Intro to Psychology Chapter 8

1. 1
Coon, Introduction to Psychology, 16th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 1
Coon, Introduction to Psychology, 16th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Introduction to
Psychology,
16th Edition
Chapter 8: Cognition, Language,
and Creativity

2. 2
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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Icebreaker
As a class, discuss the following:
1. When someone is described as “creative,” what is the first thing that comes to
mind? How do we define creative people and creativity?
2. How do you quickly solve routine problems? Does this process require a
degree of creativity? Why or why not?

3. 3
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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Chapter Objectives (1 of 3)
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
8.1.1 Distinguish between experiential and reflective processing.
8.1.2 Explain how imagery is used in thinking.
8.1.3 Explain how concepts are used in thinking.
8.1.4 Explain how language is used in thinking.
8.2.1 Distinguish between four methods of problem solving: algorithms,
understanding, heuristics, and insight.

4. 4
Coon, Introduction to Psychology, 16th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Chapter Objectives (2 of 3)
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
8.2.2 Outline the barriers that can interfere with problem solving.
8.2.3 Compare the problem solving of experts and novices.
8.3.1 Distinguish between four common biases that can lead to errors in decision
making: framing, availability, representativeness, and ignoring the odds.
8.3.2 Explain what is meant by choice overload.
8.4.1 Describe the nature of creative thinking and how it is measured.

5. 5
Coon, Introduction to Psychology, 16th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Chapter Objectives (3 of 3)
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
8.4.2 Outline the five stages of creative problem solving.
8.4.3 Describe five characteristics associated with a creative personality.
8.5.1 Create a plan to enhance your creativity and innovation skills.

6. 6
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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Coon, Introduction to Psychology, 16th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or
posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 6
Unit 1
The Basic Units of Cognition: Mental Imagery,
Concepts, and Language

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Understanding Cognition
Cognition: The process of thinking, gaining knowledge, and dealing with
knowledge
Processing a mental representation:
• Experiential processing: Unconscious, effortless, and automatic
• Reflective processing: Thought that is active, effortful, and controlled

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Mental Imagery
Characteristics of mental imagery:
1. Images are not flat like photographs
2. Images approximate what is true in
the “real world”
3. Images are held in short-term, or
working, memory, called the
visuospatial sketch pad

9. 9
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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Concepts (1 of 2)
An idea that represents a category of objects or events
Helps us identify important features of things we encounter in the world
Concept formation: Classifying information into meaningful categories
• Based on positive and negative instances
• Ongoing process of assimilation and accommodation

10. 10
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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Concepts (2 of 2)
Prototype: Conceptual rules,
concrete examples of “ideal model”
Faulty concepts: Do not always
accurately reflect reality
• Social stereotypes
• All-or-nothing thinking

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Language
Structure
• Phonemes: Basic speech sounds
• Morphemes: Smallest units of
meaningful speech
• Grammar: Rules for making sounds
into meaningful sentences
• Syntax: Rules for word order
• Transformation rules: Declarative
sentence may be changed to other
voices or forms
Semantics
• Semantics: The study of meaning in
words and language
• Denotative meaning: Exact,
dictionary definition
• Connotative meaning: Emotional or
personal meaning

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Alternative Languages
Gestural languages
American Sign Language (ASL):
• Uses spatial grammar, syntax, and semantics
• Speech and signing follow universal language patterns
Animal language: Use of cries, gestures, and mating calls
• Several experiments to communicate with animals using words symbols of
various kinds

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Human Diversity and Language
Linguistic relativity hypothesis: The words we use not only reflect our thoughts
but can shape them as well.
Bilingualism: The ability to speak two languages
• Not associated directly with executive functions or other cognitive abilities
• Subtractive bilingualism: Eliminating a second language through immersion
• Additive bilingualism: Learning a second language adds to overall
competence

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Discussion Activity 1
Move into groups of two. This exercise is
designed to help you better understand
semantic differentials.
1. Rate the word jazz by placing an X in
the spaces. Connect the marks with a
line.
2. Compare your responses with your
teammates.

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
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posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 15
Unit 2
Problem Solving

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Methods of Problem Solving (1 of 2)
Algorithms
• Step-by-step rules to
solve a problem
• Logical thought
• Inductive thought
• Deductive thought
Understanding
• Deeper comprehension
of a problem
• General solution
• Functional solutions
Heuristics
• Rules of thumb or
shortcut to problem
solving
• Random search
strategy
• Does not guarantee
a solution

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Methods of Problem Solving (2 of 2)
Insight: A sudden mental reorganization of a problem that makes the solution
obvious.
• Often based on a reorganization of the problem
• Selective encoding: Selecting information that is relevant to a problem while
ignoring distractions
• Selective combination: Bring together seemingly unrelated bits of useful
information
• Selective comparison: Compare new problems with old information

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Barriers to Problem Solving
Fixation: The tendency to get “hung up” on wrong solutions or ignore other
alternatives
• Functional fixedness: Tendency to perceive an item in terms of most common
use
• Can avoid fixation by being more flexible in categorizing the world

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Other Common Barriers to Problem Solving
• Emotional barriers: Inhibition and fear of making a fool of oneself, fear of
making a mistake, inability to tolerate ambiguity, excessive self-criticism
• Cultural barriers: Differing values and beliefs
• Learned barriers: Conventions about uses (functional fixedness), meanings,
possibilities, taboos
• Perpetual barriers: Habits leading to a failure to identify important elements of
a problem

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Problem Solving of Experts
Versus Novices
Experts typically generate solutions more quickly and outside their area of
expertise
• Differences in the amount of prior knowledge
• Understanding of surface structure, or superficial features
• Recognizing deep structure as prior knowledge accumulates
• Understanding of fundamentals allows focus on most relevant aspects
• Transferring of knowledge and solutions

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Knowledge Check Activity 1
Oscar was having a hard time figuring out how to resolve an issue, so he moved
on to another task. On his drive home from work, he had an aha moment, where
the solution to the problem just popped into his head. Which of the following
occurred for Oscar?
a. Functional fixedness
b. Deductive thought
c. Insight
d. Algorithmic solution

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Knowledge Check Activity 1: Answer
Oscar was having a hard time figuring out how to resolve an issue, so he moved
on to another task. On his drive home from work, he had an aha moment, where
the solution to the problem just popped into his head. Which of the following
occurred for Oscar?
c. Insight
A thinker who suddenly solves a problem has experienced insight. Insights are
usually based on reorganizing a problem. This allows us to see problems in new
ways and makes their solutions seem obvious.

23. 23
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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
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posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 23
Unit 3
Intuition, Decision Making, and Cognitive Biases

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Intuition
The quick, impulsive thought that does not use formal logic or clear reasoning
• Thin-slicing: Quickly making sense of thin slivers of experience
• Sometimes intuitive judgments are as accurate as more reflective, rational
consideration.
• First impressions are not always right.

25. 25
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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Errors and Biases in Intuition and
Decision Making (1 of 2)
Hot cognition: Thinking that is driven by emotions
Automatic processing can sometimes lead to irrational choices.
Kahneman and Tversky’s behavioral economics: Developed four common
errors in decision making: framing, availability heuristic, representativeness
heuristic, and base rate

26. 26
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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Errors and Biases in Intuition and
Decision Making (2 of 2)
Framing: The way a problem is stated affects decision
Availability heuristic: Mental shortcut that relies on how quickly examples come
to mind when evaluating a topic or making a decision
• When many instances of an event come to mind, we assume it must occur often
and is likely.
Representativeness heuristic: Mental shortcut of judging if something belongs
in a given class based on similarity to other members
Base rate: The basic rate at which an event occurs over time; the basic
probability of an event

27. 27
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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Knowledge Check Activity 2
Which of the following do we use to state a problem or issue using broad patterns
and terms?
a. Framing
b. Availability heuristics
c. Representative heuristics
d. Base rates

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Knowledge Check Activity 2: Answer
Which of the following do we use to state a problem or issue using broad patterns
and terms?
a. Framing
The most general conclusion about intuition is that the way a problem is stated, or
framed, affects decisions. Usually, the broadest way of framing or stating a
problem produces the best decisions. However, people often state problems in
increasingly narrow terms until a single, seemingly “obvious” answer emerges.

29. 29
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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
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posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 29
Unit 4
Creative Thinking

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Nature of Creativity
Convergent thinking: Routine problem solving with logical reasoning
Divergent thinking: Many possibilities are developed from one starting point:
• Intuitive and associative
• Fluency: The total number of suggestions you can make
• Flexibility: The number of times you shift between potential uses
• Originality: How novel or unusual your ideas are
• Must be high quality and relevant to solving original problem

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Stages of Creative Thought
Five stages occur in creative problem solving:
1. Orientation: Defining the problems and important dimensions
2. Preparation: Gather information on specific problem
3. Incubation: Problem solving on a subconscious level
4. Illumination: Rapid insight.
5. Verification: Test and critically evaluate the solution

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Creative Personality
Researchers have found that creative people:
1. Are not necessarily highly intelligent and vice versa
2. Have a greater-than-average range of knowledge and interests
3. Open to a wide variety of experiences
4. Enjoy symbolic thought, ideas, concepts, and possibilities
5. Value independence and prefer complexity

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Some Tests of Divergent Thinking

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Discussion Activity 2
Move to groups of three or four. As a group, consider the following questions:
1. Do you think it is possible to increase your level of creativity? Why or why
not?
2. If so, what are some of the things you can do to increase creativity?

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
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posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 35
Unit 5
Psychology and Your Skill Set: Creativity and Innovation

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The DNA of Innovation (1 of 2)
Making associations: The ability to
connect ideas, questions, or concepts that
seem to be completely unrelated
Asking questions: Challenge conventions
and refuse to accept the status quo
• Mental set: Tendency to perceive a
problem in a way that blinds us to possible
solutions

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Mental Set Problem Solutions

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The DNA of Innovation (2 of 2)
Seek varied input through networking
• Brainstorming: Producing and evaluating ideas are kept separate to
encourage divergent thinking.
• Cross-stimulation effect: One person’s ideas trigger ideas from others
Observe and experiment
• May require trial and error
• Ask questions

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Discussion Activity: Pair-Share
Move into groups of two and discuss the following questions:
1. How can you use the information you learned about creativity the next time
you are assigned a group project?
2. Would the brainstorming process contribute to group work? Why or why not?

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or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Self-Assessment
Can you distinguish between experiential and reflective processing?
Explain how imagery is used in thinking.
Compare types of heuristics used in decision making.
In what way does language and culture affect our ability to generate new ideas or
possibilities during thinking?
Identify and compare steps in becoming a more creative thinker.

41. 41
Coon, Introduction to Psychology, 16th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Summary (1 of 3)
Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:
• Distinguish between experiential and reflective processing.
• Explain how imagery is used in thinking.
• Explain how concepts are used in thinking.
• Explain how language is used in thinking.
• Distinguish between four methods of problem solving: algorithms,
understanding, heuristics, and insight.

42. 42
Coon, Introduction to Psychology, 16th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Summary (2 of 3)
Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:
• Outline the barriers that can interfere with problem solving.
• Compare the problem solving of experts and novices.
• Distinguish between four common biases that can lead to errors in decision
making: framing, availability, representativeness, and ignoring the odds.
• Explain what is meant by choice overload.
• Describe the nature of creative thinking and how it is measured.

43. 43
Coon, Introduction to Psychology, 16th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Summary (3 of 3)
Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:
• Outline the five stages of creative problem solving.
• Describe five characteristics associated with a creative personality.
• Create a plan to enhance your creativity and innovation skills.