
management” by humans. This history has resulted in a landscape with both seemly very
discrete, and infinitely continuous, land cover boundaries. Our land cover mapping efforts
required that we put discrete boundaries over the entire landscape. The land cover classification
system that enforces these discrete boundaries was developed by a large group of natural
resource professionals to be useful in the management of Michigan’s natural landscapes"
(Donovan, 21). While the digitizing of land cover is ultimately subjective and interpretive, the
changes within the urban areas tell a story of the economy and the needs of the community. The
1994 map shows the expected urban areas such as Detroit, Flint, and Grand Rapids with some

34 of 44
[34]
smaller cities represented (Appendix C). The map for 1999 is difficult to use for urban growth
comparison because it is sourced from a consolidated Metropolitan area map, while useful for
potential vegetation rather than urban growth.
Then in 2001, we made a conscious decision to capture the urban regions outside of the
south and saw growth in the smaller cities. There are cities represented in the Upper Peninsula
and Upper Lower Peninsula. Also shown are the cities along the southern border that were not in
the 1994 map (Appendix). Furthermore, in the 2006 map, surprisingly there is an increase of
urban areas in the Upper Peninsula and Upper Lower Peninsula where the Lower Peninsula sees
its urban areas shrink and some of the cities on the border are not represented (Appendix ). Then
in 2011, Michigan sees continued growth in the Upper Peninsula and Upper Lower Peninsula.
The state appears to be recovering from an economic decline as seen from the growth of Detroit
and other Lower Peninsula cities (Appendix C).
The historic hand drawn maps created difficulty in
analyzing their land cover. The map from 1830 (Figure 12)
did not utilize color in its legend rather numbers with
indiscrete boundaries. Even without completely digitizing
this map, the different types of land cover in contemporary
urban areas can be seen through the number of different
lines and figures within the outlines. While the 1939 map
contains a more detailed perspective on the distribution of
forests. It again proved difficult to digitize due to its hand
drawn nature. However it can be concluded that the 1939
land cover for the 2001 through 2011 urban areas was primarily agricultural and Aspen brush.

35 of 44
[35]
The final historic map was from 1940 and focused on the presettlement forest types of the Upper
Peninsula. This map digitized well through reclassifying the pixels into three groups; pines,
spruce-fir, and the borders on the map. During the 2001 to 2011 period, the urban areas would
have encroached heavily on the pines of the Upper Peninsula and from 2001 to 2006 the spruce-
fir populations.
1966 Natural Potential Vegetation and Urban Areas: Meghan Jones
In regards to the possible natural vegetation that has been affected from the urbanization
trends through Michigan, there are a few major types were impacted. The two dominant
vegetation types within the urban areas of 1994 to 2011 were the Beech/Maple and Oak/Hickory
forests. These two forest types consume the major cities (Appendix C) of Detroit, Flint, Lansing,
and Grand Rapids predominantly. Fralish states the importance of these two forest types in his
article, The Keystone Roles of Oak and Hickory in the Central Hardwood Forest, by explaining
how Oak and Hickory species contribute largely to community richness and providing food and
support for a large number of wildlife (Fralish, 1). He also states that the absence or loss of these
species detract from biodiversity, foliage, and fruit production which then severely impacts bird
and insect populations. This can eventually cause increased soil erosion and decreased soil
nutrients (Fralish, 1). From his statements, the team can conclude that there is a potential for
serious impacts to have occurred when urbanization began to take place.

36 of 44
[36]
Bibliography
Alicia Bray, Robert Haack, Leah Bauer, James Smith.
https://esa.confex.com/esa/2005/techprogram/paper_21617.htm. 16 December 2005.
Electronic article. 28 November 2016.
Bauer, LS. “Biology of Emerald Ash Borer - Invasive Species – Forest Disturbance Processes -
Northern Research Station - USDA Forest Service.” Biology of Emerald Ash Borer -
Invasive Species - Forest Disturbance Processes - Northern Research Station – USDA
Forest Service, USDA, Mar. 2016.
Chase, Clarence. A History of Forest Survey in the Lake States. St. Paul: unpublished, 1964. web
Cogbill, Charles V. et al. “The Forests of Presettlement New England, USA: Spatial and
Compositional Patterns Based on Town Proprietor Surveys.” Journal of Biogeography,
vol. 29, no. 10-11, 2002, pp. 1279–1304. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2002.00757.x.
Deb McCullough, Layne Cameron. http://msutoday.msu.edu/news/2014/emerald-ash-borers-
were-in-us-long-before-first-detection. 06 May 2014. Website. 28 November 2016.
Donovan, M. L., G.M. Nesslage, J. J. Skillen, and B. A. Maurer. 2004. The Michigan Gap
Analysis Project Final Report. Wildlife Division, Michigan Department of Natural
Resources, Lansing.
EABinfo. http://emeraldashborer.info/. 01 November 2016. Electronic portal. 28 November
2016.
Entomology, ISU Dept. of. http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/iiin. 05 October 2007. Electronic. 30
November 2016.
Fleet, Christopher et al. “Georeferencer: Crowdsourced Georeferencing for Map Library
Collections.” Georeferencer: Crowdsourced Georeferencing for Map Library
Collections, Nov. 2012, www.dlib.org/dlib/november12/fleet/11fleet.html.
Flinn, Kathryn M., Mark Vellend, and P.l. Marks. "Environmental Causes and Consequences of
Forest Clearance and Agricultural Abandonment in Central New York, USA." Journal of
Biogeography32.3 (2005): 439-52. Web.
Fralish, James S. “The Keystone Role of Oak and Hickory in the Central Hardwood Forest.” The
Keystone Role of Oak and Hickory in the Central Hardwood Forest | Publications | SRS, 1
Jan. 1970, www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=6500.
Franklin, Janet et al. “Multi-Attribute Vegetation Maps of Forest Service Lands in California
Supporting Resource Management Decisions.” Photogrammetric Engineering &Amp;
Remote Sensing, vol. 66, no. 10, Oct. 2000, pp. 1209–1217.
info.asprs.org/publications/pers/2000journal/october/2000_oct_1209-1217.pdf.
Fry, J., Xian, G., Jin, S., Dewitz, J., Homer, C., Yang, L., Barnes, C., Herold, N., and Wickham,
J., 2011. Completion of the 2006 National Land Cover Database for the Conterminous
United States, PE&RS, Vol. 77(9):858-864.
Grabach, Kenneth A. “Lloyd Library and Museum Kuchler Vegetation Maps.” Lloyd Library
and Museum Küchler Vegetation Maps, Lloyd Library and Museum, 2011,
www.lloydlibrary.org/kuchler_vegetation.html.
Herms, Dan. Insecticide Options for Protecting Ash Trees from Emerald Ash Borer. Place of
Publication Not Identified, North Central IPM Center, 2009,
www.emeraldashborer.info/documents/Multistate_EAB_Insecticide_Fact_Sheet.pdf

37 of 44
[37]
Homer, C., Dewitz, J., Fry, J., Coan, M., Hossain, N., Larson, C., Herold, N., McKerrow, A.,
VanDriel, J.N., and Wickham, J. 2007. Completion of the 2001 National Land Cover
Database for the Conterminous United States. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote
Sensing, Vol. 73, No. 4, pp 337-341.
Homer, C.G., Dewitz, J.A., Yang, L., Jin, S., Danielson, P., Xian, G., Coulston, J., Herold, N.D.,
Wickham, J.D., and Megown, K., 2015, Completion of the 2011 National Land Cover
Database for the conterminous United States-Representing a decade of land cover change
information. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, v. 81, no. 5, p. 345-35
Küchler, A. W. "U.S. Potential Natural Vegetation, Original Kuchler Types, V2.0 (Spatially
Adjusted to Correct Geometric Distortions)." U.S. Potential Natural Vegetation, Original
Kuchler Types, V2.0 (Spatially Adjusted to Correct Geometric Distortions) | Data Basin.
Conservation Biology Institute, n.d. Web. 13 Dec. 2016.
Küchler, A. W. “Classification and Purpose in Vegetation Maps.” Geographical Review, vol. 46,
no. 2, 1956, pp. 155–167. doi:10.2307/211640.
Küchler, A.W., and I.S. Zonneveld. Vegetation Mapping. Vol. 10, Massachusetts, Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 1988.
Land Surveyors.com un-named author. "History of Land Surveying." n.d.
http://www.landsurveyors.com/resources/history-of-land-surveying/. electronic. 10
December 2016.
Lapola, David M., Marcos D. Oyama, Carlos A. Nobre, and Gilvan Sampaio. "A New World
Natural Vegetation Map for Global Change Studies." Anais Da Academia Brasileira De
Ciências80.2 (2008): 397-408. Web.
Miller, Matthew. “Battle of the Ash Borer.” Lansing State Journal, Lansing State Journal, 3
Sept.2014, www.lansingstatejournal.com/story/news/local/2014/09/03/michigan-
emerald-ash-borer/14796695/.
Nix, Steve. "About Education." 11 November 2015.
http://forestry.about.com/od/mappinggis/a/Forest-Surveying-Methods-Distances-And-
Angles.htm. electronic. 10 December 2016
Peterson, Dana L. et al. “Identifying Historical and Recent Land-Cover Changes in Kansas Using
Post-Classification Change Detection Techniques.” Transactions of the Kansas Academy
of Science, vol. 107, no. 3 & 4, 2004, pp. 105–118.
doi:10.1660/00228443(2004)107[0105:iharlc]2.0.co;2.
Roberts, David L. Leaflets. Lansing, MI, H.M.S.O., 2003,
treedoctor.msu.edu/sites/default/files/docs/MSU's%202003%20EAB%20Research%20R
esults%20Some%20Interpretations%20%26%20Recommendations.pdf
Schaetzl, Randall J., Dr. "GEO 333: Geography of Michigan." Geography of Michigan at MSU.
Michigan State University, Jan. 2016.
Tsioukas, Vassilios. “Web Georeference of Historical Maps.” e-Perimetron, vol. 4, no. 3, 2009,
pp. 187–191. www.e-perimetron.org/Vol_4_3/Tsioukas.pdf.
Vernon J. LaBau, James T. Bones, Neal P. Kingsley, H. Gyde Lund, W. Brad Smith. "A History
of the Forest Survey in the United States: 1830–2004." June 2007.
www.fs.fed.us/emc/rig/documents/HFSbook_FINAL_07_0625.pdf. electronic. 10
December 2016.
Appendix

Kuchler Maps Project Report (2)

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Kuchler Maps Project Report (2)

Similar to Kuchler Maps Project Report (2) (20)

Kuchler Maps Project Report (2)