Cyrus the Great: Learning from Xenophon's Cyropaedia

What can we learn by reflecting on Xenophon’s Cyropaedia, the
life of King Cyrus the Great of Persia?
How similar were the warrior cultures of ancient Persia and
Sparta?
How did Cyrus’ magnanimous treatment of conquered cities
strengthen the multi-ethnic Persian Empire?
How was Cyrus able to win so many battles where he was heavily
outnumbered?
How was Cyrus able to find so many allies, and turn defeated foes
into allies?

Please, we welcome interesting questions in the
comments. Let us learn and reflect together!
At the end of our talk, we will discuss the sources
used for this video. Feel free to follow along in the
PowerPoint script we uploaded to SlideShare.

Xenophon: Cyropaedia, Cyrus the Great
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Biography of Cyrus the Great
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Xenophon opens the Cyropaedia with:
“Men unite against” “those who
attempt to rule over them.” But Cyrus
the Great “won the obedience from
thousands of his fellow, from cities and
tribes innumerable,” “eclipsing all
other monarchs.” Starting with a small
Persian force, joining with his
neighbors the Medes, he accumulated
alliances with multiple foes whom he
could have destroyed, but instead
befriended. This included the
Assyrians, after he conquered their
great capitol city, Babylon.

Indeed, the ancient
historian Diodorus Siculus
states the “Cyrus, we are
told, was not only a
courageous man in war, but
he was also considerate and
humane in his treatment of
his subjects. And it was for
this reason that the Persians
called him Father.” Statue of Cyrus the Great in the garden
of the National Museum of Tajikistan

Cyrus displayed these magnanimous policies towards the ancient Jews
when he not only permitted them to migrate back to Judah and
Jerusalem, but he also assisted their efforts to rebuild their temple. Cyrus
also released several other nationalities who had been forcibly relocated
to Babylon, these repatriations made these people fiercely loyal to the
nascent Persian Empire. Interestingly, neither Xenophon nor Herodotus,
the other Greek historian of Cyrus the Great, mention his humane
policies regarding the Jews and other peoples.
Cyrus permitted true local rule to his provinces, establishing satraps that
acted as local monarchs living in relative freedom, though they sent
tribute and when needed, they sent troops to the ruling Persian regime.

Cyrus the Great of Persia, by Jean Fouquet, 1470
Cyrus restores the treasures of the temple, by Thomas de Keyser, 1660

Was Ancient Persia Comparable to Sparta?

Many scholars criticize the Cyropaedia as a work of historical fiction,
claiming that the book describes the military culture of Sparta that
Xenophon admires. Certainly, historians of all ages view history
through the lens of current history and politics, but it is true that
ancient Persia developed a successful warrior culture, and that it
would, in some sense, resemble the culture of the ancient Greeks, and
the Spartans in particular, although it would have developed
independently. Maybe Xenophon was incorrect in the particulars, we
will never know for sure, but personally I believe his depiction of early
Persia is credible. After all, Xenophon did spend a considerable amount
of time in the heart of Persia.

Parthian soldier, Nisa, 2nd century BC
Xenophon states that the ancient Persian “cities
have an open place called Free Square, where
stand the palace and other public buildings,”
from which merchants, and “hawkers and
hucksters with the yells and cries and vulgarities”
are excluded, which does resemble the Spartan
disdain for merchants. This square has areas
assigned to boys, youths, military age men, and
older men. As in Sparta, the boys, young men,
and military age men live in these barracks,
though married men are permitted to live with
their families, unlike in Sparta.

The hunt for wild animals is an important part
of military training. When the king departs for
his hunt several times a month, he takes many
young men with him, each man carrying bows
and arrows, a dagger and javelins, and a light
shield. Xenophon states that “hunting
accustoms a man to early rising; it hardens
him to endure heat and cold; it teaches him to
march and to run at top speed; he must learn
to let fly the arrow and hurl the javelin”
quickly; and, above all, his spirit must be
sharpened by encountering the mightier
beasts.” And, as in ancient Greece, public
games included athletic contests that
practiced and honed military skills.
Parthian horseman on display at the Palazzo
Madama, Turin

Cyrus the Great as a Youth
Cyrus Hunting Wild Boar by Claude
Audran the Younger, Palace of Versailles

Prince Cyrus the Great grew up in the military culture
of ancient Persia. The Medes and the Persians had
close ties, the Medes were both more numerous and
more prosperous, enjoying more luxuries than the
Persians, while the Persians were mightier warriors.
Cyrus’ father, King Cambyses, was married to
Mandane, daughter of the Persian king, Astyages.

When Cyrus was twelve, Astyages sent
for Mandane and her son Cyrus to visit
him, and when Cyrus first saw Astyages,
“he fell on his neck and kissed him,” “as
though he had been brought up at his
grandfather’s side” “and the two of them
had been playmates of old.” Noticing his
grandfather’s false curls, painted cheeks,
stenciled eyes, and fancy attire, he
exclaimed, “Oh, mother, how beautiful
my grandfather is!” Cyrus accepted the
gift of robes, but what he valued most
was learning how to ride, as there were
few horses in Persia.

Herodotus differs in his retelling of the youth of Cyrus. He recounts a myth where
Astyages has a dream that Cyrus will overthrow him, so he orders that the young
Cyrus be exposed so the wild animals will devour him, but a shepherd instead raises
him as his son. But his regal manner and looks reveal his identify to the king when
he is about twelve, but Astyages becomes fond of this precocious prince.
Quite often there are competing oral traditions concerning the birth and death of
famous founding figures in the ancient world. Scholars favor Herodotus when he
says that the Persians defeated the Medes for control of their joint lands, and there
may be archeological evidence supporting this, but the Cyrus of Xenophon is more
diplomatic. After his many conquests leading the combined Persian and Mede
armies to victory over their many neighbors, including Assyria, he prefers to permit
the Persian and Median kings to think they are still the sovereign, while he holds the
real power.

King Astyages of Media, orders Harpagus to kill young
Cyrus, Jean-Charles Nicaise Perrin, late 1700's
Harpagus bring infant Cyrus to shepherd,
by Sebastiano Ricci, painted 1708

After a sumptuous
banquet, King Astyages
asks Cyrus whether he
enjoyed the delicacies
offered. Cyrus responds,
“Our way, grandfather,
is much shorter than
yours, and much
simpler. We hunger and
wish to be fed,” noting
that the Persian meals
are much shorter. Apadana Hall, 5th-century BC carving of Persian
and Median soldiers in traditional costume

Indeed, he shares much of the profuse food with the
attendants serving them, thanking them for teaching
him how to ride.
Xenophon emphasizes that Cyrus is kind to his
servants, aware they can assist the king in
unexpected ways.

Cyrus the Great boar-hunting, Palace of Versailles, by Claude Audran the Younger, 1600's

Relief from the "Hephthalite bowl", depicting a Parthian shot
After some months, his mother
wanted to return to her husband
in Persia, Cyrus begged to be left
with the Medes, reasoning, “At
home I am thought to be the
best of the lads at shooting and
hurling the javelin, and so I think
I am: but here I know I am the
worst at riding,” “and this
annoys me exceedingly.” He
sought to show his grandfather
that “he will not have a stouter
horseman than his grandson to
fight his battles.”

Evidently, the Medes also had
the sons of noblemen train at
the court of the Medes, just as
Alexander the Great would grow
up with the noblemen of
Macedonia, forging friendships
that would later prove their
worth on the battlefield. At his
grandfather’s court, he charmed
everyone with his wit, eagerness,
and talkative friendliness
towards all, “the impression was
not arrogance, but of simplicity
and warm-heartedness.” Stag Hunt Mosaic, 300 BC, from Pella; the figure on the
right is possibly Alexander the Great

His eagerness to practice his
horsemanship led him to hunts
that started to thin out the
king’s hunting preserves and
parks, so he was eager to hunt
in the wild open country. His
grandfather was reluctant but
relented. Cyrus asked for
advice, he was told that “he
must be on the guard against
bears and wild-boars and lions
and leopards: many a man had”
“been torn to pieces by these
dangerous creatures.”
Lion Hunt of
Ashurbanipal,
Assyrian
palace relief,
Nineveh ,
645–635 BC,
British
Museum

Indeed, lions and other beasts of Africa inhabited the
wilds of ancient Persia and ancient Greece, as many
literary sources and archaeology confirms.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_lions_in_Europe

During his first hunt, Cyrus the Great eagerly
pressed his horse to chase a great stag. His
horse slipped, going to his knees, nearly
throwing him, but “the boy managed to keep
his seat, and the horse recovered its footing,”
and shortly “Cyrus let fly his javelin, and the
stag fell dead, a beautiful big creature.” When
they were dismounted, admiring the slain
stag, Cyrus sprang back on his horse when he
heard a “frenzied wild boar charging down on
them. He charged to meet it, drawing his bow
with the surest aim possible, struck the beast
in the forehead, and laid him low.” Cyrus
would later display this brave coolness when
under fire in battle. Wild Boar Hunt, Frans Snyders

Prince Cyrus Challenges Assyrian Hunters
Diversion of an Assyrian King, by Frederick Arthur Bridgman, 1876

When Prince Cyrus was fifteen, the same age when Alexander
the Great would first command the Macedonian troops, the
young prince of Assyria planned a hunting party on the frontiers
of Media and Assyria where the game was plentiful. Both states
had border garrisons on this frontier, and this foolish prince, with
his large hunting party, decided to bottle up the Mede soldiers in
their garrisons while his soldiers drove game and grabbed booty
from the Medes. King Astyages and his son Prince Cyaxares
quickly rode out with whatever troops and guards they could
muster to investigate. Cyrus, putting on his armor for the first
time, eagerly joined the fray.

Diversion of an Assyrian King, by Frederick Arthur Bridgman, 1876

Cyrus, by William Blake Richmond, 1893
King Astyages was intimidated by the large
forces bottling up the garrisons, but Cyrus
urged the king to charge the raiders, as
they would quickly drop their booty and
flee as soon as they are attacked. So, he
“gave orders for his son to take a squad of
horses and charge the raiders,” so Cyaxares
and Cyrus both galloped to the field with a
cavalry detachment. “As soon as the
plunderers saw them, they dropped their
booty and fled.”

Cyrus, by William Blake Richmond, 1893
The troops, led by Cyrus, slew many in pursuit.
“Cyrus was ever in the front, like a young
hound, untrained as yet but bred from a gallant
stock, charging a wild boar recklessly; forward
he swept, without eyes or thought for anything
but the quarry to be captured and the blow to
be struck.” “The boy’s daring was on the verge
of madness.” This prompted Astyages to enter
the fray with his main force, and when the
Assyrians were in range of these bowmen, they
turned and fled.

Xenophon tells us, “King Cambyses
rejoiced to hear such tidings of his
son; but, when he heard that he
was already acting like a man of
years, he thought it full time to call
him home again that he might
complete his training in the
discipline of his fatherland.”
Grateful, King Astyages let Cyrus
return with many horses.

Cyrus the Great Battles the Assyrians

While Cyrus was finishing his training in Persia, Astyages
died, passing his crown to his son Cyaxares. The Assyrians
finished their conquest of Syria and subdued the
Hyrcanians, who lived on the southern shore of the
Caspian Sea, and was plotting to invade Media, and then
Persia. He sent an urgent message requesting troops to
Cyrus, and the Council of Elders of Persia granted him a
force of a thousand Peers, crack infantrymen, plus 10,000
archers, 10,000 slingers, and 10,000 targeteers.

In his speech to his men, Prince Cyrus
extolled the virtues of military training and
preparedness. “Men do not forego the
pleasures of the moment to say good-bye
to all joy for evermore. No, this self-control
is a training, so that we may reap the fruits
of a larger joy in the time to come.” We do
not wish to labor and “fight forever,
endlessly and hopelessly,” “but when we
have proved our mettle, we may win and
wear for ourselves and for our city the
threefold ornament of wealth, of
happiness, and of honor.”

Prince Cyrus continued: “You are not
warriors if when you should wake
and watch, you instead slumber, for
sleep is for novices.” “Toil is your
guide to happiness; hunger has been
your daily condiment; and water you
take to quench your thirst as the lion
laps the stream.” “You are fair
Honor’s suitors,” “therefore undergo
toil and danger gladly.”

Cyrus marched to the frontier with his uncle, King
Cyaxares. The Assyrians were slowly gathering forces
from their many allies, preparing for battle. Based on
their intelligence, Cyaxares calculated that ultimately
their cavalry would be a third the size of the
Assyrians, and their infantry would be half the size. It
was clear that they would lose to the Assyrians in a
battle of attrition.

Cyrus chose to use these months of
waiting to train his mixed Median
and Persian army, seeking “to bring
the physical strength of his men to
the highest pitch, to teach them
tactics, and to rouse their spirit for
martial deeds.” In their military
training, he taught his men to
“perfect their use of saber, shield,
and corslet, accustoming them
from the very first to the thought
that they must close with the
enemy, or confess themselves
worthless as fellow combatants.”

Perhaps Xenophon is also hinting that these soldiers
were superior to those of later Persian King Darius,
who were spooked in their invasion of Greece when
the Athenian hoplite infantrymen charged them at a
run, defeating the Persian army at the Battle of
Marathon in the upcoming Greco-Persian Wars.

Battle of Marathon, Georges Rochegrosse 1859

Cyrus filled these months of
waiting with military drills and
training and contests, “he wished
no man to take his meal at
morning or at night till he had
sweated for it. He would lead the
men out to hunt, or invent games
for them, or gave them work to
do.” “The toil itself was a blessed
means to making the men gentler
towards each other.” This
“common training would increase
tenfold the courage with which
they met the foe.”

Cyrus Deals With the Reluctant Armenians

King Cyaxares had also requested tribute and soldiers
from his ally, the King of Armenia, who may have
been too fearful of the Assyrians to respond. Cyrus
organized a hunt on the Armenian borders and asked
that Cyaxares follow with the main army some miles
behind.

Xenophon writes, “Cyrus sent a
messenger to the Armenian with
these words: ‘Cyrus bids you to bring
your tribute and troops without
delay.’” He instructed the messenger,
“if he asks you where Cyrus is, tell the
truth that I am on the frontier. If he
asks whether I am advancing,” “say
you do not know. If he inquires how
many we are, bid him send someone
with you to find out.”
Cyrus the Great, by von Johann Herrmann Bauer, 1747

“Cyrus then drew up his troops
in the order best suited for
marching and, if necessary, for
fighting, and set forth. The
soldiers had orders that not a
soul was to be wronged, and if
they met any Armenians, they
were to bid them to have no
fear, but open a market
wherever they wished, and sell
meat or drink as they chose.”
Cyrus the Great, by von Johann Herrmann Bauer, 1747

This struck terror in the heart of the hapless
Armenian king, who is initially nameless since he has
not yet earned respect in Xenophon’s telling of the
story. We learned in our study of the Iliad that all
ancient cultures were warrior cultures by necessity,
all ancients lived in terror that one day an army
would one day conquer and pillage their city, slay all
military age men, and enslave the women and
children.

https://youtu.be/DpmuhZJUJn0
https://youtu.be/7lI2ZQ50wRc
https://youtu.be/bGHHD7XTvr0
https://youtu.be/ynIx-AVI2f8

So, this anonymous Armenian prince sent his wife
and children, and his most valuable possessions, and
we assume his nobles did the same, into the hills
with an escort to protect them. He started to gather
his forces, but when Cyrus was quickly upon him, he
decided it would be folly to fight, as Cyrus was
already building a reputation for swift combat and
had captured his wife and family.

King Cyrus interrogating King of Armenia, by Noël Coypel, 1600's. Grenoble Museum

Gate of All Nations, Persepolis
Xenophon tells us that “Prince
Tigranes, elder son of the king, was on
his way home from a far country. In
the old days he had hunted with Cyrus
and been his friend,” this friendship
permitted him to negotiate for their
lives and their kingdom. They
established that the king deserved
chastisement, and they agreed that
vengeance would do everyone harm,
Tigranes argued that Cyrus would “do
himself the greatest harm if he put his
own subjects to death just when they
are most valuable to you.”

Cyrus asked, “Can someone have
any value when they are caught
doing wrong?”
“Yes,” answered Tigranes, “if that
is when they turn to good and
learn sobriety.” “Without this
virtue all others are in vain. What
good will you get from a strong
man or a brave man if he lacks
sobriety?” “With sobriety every
friend is a friend,” “and every
servant a blessing.”
Statue of King Cyrus, Regensburg Museum, Germany, 1284

Xenophon then reveals some maxims of
warfare that many suspect may have influenced
Machiavelli many centuries later. Cyrus asked
Tigranes, “Do you think that merely to learn
another is stronger than himself is defeat
enough to bring a man to his senses?”
“I do,” answered Tigranes, “and far more truly
than mere defeat in battle. For he who is
conquered by force may fancy that if he trains,
he can renew the war, and captured cities
dream that with the help of allies they will fight
again one day, but if we meet with men who
are better than ourselves and whom we
recognize to be so, we are ready to obey them
of our own free will.”

Tigranes reminds Cyrus that
“nothing can enslave a man more
utterly than fear.” “Victims of
terror cannot be brought to look
their conquerors in the face, even
when they try to comfort them.”
These pleadings pleased Cyrus, he
remembered his words to
Cyaxares, “I hope to make the
Armenian a better friend than
before.”

Cyrus asked the king of Armenia what troops he had available, he answered that he
had 8,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry, and 3,000 talents in his treasury. He asked
the king and Tigranes what ransom they would pay for their wives and children; he
said the kingdom was his.
There was a war in progress between the Armenians and the neighboring
Chaldeans. He asked for only half his troops and double the tribute, amounting to
one hundred talents, plus a loan of a hundred talents, and built fortifications to be
manned by Persians that protected them from the Chaldeans. The Persians and
Armenians assaulted the Chaldeans, and the Persians ambushed them while the
Armenians were giving chase. After the battle, Cyrus removed the chains from the
Chaldean prisoners of war, bandaged their wounds, and sent them back with the
message that they needed to make peace with their Armenian neighbors. Now both
the Armenians and the Chaldeans were allies, Cyrus added an armed Chaldean
contingent, along with the Armenians, to his armies to face the Assyrians.

The House of the Faun
"battle between
Greeks and Persians" in
the ancient Roman city
of Pompeii

The Defeat of
Astyages,
Designed by
Maximilien de
Haese, Woven
by Jac. van der
Borght, 1775

Cyrus the Great Advances on the Assyrians

Sensing that his soldiers were growing impatient, and
confident that they were adequately trained, Cyrus
conferred with Cyaxares on advancing on the
Assyrians.

Cyrus counseled, “The
spirit of our soldiers will
be all the higher and our
enemy’s alarm will be all
the greater when he hears
that we are not crouching
at home in terror but
coming out to meet him
as soon as we have heard
of his advance, eager to
close at once, not holding
back until our territory
suffers, but prompt to
seize the moment and
ravage his own land first.”
Cyrus, King of Persia, from Four Illustrious Rulers of Antiquity, 1590’s

Cyrus, King of Persia, from Four Illustrious Rulers of Antiquity, 1590’s
“Battles are
decided more by
the character of
the troops than by
their bodily
strength.” As
always, before they
advanced, Cyrus
made sacrifices
and offerings to
Zeus and the gods,
seeking their favor.

The two armies slowly advanced closer to
each other, the Persians and their allies
ravaging the Assyrian lands for supplies.
Cyrus was careful, his men took their evening
meal at daylight, lighting no fires in the camp
to hide their strength. Xenophon tells us,
“the armies drew nearer and nearer, until
they were four miles apart.” The Assyrian
camp “was completed surrounded by a
trench, but also perfectly visible, while Cyrus
took all the cover he could find, screening
himself behind villages and hillocks, in the
conviction that the more sudden the
disclosure of a hostile force, the greater will
be the enemy’s alarm.” Battle Standard of Cyrus the Great

Neo-Assyrian spearman, 20th Century illustration
In the morning, the two armies faced each
other in formation. The Assyrian king
encouraged his soldiers with a valorous
speech. Cyrus was unimpressed, saying to a
companion, “Do not be disturbed by the
thought of the Assyrian’s exhortations;
there are no words so fine that they can
turn cowards into brave men on the day of
hearing, nor make good archers out of bad,
nor doughty spearmen, nor skillful rider,
no, nor even teach men to use their arms
and legs if they have not learned before.”

The Persians, Medes, and their allies were
led into battle by Cyrus. “Once the advance
began, he quickened the pace, and his men
followed in perfect order, steadily, swiftly,
joyously,” “hardened by toil, trained by their
long discipline, every man in the front a
leader, and all of them alert.” “Cyrus
sounded the battle-paean, ‘Zeus our help
and Zeus our leader,’ and the men took up
the hymn devoutly, in one mighty chorus. For
at such times those who fear the gods have
less fear of their fellow men.” “The whole
army of Cyrus was brimming with courage
and zeal and strength and hardihood and
comradeship and self-control.” Jupiter Chariot between Justice & Piety, by Noël Coypel, 1671

The Assyrian army lost its nerve: they turned and fled to the entrenchments in their
camp. The Assyrian cavalry was chased and slaughtered, horse and rider, along with
many fleeing infantry. Many Assyrians were too stunned to draw their bows and
fling their spears. They were horrified when their women and children ran to and
fro in utter dismay and confusion as the Persian troops burst into the camp. Cyrus,
fearful that the small number of troops who burst into the camp would be
surrounded, gave the order for them to fall back out of range of the camp.
That night, Cyrus and his army encamped some distance from the Assyrian camp.
Also, during the night, when the Assyrians discovered that their king and nearly all
their nobles had been slain in the battle, they fell into despair and deserted.
The next morning, seeing the camp deserted, “Cyrus led his Persians within the
entrenchments, where they found” “herds of sheep and goats and cattle, and long
rows of wagons laden with good things.”

Alexander the Great, victorious over Darius at the battle of Gaugamela, by Jacques Courtois, late 1600's

The Hall of Hundred Columns, Throne Hall, in Persepolis, Persia, Cyrus’ Ceremonial Capitol, SW Iran.

Cyrus Gains Another Ally, the Hyrcanians
Parthia is the land of the Persians.

Xenophon says the Hyrcanians are neighbors of the Assyrians, easily dominated
because of their small numbers, but the map shows they are located on the
southern shores of the Caspian Sea, with Media and Parthia between them and the
Assyrians, as Dr Wikipedia confirms. So, Xenophon must be mistaken, he must be
describing another tribe.
Xenophon tells us that the Hyrcanians sent two ambassadors to Cyrus, their people
were skilled horsemen. Their army, with their wagons and families, were guarding
the rear of the fleeing Assyrians. They were dissatisfied with the abuses the
Assyrians had committed on their people, and now that their king was slain, they
offered their services to Cyrus as allies, they advised Cyrus that his army could easily
overtake the Assyrians. Cyrus then led the Persian army in pursuit with his
newfound allies, and most of the Medes, many of whose officers had been friends
with Cyrus in his youth, leaving those Medes who chose to remain behind with King
Cyaxares.

Parthia is the land of the Persians.

Ashurbanipal inspects booty and prisoners from Babylon, 645-640
Cyrus warns his
army, “We must
beware of what
has ruined the
fortune of many
a conqueror, the
lust for plunder.
The man who
plunders is no
longer a man,”
he is a slave to
the plunder he
must drag
behind him.

Cyrus continues,
“We must bear in
mind: nothing can
bring such gain as
victory; at one
clutch the victor
seizes all, men and
women, and
wealth, and
territory.” He
warned his army
they must finish
during daylight, to
keep his troops in
order.
Ashurbanipal inspects booty and prisoners from Babylon, 645-640

When the Persians and Medes caught up to the fleeing Assyrian forces,
the Hyrcanians switched sides, and their combined forces decimated
many of the fleeing Assyrians and their allies. Cyrus warned his Persian
officers that the Medes and their allies outnumbered them, so the
Persians should be satisfied with a smaller share of the spoils of war, to
ensure their continued goodwill and alliance.
What to do with the disarmed prisoners of war captured during this
chase? Cyrus decided it would be better to simply let them go free rather
than raid the countryside for more provisions to feed them, and he had
no stomach to slay them or starve them. He believed that if freed, and if
the Persians dominated the country, they would “prefer obedience to
battle.”

Cyrus’ attitude towards the
country they were passing
through, “full of sheep and
goats and cattle and horses,
and rich in corn and every good
thing,” was that they “must
become masters of those who
won all this, and next we must
ensure that they do not run
away. A well-populated country
is a rich possession, but a
deserted land will soon
become a desert.” Cyrus, king of Persia, by William Caxton, Polychronicon, 1480

Cyrus addressed the prisoners,
“Gentlemen, you owe it to your own
obedience this day that your lives are
safe; and for the future if you continue
in this conduct, no evil whatsoever
shall befall you. True, you will not have
the same ruler as before, but you will
dwell in the same houses, you will
cultivate the same lands, you will live
with your wives and govern your
children as you do now. Moreover, you
will not fight with us or anyone else.
On the contrary, if any wrong is done
to you, it is we who will fight on your
behalf.”

Back at the camp, “Cyaxares, the
King of the Medes, on the very
night when Cyrus set forth, drank
himself drunk in company with the
officers in his own quarters to
celebrate their good fortune.”
When he woke up from his stupor,
he found that only his fellow
revelers were in camp, that most of
his army of the Medes had
departed with Cyrus, he was livid.
Drunk Hercules supported by Satyrs, by Rubens, 1616

Herodotus does not mention this King Cyaxares, and
Dr Wikipedia says he only exists in the pages of
Xenophon’s Cyropaedia. Perhaps he did exist, but he
was king in name only, for Cyrus was commanding his
Median army. Xenophon’s Cyrus never overthrows
him, he allows him his throne, while he mollified him,
while holding the real power. In the Cyropaedia,
Cyrus did the same with his father, King Cambyses of
Persia, he was titular king until the day of his death.

17th-century bust of Cyrus the
Great in Hamburg, Germany
Cyrus begins his letter, “Cyrus to Cyaxares,
greeting. We do not admit that we have
deserted you; for no one is deserted when
his is being made the master of his enemies.”
Cyaxares wants his troops to return, but
Cyrus responds, “I am sending to Persia for
more troops, and instructing all the men who
come that, if you need them before we
return, they must hold themselves at your
service absolutely, to act not as they wish,
but as you may care to use them.”

Cyrus concludes, “I would advise you,
though I am younger than yourself, not
to take back with one hand what you
give with the other, or else you will win
hatred instead of gratitude; nor to use
threats if you wish men to come to you
speedily; nor to speak of being
deserted when you threaten an army,
unless you would teach them to
despise you. For ourselves, we will do
our best to rejoin you as soon as we
have concluded certain matters which
we believe will prove a common
blessing to yourself and us. Farewell.”
Statue of Cyrus the Great at Olympic Park in Sydney

Two more noblemen defected to Cyrus, Gobryas and
Gadatas, turning over to Cyrus their castles and
fortifications, their lands were close to Babylon, the
capitol of the Assyrians, you can read of these
adventures in Xenophon’s history.

Cyrus Reconciles With Miffed Mede Cyaxares
Reconciliation of Jacob and Esau, by Jan Brueghel the Elder, 1630

With his mighty army camped close to Babylon, Cyrus sent
for Cyaxares to confer with him on his next steps after
reviewing the army. They had the Assyrians on the run,
what could Cyaxares say other than to continue with the
siege of Babylon? The army was drunk with victory, they
would rebel if he ordered them to retreat home.
Meanwhile, forty thousand additional bowmen and
targeteers arrived from Persia.

Cyrus brought out a large contingent of his
best armed and best mounted men drawn
from the Persian, Mede, and allied armies
to meet Cyaxares. But Xenophon tells us,
“when Cyaxares saw so large a following of
gallant gentlemen with Cyrus, and with
himself so small and mean a retinue, it
seemed to him an insult, and mortification
filled his heart. When Cyrus sprang from his
horse and came up to give him the kiss of
greeting, Cyaxares, though he dismounted,
turned away his head and gave him no kiss,
while tears came into his eyes.”

Cyrus had the upper hand, but he did not
want to be seen as a usurper, and he
wanted to preserve what he could of
Cyaxares’ dignity, so he led Cyaxares a
short distance away, having carpets
spread under a grove of palm trees to
talk to the king. At the end of a short
speech, where he suggested that they
not accuse each other, Cyrus asks him, “If
I can be shown to have done you harm, I
will confess I am to blame, but if it
appears that I have never injured you,
not even in thought, will you not acquit
me of all injustice towards you?”

After more cajoling, and more
kind words from Cyrus, Cyaxares
then accepted the kiss of
friendship from Cyrus, and the
large army, witnessing this long
conversation, but not knowing
what was said, cheered at the
reconciliation. Xenophon writes
that “the mood of Cyaxares
changed, seeing that Cyrus had
not stolen his subjects from him,”
and they regarded him as before,
or so Xenophon tells us.

Cyrus Defeats King Croesus of Lydia

Both Herodotus and Xenophon tell us how the rich
King Croesus of Lydia battles and loses to Cyrus the
Great, but the time and place and details of the
battle differ greatly. We know that Xenophon read
Herodotus, he tells us a different version of the
message delivered to Croesus by the Oracle at
Delphi. Whereas Herodotus has King Croesus battle
Cyrus near Lydia, in Xenophon he joins the Assyrian
forces defending Babylon.

Xenophon’s account sounds implausible, Lydia is located
on the west coast of Asia Minor, and his army would likely
have to march many mile to arrive at Babylon. Why would
King Croesus send troops to support an empire that had
recently suffered a humiliating defeat against Cyrus? The
Wikipedia article on Croesus discusses the plausibility of
Herodotus’ stories about Croesus but does not even
mention Xenophon. Perhaps another Croesus led the
Assyrian troops, and Xenophon confused him with King
Croesus.

This was a hard-fought battle between the
outnumbered Persians and Medes and the more
numerous Assyrian forces, possibly led by Croesus,
each facing each other with a center and two
flanking columns. The Assyrians and Lydians were
more numerous, they surrounded the Persians and
Medes.

A history of the ancient world, for high schools and academies, 1904

Xenophon tells us, “Cyrus gave the
word, and they confronted the foe.
There was silence in the ranks as they
realized what they had to face, and
Cyrus began the battle-hymn, and it
thundered through the host.” Cyrus
inspired his outnumbered troops by his
aggressive bravery. “Cyrus swept
forward at the head of his cavalry,
straight for the enemy’s flank,” “while
the infantry followed behind him, swift
and steady, wave on wave, sweeping
out on either side, far outflanking their
opponents.” "Cyrus Defeats Spargapises", designs by Michiel Coxie,
woven at workshop of Albert Auwercx, late 1600’s

The Persian chariots dashed in, cutting down many of
the enemy. When an enemy soldier fell under Cyrus’
horse he stabbed in the belly, and Cyrus was thrown
to the ground, one of his squires gave his horse to
Cyrus. The Persians and Medes finally triumphed on
the battlefield.

Victory of Cyrus over Lydia's Croesus at the Battle of Thymbra, 546 BC, Walter Hutchinson, 1877

This was a close call, when the king is slain, the battle
is lost. Another Prince Cyrus was winning the battle
when he was slain many generations later, when he
was attempting to usurp the Persian throne.
Xenophon was elected general of the stranded
mercenary Greek army of Ten Thousand who then
marched out of Persia to the Greek colonies of the
Black Sea thousands of miles away. He tells this story
in his classic work, the Anabasis.

King Croesus and his remaining troops fled home to
Sardis, and Cyrus pursued him the next day. Persian
forces scaled the fortifications, and they seized the
heights. Seeing this, the Lydians fled, and Croesus
retreated to his palace, and then cried out to Cyrus.
He was not willing to plunder this rich city, promising
that the city would not be sacked, and the women
and children would be safe.

Xenophon asked Croesus about his responses
to the Oracle at Delphi. He said he first put the
god to the test, which was not advisable. After
much prompting and many expensive gifts,
Croesus asked the Oracle, “What must I do so
that sons might be born to me?” He was
promised sons, but “one was dumb his whole
life, and the noblest perished in the flower of
his youth.”
Croesus continued, “I crushed by these
sorrows, sent again to the god and asked him
how I could live in happiness for the rest of my
days, and the Oracle answered: ‘Know thyself,
O Croesus, and happiness shall be thine.’”
Priestess of Delphi
(1891) by John
Collier, showing
the Pythia sitting
on a tripod with
vapor rising from a
crack in the earth
beneath her

But he was flattered and told he
could be the general and monarch
of the world, but Croesus
remarked, “I did not know myself.
I thought myself able to fight
against you, you who are sprung
from the seed of the gods, born of
a royal line, trained in valor and
virtue from your youth.” He then
told Cyrus this his “happiness is
yours to give.” So, Cyrus started
the practice of accepting defeated
monarchs as his advisors, keeping
them close at hand.
View of Delphi with
Sacrificial Procession by
Claude Lorrain, late 1600’s

In Herodotus, Croesus asked the Oracle at Delphi
what would happen if he attacked the army of Cyrus.
The Oracle responded that a great empire would fall.
But it was not Cyrus’ empire that fell, but Croesus’
empire.

Cyrus Conquers Babylon, Assyrian Capitol
he Fall of Babylon, by John Martin, 1831

Cyrus had his engineers prepare battering rams and siege engines to
assault the thick walls of the city of Babylon. Meanwhile, King Cyaxares
withdrew with a third of the Median troops to protect their home country.
Cyrus circled the great city of Babylon with his advisors, looking for a weak
spot in the walls where they could place their siege engines. Winter was
approaching, they could not put the city under siege, and the walls were
simply too strong, and the city had ample provisions and water to survive
a very long siege.
Xenophon and Herodotus agreed on the successful strategy taken, a
branch of the Euphrates River flowed through the city, through a gap in
the walls. Cyrus simply had a massive trench built next to the river to
divert it.

Woodcut in 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle depicting the fall of Babylon
Xenophon tells us, “Cyrus
heard there was a high
festival in Babylon when
the citizens would drink
and make merry the
whole night long. As soon
as darkness fell, he set his
men to work. The mouths
of the trenches were
opened, and during the
night the water poured in,
so that the dry riverbed
formed a highway into the
heart of the city.”

The Persians were able to quickly
find and enter the king’s palace,
and he was slain with his retinue.
Cyrus did not wish for this to be a
bloodbath, “he sent squadrons of
cavalry down the different roads
with orders to kill all they found
in the street, while those who
knew Assyrian warned the
inhabitants to stay indoors under
pain of death.” “Cyrus delivered
the bodies of the fallen to their
kinfolk for burial.” St Augustine, by Carlo Cignani, 1600’a
Walls of Babylon, Temple of Bel, by William Simpson, 1800's

You might ask, I thought Cyrus already killed the king
in the previous battle. Well, you kill one king, and
another is crowned. What is more significant is these
Assyrian kings are anonymous in Xenophon’s
account, and in ancient accounts, people with no
name are of no account.

The Walls of Babylon by Antonio Tempesta, 1610
Cyrus quickly “issued a
proclamation to the Babylonians,
bidding them to till the soil and pay
the dues and render willing service
to the new rulers.” All captives
were to be treated as subjects.
Xenophon tells us, “After this,
Cyrus felt the time had come to
assume the style and manner of a
king: he wishes this to be done
with the goodwill and concurrence
of his friends,” “appearing seldom
in public, always with a certain
majesty.”

Cyrus the Great’s reluctance to rape, pillage and
plunder, and execute the military age men and
enslave the women and children of the cities he
captured, was unusually tolerant for the warrior
cultures of the ancient world, and these tactics are
what enabled him to build a successful multi-ethnic
empire loyal to him. These were the same tactics that
enabled Alexander the Great to also conquer the
successors to his empire many generations later.

Battle of Pelusium Between Persians and Egyptians, 343 BC

Herodotus tells us that Cyrus the Great died an
ignoble humiliating death at the hands of a barbarian
queen who have him beheaded, putting his head in a
bag full of blood. But Xenophon’s Cyrus dies a
peaceful death after a long reign.

Head of Cyrus Brought to Queen Tomyris, Peter Paul Rubens, 1623

Xenophon’s Cyrus the Great,
on his deathbed, warns his son
Cambyses, that “your kingdom
is not guarded by this golden
scepter, but by faithful friends;
their loyalty is your true staff, a
scepter which shall not fail.
But never think that loyal
hearts grow as the grass grows
in the field.” “Every leader
must win his own followers for
himself, and the way to win
them is not by violence but by
loving kindness.”
St Augustine, by Carlo Cignani, 1600’a
Tomb of Cyrus in Pasargadae, Iran

Alexander the Great admired the example of Cyrus
the Great. Alexander honored his memory by visiting
his tomb when he conquered Persia.

Alexander at the Tomb of Cyrus the Great, by Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes, 1796

This translation of the Cyropaedia is readable, though it is wordy, often we can cut a
quarter of the words without changing the meaning.
Xenophon, the author of the Cyropaedia, or biography of Cyrus, is deprecated by
many modern scholars, but he was just as influential as Plato with his
contemporaries and Renaissance scholars, and perhaps his Cyropaedia influenced
Alexander the Great, who held together his Persian and Indian conquests with the
same magnanimous policies that Cyrus the Great employed. However, we do agree
that this work is more historical fiction as it is biography, as there are numerous
factual errors in the work.
Ancient historians sought moral lessons from history; so perhaps Xenophon drew
from minority oral accounts where Cyrus saw no need to overthrow the Median
kings as long as he held the actual power. But even though these accounts are
historically suspect, they can tell us how the ancient people viewed Cyrus and his
magnanimous nature that strengthened rather than weakened his empire.

Statue of Xenophon, by Hugo Haerd
Austrian Parliament building
Xenophon leading his Ten Thousand
through Persia to the Black Sea, 1800’s

The ancient Greek historian Thucydides said that although many of the speeches in
his Greek history were based on the actual speech, that often they reflected what
the character must have said. This is even more true for Xenophon’s speeches and
sayings of Cyrus, as few fragments, if any, of Cyrus’ speeches likely survived in
Xenophon’s days, these speeches are definitely what Xenophon thought Cyrus the
Great must have said.
Some scholars comment that the Cyropaedia influenced Machiavelli’s treatise, The
Prince, and though Machiavelli no doubt was acquainted with Xenophon’s works,
personally I feel that this influence is overdrawn. Xenophon, like Plato, valued
enlightened monarchs over radical democracies, but outside of the short first
paragraph, he does not address this debate in the Cyropaedia. Instead, he merely
attempts to show why Cyrus the Great was so successful in his monarchy, showing a
magnanimity rarely shown by despots.

The translator’s notes says that Xenophon’s
description of Cyrus the Great was based on the life
of the Spartan King Agesilaus, whom he admired.
However, Xenophon also lists many differences
between the Spartan and Persian military training, so
this may be overdrawn.

Meeting between
Spartan King
Agesilaus (left) and
Pharnabazus II in
395 BC, Agesilaus
leaves the
Hellespontine
Phrygia.

We plan on recording a video on Plutarch’s Life of
Agesilaus and Xenophon’s Hellenica, so you can judge
whether this comparison rings true for yourself.

Alas, only sparse fragments survive of the chapters
Diodorus of Siculus dedicated to the rule of Cyrus the
Great.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus
Website with works of
Diodorus Siculus:
https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/

We also discuss Herodotus and the other Greek
historians in our Book Reviews on Greek History and
Philosophy.

To find the source of any direct
quotes in this blog, please type in
the phrase to the search box in
my blog to see the referenced
footnote.
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Cyrus the Great: Learning from Xenophon's Cyropaedia

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