Transferring Singapore's Automobile Independence Strategy

TRANSFERABILITY OF SINGAPORE URBAN
STRATEGY FOR AUTOMOBILE INDEPENDENCY
TO BANGKOK: NEIGHBOURHOOD LEVEL
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON
FACULTY OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
BARTLETT SCHOOL OF PLANNING
MAJOR RESEARCH PROJECT:
Benyatip Manajitt
MSc. Sustainable Urbanism
Word count: 7,925 WORDS
Being a Major Project in Sustainable Urbanism submitted to the faculty of
The Built Environment as part of the requirements for the award of the MSc.
Sustainable Urbanism at University College London, I declare that this project
is entirely my own work and that ideas, data and images, as well as direct
quotations, drawn from elsewhere are identified and referenced.

‘The case of Singapore appears to be an important prototype for reflection
on the question of sustainable urban development and its specific conditions,
practices and requirements in the context of Asian world city development’
(Wong & Goldblum, 2008)

I
CONTENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF IMAGES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
1.2 RESEARCH QUESTION AND OBJECTIVES
1.3 OUTLINE
2.0 MATERIAL AND FRAMEWORK
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEWS
2.2 TRANSFERABILITY OF TRANSPORT MEASURE FRAMEWORK
3.0 PLANNING OVERVIEW
3.1 SINGAPORE PLANNING OVERVIEW
3.2 BANGKOK PLANNING OVERVIEW
3.3 PLANNING OVERVIEW IN BRIEF
4.0 PLANNING AT NEIGHBOURHOOD LEVEL
4.1 SINGAPORE
4.1.1 SINGAPORE NEIGHBOURHOOD
4.1.2 IDENTIFYING THE STRATEGY ON SITE
4.2 BANGKOK
4.2.1 BANGKOK NEIGHBOURHOOD
4.2.2 IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS ON SITE
5.0 EX-ANTE ASSESSMENT
6.0 IMPLEMENTATION
7.0 REFLECTION AND CONCLUSION
7.1 IMPLEMENTATION REFLECTION
7.2 CONCLUSION
8.0 REFERENCES
9.0 APPENDICES
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
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II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to take this opportunity to show my gratitude to my supervisor,
Mr. Hugo Nowell who has assisted and guided me all the way through my major
research project. I would like to thanks planners from both, Urban Redevelopment
Authorities, Mr. Hengky Tay and Land Transport Authorities, Mrs. Yin Hui, for
kindly providing information about Singapore planning principles. I would also like
to express my gratitude to Assistant Professor Panit Pujinda, Professor Tarawut
Boonlua for advice and material about Bangkok urban and transport planning.
Finally, I give my warm thanks to colleagues, friends and family for all the support
and smiles throughout the project.

III
ABSTRACT
The urban and transport planning is path dependent decisions that can determine
the way city consumed energy and produce carbon. Sustainable transport is one
of the solutions. It could be achieved through automobile independency. One of
the cities that has been regarded as successful urban and transport planning for
automobile independency is Singapore.
This research studies the possibility for the transferability of Singapore urban
strategy for automobile independency to Bangkok. It aims to find possible obstacles
and advantages in transferring Singapore strategies which hopefully would benefit
other developing South East Asian cities. The research focuses on neighbourhood
scale strategy especially around interchange station. It studies planning background
of Singapore and Bangkok. Input initiatives from Singapore that assist reduction of
automobile dependency are identified. These initiatives serve toward the same
goal of increasing attractiveness of public transport over private vehicles through
improving accessibility to public transport, reducing the need for commuting and
thus discouraging automobile usage. Transfer exercise explore possible obstacles
and advantages of transferring these initiatives.
The exercise and study find that Singapore planning success is from the long
term visionary planning but also relies on public ownership of land and total control
of planning. Therefore the obstacles of strategy transfer are Bangkok’s lack of
power to control development and private ownership of the land.
All in all, the input initiatives may not be able to be implemented directly to
achieve the same intentions and level of success, but they could be transferred
with appropriate adaption. These initiatives studied are only a small part of the
larger level strategies that support one another to achieve the ultimate goal of
automobile independency.

IV
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1 : World urbanisation prospects
FIGURE 2 : Location map
FIGURE 3 : Overall research background
FIGURE 4 : Existing policy transfer framework
FIGURE 5 : Proposed framework
FIGURE 6 : Singapore rail transport network
FIGURE 7 : Singapore transport mode share
FIGURE 8 : Singapore government structure
FIGURE 9 : Singapore planning process
FIGURE 10 : Bangkok transport mode share
FIGURE 11 : Bangkok rail transport network
FIGURE 12 : Bangkok government structure
FIGURE 13 : Bangkok planning structure
FIGURE 14 : Singapore site location
FIGURE 15 : Bishan arial view
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FIGURE 16 : Bishan land use map
FIGURE 17 : Bishan strategy
FIGURE 18 : Bishan integrated hub conceptual section
FIGURE 19 : Bishan bus system
FIGURE 20 : Bishan integrated hub concept
FIGURE 21 : Bishan amenities
FIGURE 22 : Bishan permeability figure-ground
FIGURE 23 : Bishan HDB development
FIGURE 24 : Singapore input initiatives and intentions
FIGURE 25 : Bangkok site location
FIGURE 26 : Mochit arial view
FIGURE 27 : Mochit land use map
FIGURE 28 : Mochit problem
FIGURE 29 : Ex-ante assessment detial
FIGURE 30 : Mochit implementation of Singapore strategy
FIGURE 31 : Mochit integrated hub concept
FIGURE 32 : Mochit integrated hub conceptual section
FIGURE 33 : Mochit station - before implementation
FIGURE 34 : Mochit station - after implementation
FIGURE 35 : Mochit footpath and covered walkway
FIGURE 36 : Government office complex proposed implementation
FIGURE 37 : Reflection of implementation
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V
LIST OF IMAGES by author or else specified
IMAGE 1 : Bishan view from Bishan park, on the north of the site
IMAGE 2 : HDB Complex
IMAGE 3 : MRT entrance connect directly to the shopping centre
IMAGE 4 : Commercial corridor connection to MRT - open at night
IMAGE 5 : Bishan bus interchange
IMAGE 6 : Shops on ground floor around HDB
IMAGE 7 : Shopping on ground floor
IMAGE 8 : Food court in the area
IMAGE 9 : Bishan community centre
IMAGE 10 : Bishan public library
IMAGE 11 : Elevated ground floor of HDB
IMAGE 12 : Covered walkway connect directly to bus stops
IMAGE 13 : Covered walkway connect directly to bus stops
IMAGE 14 : Covered walkway between HDB buildings
IMAGE 15 : HDB on-ground parking
IMAGE 16 : Pedestrian accesses to HDB complex
IMAGE 17 : Parking area adjacent to Mochit BTS station
IMAGE 18 : Street atmosphere
IMAGE 19 : Disconnected between BTS and MRT stations
IMAGE 20 : Chaotic conditions in Mochit
IMAGE 21 : Bus queuing at Mochit
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BMCL - Bangkok Metro public Company Limited
BTS - Bangkok mass Transit System
BTSC - Bangkok mass Transit System public Company limited
CBD - Central Business District
CTE - Central Expressway
DPT - Department of Public works and Town & country planning
LRT - Light Rail Transit
LTA - Land Transport Authority
MND - Ministry of National Development
MOI - Ministry of Interior
MOT - Ministry of Transprot
MRT - Mass Rapid Transit
MRTA - Mass Rapid Transit Authority of Thailand
NEA - National Environment Agency
NESDB - National Economic and Social Development Board
NPark - National Parks board
PWD - Public Works Department
SLA - Singapore Land Authority
SRT - State Railway of Thailand
STDZ - Sustainable Transport Development Zone
URA - Urban Redevelopment Authority

02
1.1 BACKGROUND
Many Asian cities especially, that in South East Asia, are rapidly being urbanized.
New or expanding cities subsequently require urban planning to cater to such
rapid population increases (Han, 2010). The decisions generated in this planning
process are path-dependency, and may potentially lead to lock-in systems that
may determine the ways in which cities consume energy and produce carbon.
One significant urban planning decision that has impactful consequences that are
beginning to concern many Asian cities is that of transport planning. As Newman &
Kenworthy stated, ‘Many cities in the developing world…are rapidly modernizing
with significant car ownership and are putting most of their transport capital
into new roads and parking. These cities have huge traffic problems as well as
associated environmental and social problem.’ (1996).
Perhaps the solution for this is sustainable transport, which can be achieve
through the organization of land use and transport planning (European Commission,
2003). One of the ways to pursue sustainable transport is automobile independent
mobility, which will be the main focus of this paper.
‘Automobile dependence is the primary force driving cities to increase their
use of land, energy, water, and other materials; their production of transportation
related air emissions, traffic noise, and storm water pollution; and their
economic problems due to the high capital costs of sprawl-related infrastructure,
direct transportation costs, and indirect transportation costs; along with the
transportation-related loss of the public realm, safety, and community.’ (Newman&
Kenworthy, 1999)
This could be achieved through ensuring that public transportation
infrastructures, which can mobilise large groups of people with less environmental
impact, is more attractive than personal automobiles (Newman & Kenworthy,
1996).
Singapore is one outstanding city that has successfully implemented a
sustainable urban transport program, especially amongst its neighbouring countries
in the region (Newman & Kenworthy, 1996; Newman & Kenworthy, 1989; Barter,
2008; Han, 2010; Newman & Kenworthy, 1999). Singapore was ranked second in the
Global Competitiveness Index in the 2013 World Economic Forum’s report which
had claimed that Singapore’s world-class infrastructure is a major contributor of
its success (Bin, 2013).
In the contrary, other neighbouring countries in the South East Asian region is
lacking of such system. Bangkok is one of the cities with urban problems, especially
with that of personal automobile dependency and traffic caused by unplanned
developments (Braun, 2011; Gibson, 2011; Kenworthy, 1995; Newman & Kenworthy,
1996; Newman & Kenworthy, 1989). Nearly seven million vehicles traverse the
streets of Bangkok everyday (Manager, ASTV, 2012). It is one of the most congested
cities in the world (Chumsri, 2013), regardless of mass transit expansions, there are
still increasing numbers of private motor vehicles.
Unlike Bangkok, Singapore has managed to ensure that its public transport
system is a better travel option through integrated land use and transport planning
as well as economic measures (Newman & Kenworthy, 1996; Bin, 2013; URA, 2014a;
LTA, 2013a; Han, 2010). With the underlying basis of Udomsri & Miyamoto who had
claimed that integrated planning is much more important for developing cities
rather than for developed cities (1995), the study of how Singapore’s planning
principle can be transferred to assist Bangkok’s own planning to achieve automobile
independency will be beneficial for Bangkok as well as for other cities in the South
East Asian region.
FIGURE 1 : World urbanization prospects (Source: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs)

03
‘..transforming the island-state from a chaotic ‘third-world’ country without
adequate housing, basic sanitation and infrastructure in the 1960’s, to the
gleaming, efficient, well-run city it is today.’
(Bin, 2013)
FIGURE 2 : Location map (Modified from; Map of Asia with Countries - Single Colour by FreeVectorMaps.com)
1.2 RESEARCH QUESTION AND OBJECTIVES
The previous section has led to the research question of, Can Singapore’s
urban strategy for automobile independency be transferred to Bangkok?
Through transfer exercise, the research aims to achieve the following objective:
• To understand the context of sustainable transport in Singapore.
• To explore the possible obstacles and advantages of the transferring strategy.
• To explore how transfers could be accomplished.
This research project does not aim to solve Bangkok’s problems but, rather,
to illustrate transferability of Singapore’s strategies through the process of
implementing such strategies in Bangkok. These would aid in laying a substantial
foundation to further exploration in the transferability to other developing Asian
cities.
It may be argued that transferring to Bangkok cannot draw conclusion to the
transferability of Singapore’s strategy. However, single city study instead of array of
studies allows the project to explore the transferring process in the organizational
way (Inkpen & Pien, 2006). This, in its place, provides better understanding of
obstacles and modification occur during the process which will assist the future
strategy transfer practice.
Moreover, urban planning covers both large and small scales and are both
inevitably needed to be discussed as they are interrelated. The research will explore
large scale strategies but will focus the study on the scale of neighbourhoods.
The project will study the transferability of strategies in small areas of Singapore
to similar areas in Bangkok and identify specific strategies and adjustments that
will be needed. The strategy for interchange areas is the focus because Bangkok
already has high levels of demand for public transportations which are currently
served by road-based transports, such as the likes of buses and vans. To further
support Bangkok’s mass rail transit expansion plans, the strategy in interchange
areas will help to encourage people to use more mass rail transit modes and reduce
the use of private automobiles and road-based public transports in order to reduce
automobile dependency.
Singapore
Bangkok

04
1.3 OUTLINE
The next chapter will outline the literature and materials on urban planning
and sustainable transport developments in Singapore and Bangkok as well as
methodology formulated from the mentioned materials. Chapter three will explore
the overview of Singapore and Bangkok’s urban and transport planning to help
establish the background for further explorations. Following this, the research
will examine Singapore and Bangkok’s transport interchange areas in the city
fringes. The strategy from Singapore’s area will be outlined as an ‘input strategy’
and Bangkok’s problems in the selected area will be investigated. Chapter Five
will provide a quick assessment of the input strategies against the background
information to formulate possible ‘output strategies’ for Bangkok’s selected area.
Finally, the last chapter will reflect on the transfer processes in Chapter Six which
will help draw conclusions to the research question.
Developing cities
SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT
AUTOMOBILE INDEPENDENCY
SHIFT FROM PRIVATE VEHICLES TO
PUBLIC TRANSPORT
MAKE PUBLIC TRANSPORT MORE
ATTRACTIVE THAN PRIVATE VEHICLES
SINGAPORE’S GOALS
SINGAPORE’S STRATEGIES
?
FIGURE 3 : Overall research background

06
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
The materials about sustainable transport planning and automobile dependency
provide background research into the strategies of transfer principles and
goals. The policy transfer literature are reviewed to help formulate appropriate
methodologies for this research while information in planning in the source city of
Singapore and the target city of Bangkok, are also needed for the transfer exercise.
Newman & Kenworthy (1999) has related automobile dependence to
sustainability through linking it to many indicators for a sustainable city. They
concluded that ‘patterns of automobile dependence are not sustainable’ and
that, ‘it is not possible to solve sustainability in cities without addressing
automobile dependence.’ The authors (1989) studied cities around the world and
determined characteristics of policy to support automobile independency as Re-
urbanisation; intensive and centralized land use, and Reorientation of transport
priority; reorientation transport infrastructure to non-automobile modes, better
performing public transport and restraint on high speed traffic flow, or in other
words, integrated urban and transport planning. These are the basic characteristics
which Singapore’s strategies resembles. They (1996) suggested the encouragement
of people to turn from private vehicles to public transports through ensuring
that public transports is more attractive than personal automobiles to achieve
automobile independency. This is one of the main goals in Singapore urban and
transport planning (LTA, 2013a; URA, 2014d).
The research would explore strategies implemented by Singapore to enhance
attractiveness of public transports over private vehicular uses and the transferability
of these strategies to other developing cities. Macário & Marques (2008) provided
the framework and methodology for transferring best practices with the aim of
solving problems in the target city, using existing solutions from the source city.
The paper provided ten steps of policy transfer which will be adopted in the
following section for this paper. The framework is looking for the ‘preconditions for
implementation’ and the transferability was said to depend on ‘the characteristics
of measures themselves in relations to the target city’. This will be illustrated in
this research through the implementation.
The European Commission (2003) had stressed the significance of integrated
land use and transport policy, and emphasized on the transferring of these good
practices amongst European countries by pointing out barriers and solutions with
regards to policy transfers. The barriers could occur during three stages of the
transferring process, i.e. policy input, policy output and policy outcome. Policy
output is the ‘end product of policy formulation and implementation’ while policy
outcome is the ‘result of what happens…once the policy has been in operation for
some time’. As the policy outcome could not be determined within the scope of
this research, the output will be assessed in relations to the initial policy input’s
goals.
Stone suggested (1999) that ‘agency and structure factors will condition the
degree of transfer and the character of implementation’. Macário & Marques
(2008) also emphasized the significance of relationships between institutions,
clusters of strategies that support one another as success factors, ‘some of the
relationships between institutions and territories may have to be replicated as
well’. Likewise, the European Commission (2003) identified the importance of
‘understand(-ing) how a policy instrument may fit into the context of the receptor
city’. Inkpen & Pien (2006) also suggested that knowledge transfer alone without
elements supporting it will not serve the purposes. The aforementioned scholars
advocates that policy transfer could not happen solitarily, therefore to execute
the transfer exercise, ‘detailed understanding of its enabling context’ should be
achieved (Macário & Marques, 2008).
Singapore is regarded as a successful automobile independency role model
city from its urban planning and economic control of the cars ownerships whereas
Bangkok is known for its traffic problems from unplanned and uncoordinated
government and planning system.
Singapore has been mentioned as a good model for planning with regards to
automobile independency in several literatures (Newman & Kenworthy, 1996;
Gibson, 2011; Han, 2010). Han (2010) stated that Singapore’s success should be
adopted in South East Asian cities. However, known alongside Singapore’s planning
success is its uniqueness of motivation. Wong & Goldblum (2008), Tan (1999) and
all publications from Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA) stressed on Singapore’s
outstanding urban planning motivation as spatial limitation. Barter (2008), in
particular, claimed that the sustainable urban transport systems of Singapore is, in
fact, ‘spatial and economic efficiency-focused’.
In contrast, neighbouring cities like Bangkok is well-known for its traffic
problems resulting from ineffective urban and transport planning (Pianuan, et
al.,1994; Braun, 2011; Tanaboriboon, 1993; Udomsri & Miyamoto, 1995; Kenworthy,
1995; Gibson, 2011; Newman & Kenworthy, 1996; Nims, 1963). Bangkok and
Vicinities Regional Plan 2056 has outlined for upcoming mass rail transit extensions
(DPT, 2006), new transport nodes are being proposed and constructed. Boonlua
(2008) stated the benefits of having ‘Sustainable Transport Development Zone’
(STDZ) around transport nodes in developing cities especially in dense urban fabric
suitable for walking like Bangkok.
The research will study if Singapore’s strategy for automobile dependency
can be effectively transferred to benefit other developing cities like Bangkok.
Existing potentials in Bangkok’s urban fabric and its mass rail transit plans
indicate possibilities to increase the attractiveness of public transport through
neighbourhood strategies. The information of source and target cities, together
with the transfer exercise, will be used in determining whether the transferability
of Singapore urban planning strategy for automobile independency to Bangkok is
viable.

2.2 TRANSFERABILITY OF TRANSPORT MEASURES
FRAMEWORK
The existing framework shown in FIGURE 4 from Transferability of Sustainable
Urban Mobility Measures suggests the method of transferring transport policy from
one city to another. It aims to solve the problems in the target city, and allow
each measure clusters’ transferability to be assessed (Macário & Marques, 2008).
Therefore, the framework assesses the transferability of a strategy through its
ability to solve target city’s problems.
However, this research focuses on the idea of using the source city as a model
and to explore the strategy transfer through the process of adoption. It also aims
to discover whether Singapore’s strategies can be effectively and appropriately
transferred to Bangkok in order to achieve automobile independence. Therefore,
the framework is adjusted, as shown in FIGURE 5.
The process will start with the study of the source and city targets (Singapore
and Bangkok), and then the ‘input initiatives’ from the source city will be identified
for the transfer exercise. Pre-assessments are performed to determine possible
‘output initiatives’ before actual implementations. Finally, the implementation
will be reflected on and concluded.
This method will allow the paper to observe transferability of Singapore’s strategies
that will aid in the reduction of automobile dependency. The transfer exercise
transforms the input strategies from Singapore into the output strategies that will
and can be implemented in Bangkok. However, the outcome of the strategies of
transfer can only be assessed when the transfer strategy has taken place and put
into full motion (European Commission, 2003). This requirement is beyond the
scope of this research.
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STEP 1 : Diagnostic of the Problems
STEP 4 : Look Around for Similar
Contexts
STEP 2 : Characterisation of the City
STEP 5 : Selecting Examples of Origin
Urban Contexts
STEP 3 : Analysis of the city context and implication of problems identified
STEP 6 : Identify Measures with Potential for Transferring
STEP 7 : Packaging & Dimensioning the Measures for Transferring
STEP 8 : Ex-ante Assessment of Measures to Transfer
STEP 9 : Identify Need for Adjustment
STEP 10 : Implement Measures and Steer Results
Need to
Adjust?
No
Yes
FIGURE 4 : Existing policy transfer framework (Macário & Marques, 2008)

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REFLECTION OF
IMPLEMENTATION
CONCLUSION
7. Transferability
Overtime
SINGAPORE PLANNING
BACKGROUND
BANGKOK PLANNING BACKGROUND
SINGAPORE SELECTED AREA
INPUT INITIATIVES
APPLICATION TO
THE SITE OUTCOMEOUTPUT INITIATIVES
BANGKOK SELECTED AREA
2. Identify Source City
1. Identify the Issue
Research scope
6. Implementation
TRANSFER EXERCISE
5. Ex-ante Assessment
3. Identify Target City
SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT
AUTOMOBILE INDEPENDENCY
SHIFT FROM PRIVATE VEHICLES TO
PUBLIC TRANSPORT
MAKE PUBLIC TRANSPORT MORE
ATTRACTIVE THAN PRIVATE VEHICLES
GOALS/INTENTIONS
FIGURE 5 : Proposed framework
4. Identify Strategies
from Source City

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3.1 SINGAPORE PLANNING OVERVIEW
Singapore’s success has been acclaimed by many articles. One of the major successes
of Singapore is the ability to sustain the growth of private vehicle numbers while
also having public transport usage of up to 63% (LTA, 2013b). FIGURE 7 illustrates
the city’s mode share in 2010. This results from the combination of urban and
transport planning as well as the implementation of economic mechanisms to
regulate private motor vehicles such as auctions for the Certificate of Entitlement
(COE) for private vehicles and congestion charges (Newman & Kenworthy, 1996;
Han, 2010). However, this research will focus on the physical urban and transport
planning processes.
FIGURE 6 : Singapore rail transport network
Existing rail service
Planned rail service
‘…public transport will have to be the main mode of travel in Singapore. It is the
most space-efficient and environmentally sustainable option.’
(Hui, 2014)
General Context
Singapore is a city-state island located at the southern tip of the Malaysian
Peninsula(FIGURE2).Thecountryhasatropicalclimatewithanaveragetemperature
in 2013 between 25O
C to 31O
C and a relative humidity of 81.7%. With no distinct
seasons, where only monsoon and non-monsoon conditions are prevalent, in 2013
Singapore has 206 rainy days, which produced a total rainfall of 2,748.4 mm (NEA,
2014). The city has an area of 716.1km2, with a total population of 5.4 million
people. It is a high density city of 7,540 people per km2 (Singapore Department
of Statistic, 2014). The country has a low car ownership rate at approximately 99
cars/ 1000 people with an overall of 969,910 vehicles on the streets (LTA, 2013c).
Singapore’s average income is SGD 5,108/month or £2,454/month (IECONOMICS,
2014; converted on 17 August 2014).
It currently has five Mass Rapid Transit lines (MRT) and three Light Rail Transit
lines (LRT) across the island, with extension plans for up to nine lines by 2030
(FIGURE 6), together with plans to improve service quality and increase number of
bus lines. This will raise Singapore’s rail length density to 43 km/million population,
which will be an equivalent figure to London today (LTA, 2013a). Public transport
fares are calculated by distances regardless of modes. The maximum fair per trip
for up to six changes in two hours is SGD 2.9 or £1.38 (Public Transport Council,
2014). It is estimated that owning a car can cost 26 times more than using MRT in
a year (Ong, 2011).
ROAD BASED
NON
-ROADBASED
Private
Cycle
Bus
Walk
Taxi
Rail
FIGURE 7 : Singapore transport mode share (LTA, 2010)

Cabinet
Prime Minister
Other Ministries
Ministry of National
Development
Government
Departments
Government
Departments
Public Works
Department
Housing and
Development Board
Construction
Industry
Development Board
Parks &
Recreation
Department
Urban
Redevelopment
Authority
Professional
Engineers Board
Primary
Production
Department
National Parks
Board
Board of Architects
Computer
Information
Department
Preservation of
Monuments Board
Statutory
Boards
Statutory
Boards
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Government System
Singapore is a single tier city in FIGURE 8 (base on NG, 1999). The Ministry of
National Development (MND) is responsible for physical development and planning
in the country. Most of the urban planning is done through the Urban Redevelopment
Authority (URA) statutory board in cooperation with other ministries especially that
of the Land transport Authority (LTA) statutory board from the Ministry of Transport
(MOT) (Ng, 1999). Planning permit is reviewed by planners in the development
control division under URA (URA, 2014a). ‘There is close collaboration between
URA and the Land Transport Authority (LTA) in drawing up our land use plans.
This ensures that the transportation network is well integrated with land use
development.’ (URA, 2014c)
FIGURE 8 : Singapore government structure (Base on Ng,1999)

Survey & Collect
Data
Analyse Data
Develop Outline
Plan
Public Exhibition/
Dialogue
Refine Plan into
Proposal
Exhibit Proposal
Finalise the
Proposal
Gazette the New
Master Plan
Monitor & Review
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Integrated Planning
Singapore’s success can be traced back to its unifying development. This is
guided by the concept plan with regards to the strategic land use and transport
plan which gives direction to the overall development for the next 40-50 years Bin,
2013; Tan, 1999). Starting in 1971, the concept plan has been reviewed every five
to ten years to ensure that the direction of development meets the evolving needs
of Singapore. The plan is then translated into the master plan which helps control
private development through the Planning Act.
The most recent Concept Plan 2011 addresses both population and economic
growth by focusing on sustaining high quality living environment for expected
population of up to 6.9 million people by 2030. The latest Master Plan 2014
(APPENDIX A) together with the Transport Master Plan 2013 responds to the
Concept Plan 2011 by continuing the development of decentralized nodes with
amenities and identities, and creating better connections through rail expansions,
improving bus services and strengthening car restriction (LTA, 2013a; URA, 2014d;
Bin, 2013). Some new land use strategies proposed in the master plan are; Car
reduced districts to reduce dependency on private transport modes and fence-less
districts and covered link ways to encourage more walking towards public transport
modes (Tay, 2014).
The Singaporean government is not only in charge of national development,
but it also owns 58% of land (SLA, 2014), making them the main entrepreneur to
drive economic and land development, and therefore planners has few problems
implementing their plan (Ng, 1999). The concept plan and master plan can therefore
be implemented and visible within 5-10 years (Tan, 1999). The transparent system
of the planning shown in FIGURE 9, together with high social order as a ‘regulated
society’, results in the citizens having high trust in the government (Ng, 1999).
However, it shall be noted that the drivers of Singapore planning are very
distinctive. Urban and transport planning have always been responding to
globalization and limited resources (Wong & Goldblum, 2008). ‘We cannot just
walk away from mistakes made in our existing city and plan a new city. There
is simply no room to do so’ (Hean, 2008). Finance, road space and avoidance of
congestion have been the main arguments used when reviewing and formulating
overall spatial planning throughout the history (Barter, 2008).
FIGURE 9 : Singapore planning process (Base on Ng,1999)

13
ROAD BASED
Private
Boat
Bus
Rail
Van/Private
bus
FIGURE 10 : Bangkok transport mode share (NESDB, 2009)
3.2 BANGKOK PLANNING OVERVIEW
Previous Bangkok’s non-organised land use planning has been the roots of many
problems such as conflicts between land usage and low density urban sprawl and
into green and agricultural field (DPT, 2006). In 1972, the choice of expressway
over public transport due to technical and operational complications and financial
benefits have resulted in the creation of a lock-in system towards private vehicle
mobility (Pianuan, et al., 1994). These have led Bangkok to the point where it is
internationally recognised as a metropolis that is suffering from a severe congestion
(Gibson, 2011, cited from Gwilliam, 2002).
Average traffic speeds around the central business district (CBD) were 10.36-12.5
km/hr (Limpaiboon, 2010) and even slower during morning and evening peaks. This
traffic is estimated to cost roughly US$6.52 billion or £3.83 billion per year (Gibson,
2011; converted on 17 August 2014). Public transport mode share in Bangkok is at
44%, which is relatively high in comparison to Singapore (Gibson, 2011). However, it
is noted that the majority of these are road base transport – buses and vans, which
contributes to the jam-packed street. FIGURE 10 shows mode share in 2009. The
failure of Bangkok caused by unplanned development with no policies to enforce
the plan (Udomsri & Miyamoto, 1995) will be explained in the following section.

14
General Context
Bangkok is the capital and primate city of Thailand (Gibson, 2011), and is located
at the centre of the Indochina peninsula (FIGURE 2). The city has a similar tropical
climate to that of Singapore, with an average temperature in 2012, between 26O
C
to 34O
C and a relative humidity of 76%. In 2012, Bangkok has 133 rainy days, which
yielded a total rainfall of 1,656.3 mm (National Statistical Office, 2013).
Bangkok has an area of 1,565.2 km2
with a registered population of approximately
5.69 million people, bringing the density to 3,633 people/km2
(General Register
Office, 2014). However, it is estimated that there are over eight million people
living in Bangkok and over 14 million living in the vicinity provinces (FIP Congresses
and Conferences, 2014). The land within 10km of the city centre has a density as
high as 14,738 people/km2
(Gibson, 2011 cited from Boonlua, 2007). The rate of
car ownerships can be calculated to 752 individual vehicles/1000 people (National
Statistical Office, 2013), more than seven times that of Singapore.
The average income in Bangkok is THB 12,772/month or £239/month
(IECONOMICS, 2014; converted on 17 August 2014).
Several articles have mentioned the need of a rail mass transit system in
Bangkok (Nims, 1963; Kenworthy, 1995; Pianuan, et al., 1994; Tanaboriboon, 1993)
which has been realised. The Bangkok mass Transit System or widely known as BTS
is an elevated sky train. It presently consists of two lines. One starts at Mochit and
runs into the city centre all the way to the south of Bangkok. Built and operated
by the Bangkok Mass Transit System Public Company Limited (BTSC), the project is
privately owned (BTSC, 2011). The MRT project is another rail mass transit system.
It is a cooperation between the private enterprise, the Bangkok Metro Public
Company Limited (BMCL) and the public, Mass Rapid Transit Authority of Thailand
(MRTA) (BMCL, 2005). MRT has one line that goes into the CBD. The expansion of
the system is, at present, under construction, into Bangkok’s vicinity as well as
the city’s old town. The transit lines proposed in the latest Bangkok and Vicinities
Regional Plan 2056 will give a total distance of 291 km (Gibson, 2011), compared
to the figure of 376 km in Singapore (FIGURE 11).
Public transport fares vary by modes. Sky train and Underground system can
cost up to THB 52 per trip (£0.98), while buses have a maximum flat fair at THB 12
(£0.23) or maximum distance fare at THB 25 (£0.47), while vans can cost up to THB
50 per trip (£0.95) (Transit Bangkok, 2012 ; converted on 17 August 2014).
FIGURE 11 : Bangkok rail transport network

Government System
The National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) is responsible
for the overall national development policy plan. The Department of Public Works
and Town & Country Planning (DPT) under the Ministry of Interior (MOI) formulates
spatial plans following the policy framework set by the NESDB (FIGURE 12). The
plan is to be followed by different departments in operation (Sakkayarojkol, 2013),
but as these departments are under different ministries, the DPT does not have
the authority to exercise control and management over all of them (Pujinda,
2014). Unlike Singapore, the construction permit is reviewed by the Public Works
Departments (PWD) in district offices with no coordination with city planners in the
DPT (Gibson, 2011).
Cabinet
Prime minister
Central Administration
ProvincesBureauOther Ministries
The Prime
Minister’s Office
DepartmentsDepartmentsDepartmentsAdministrative Directly under PM
National Economic & Social
Development Board (NESDB)
Department of Public
Works and Town &
Country Planning (DPT)
Ministry of Interior Provincial
Administrative
Organisation
Bangkok
Metropolitan
Administration
Pattaya City
Municipality
Sub-District
Administrative
Organisation
Districts
Sub-Districts
Villages
Provincial Administration Local Administration
15
FIGURE 12 : Bangkok government structure (Base on Sakkayarojkol, 2013)

Integrated Planning
The National Economic and Social Development Plan by NESDB is a policy
framework for all developments. The DPT is then responsible for producing spatial
plans at different levels as shown in FIGURE 13.
Thailand has a strategic location in South East Asia. It has high potential for
connection by land and water routes with Bangkok at the very centre. The New
National Development Plan has recognised and utilised this in the main framework
(Infrastructural Strategy Division, 2006). The latest Bangkok and Vicinities Regional
Plan 2056 (APPENDIX B) focuses on the control of growth and sprawl through
sustainable development. This is done through good connections and balance
between urban and rural area. The main strategies are decentralisation from
Bangkok and a better connection with the choice of transport especially that of
mass rail network (DPT, 2006).
The identification of problems and solutions are not issues for Bangkok’s urban
and transport planning, but rather slow progress of implementation and lack of
funding are the key obstacles to success (Udomsri & Miyamoto, 1995; Tanaboriboon,
1993; Gibson, 2011). This could be because the organisational structure of the
institution does not allow for the process of implementation to easily happen as
shown in FIGURE 12 (Infrastructural Strategy Division, 2006). While Singapore has
a holistic approach to the problems at hand, Bangkok tends to use an isolated
‘showcase project’ (Wong & Goldblum, 2008) and therefore it is suggested that
systematic coordination is needed (Pianuan, et al., 1994; Kenworthy, 1995; Nims,
1963). ‘There is no appropriate connection between city planning and transport
planning…People responsible for transport infrastructure only plan with the
perspective of transport without consideration of urban planning and consider
only current land use without future possibilities.’ (Pujinda, 2014). However,
unplanned development has created a mixed-use urban fabric for Bangkok which is
suitable for walking (Boonlua, 2008), but nevertheless, transport accessibility does
not match the urban density (Braun, 2011) with no incentive for people to move
away from their independence on private vehicles.
Therefore, Singapore’s strategy has the potential to help remedy Bangkok and
other developing cities’ urban problems. With the proposed mass rail transits’
plan, urban planning on the level of neighbourhoods will help with maximising the
effectiveness of public transportation modes and henceforth reduce automobile
dependency.
‘We (Thais) do not understand that city planning is the integrated development
that all agencies need to do it together’
(Pujinda, 2014)
National Plan
Regional Plan
Sub-regional Plan
Water Shed Plan
District Plan
Provincial
Comprehensive Plan
Development Plan
Development Plan
Development Plan
Town Comprehensive
Plan
Specific Plan
Land Readjustment
Plan
POLICY PLAN
NationalRegionalSub-regionalProvincialTownSpecificArea
LAW
ENFORCEMENT
DEVELOPMENT
GUIDELINE
16
FIGURE 13 : Bangkok planning structure (Base on Sakkayarojkol, 2013)

17
716 KM2
5.4 MILLIONS
7,540 PPL/ KM2
25O
C TO 31O
C
99 CARS/1000 PPL
£2,454/MONTH
26O
C TO 34O
C
752 CARS/ 1000 PPL
£239/MONTH
£1.38/TRIP £0.98/TRIP
206 RAINY DAYS 133 RAINY DAYS
1,565 KM2
~ 8 MILLIONS
~ 5,112 PPL/KM2
BANGKOKSINGAPORE
$
$
ROAD BASED
Private
Boat
Bus
Rail
Van/Private
bus
ROAD BASED
NON
-ROADBASED
Private
Cycle
Bus
Walk
Taxi
Rail
3.3 PLANNING OVERVIEW IN BRIEF

PLANNING AT NEIGHBOURHOOD LEVEL4.0

19
FIGURE 15 : Bishan aerial view (Source : Google Map)
FIGURE 14 : Singapore site location
Interchange nodes
CBD
Site
4.1 SINGAPORE
4.1.1 SINGAPORE NEIGHBOURHOOD
This research will focus on the Bishan interchange area which is in the central
region of Singapore. It is selected because of its fringe location which has the
potential to accommodate expansion from the central area while also functioning
as the connector between inner and outer cities with its inter-modal transport
changes.
Bishan is ‘…established towns with attractive
housing, vibrant commercial nodes and a diverse
range of amenities.’
(URA, 2013)
250 M
100 M

20
FIGURE 16 : Bishan land use map
IMAGE 1 : Bishan view from Bishan park, on the north of the site (Source: wordpress, photo by gerbenji)
MRT Interchange main entrance
Junction 8 shopping centre
Bus interchange
Bus stops
Water body
Geographic and Land Use
Bishan is approximately 11 km from the Central Business District (CBD). The
whole district is seven km2
with a population of approximately 75,000 residents.
It consists primarily of housing estates, and the total numbers of flats are around
19,000 units (Street Directory, 2014). There is still a plan for Bishan to be more
compact through infill of the reserved land (More information on Reserved Land
strategy in APPENDIX I). ‘More than 10,000 housing units of more than 30 storeys
will be injected in vacant lands around the MRT stations like…Bishan in the next
decade and beyond’ (URA, 2012).
The east side of the site is mainly occupied by public housing estates called
HDB. They are invested, owned and operated by the government while the west
part is mostly landed house, consisting of terrace, semi-detached and detached
houses. The area is also scattered with amenities such as schools, sport complexes,
shopping centres and parks (FIGURE 16).
Transit Locations and Network
The site is located at the Bishan MRT station where the North-South Line and
the Circle Line interchanges. These connect the site with city centres as well as
the north and west regions of Singapore. Next to MRT station is also the Bishan
bus interchange with 10 transit buses (Street Directory, 2014). The area is linked
with the rest of Singapore through the Central Expressway (CTE) which is located
towards the east zone of the site, easily accessed through Braddell road in the
South.
IMAGE 2 : HDB complex
BishanRd.
Braddell Rd.
To CTE
ToAngMoKio
250 M
100 M

21
4.1.2 IDENTIFYING THE STRATEGY ON SITE
Analysing Bishan through the perspective of literatures and Singapore
development plan, the input initiatives the site performs to achieve automobile
independency are identified (FIGURE 17). The intentions of these input initiatives
are also acknowledged for further transferability assessment.
Integrated
Transit
Public Amenity
Recreational
Space
Covered
Walkway
Minimal Roads
for Development
Limited Parking
Commercialisation
on Ground Floor
Integrated
Ticket System
Always Footpath
FIGURE 17 : Bishan strategy
‘Our towns will continue to meet a variety of needs, provide well-placed and
comprehensive amenities, abundant green spaces and recreational choices, as well
as convenient access to public transport.’
(URA, 2014)
250 M
100 M

22
The Bishan station integrates two MRT lines and connects to the Bishan bus
interchange. The commercial space is introduced to provide commuters with
amenities, facilities and entertainment. MRT commuters can directly interchange
between lines in the same station or exit onto the mall above the station to
enjoy commercial areas before heading home or to other destinations by way of
buses (FIGURE 18). These provide convenience for public transport commuters,
emphasising non-motorised transport infrastructure modes (Newman & Kenworthy,
1989).
Integrated Transit
RESIDENTIAL
RR R R
RRRR
RESIDENTIAL
RESIDENTIAL
MRT
BUS
INTERCHANGE
BUSBUS
FOOD
COURT
PARKING
SUPERMARKET
SHOPS
COMMUNITY
CENTRE
CINEMA FOOD HALL
OFFICE
RESIDENTIAL
MRT Exist
IMAGE 3 : MRT entrance connect directly to the shopping centre
IMAGE 4 : Commercial corridor connection to MRT - open at night
IMAGE 5 : Bishan bus interchange
Integrated Ticket System
Singapore’s Ezylink card allows commuters to pay for all public transports with
discounts over cash. It can also be used as a cash card in some stores and on taxis.
Commuters can switch their travel modes easily to reach their destinations.
‘…we are transforming our interchanges and stations
into lifestyle hubs where commuters can shop and have
a meal before hopping on the train or bus to their next
destination.’
(LTA, 2013)

23
Ground floor commercial
Commercial
Transit
Bus stops
Bus route
FIGURE 19 : Bishan bus system
Commercialisation on Ground Floor
Commercialisation on the ground floor of the HDB and offices around the
interchange station creates a rather lively environment for commuters walking to
and from the station. It intensifies land use and improves day-to-day convenience
for the neighbourhood, henceforth reducing the demand for travelling (Newman &
Kenworthy, 1989).
IMAGE 6 : Shops on ground floor around HDB IMAGE 7 : Shopping on ground floor
MRT on ground Exist
MRT under ground Exist
MRT under ground Station
250 M
100 M
50 M

24
FIGURE 21 : Bishan amenities
‘Forward-thinking, creative town planning provides
for a wide range of amenities including retail shops,
hawker centres, childcare centres, places of worship,
healthcare facilities and community clubs, and
distributes these amenities throughout the estate for
the easy access of residents.’
(URA, 2014)
Bus stops
Food Court
Singapore’s goal of creating a better quality of life (URA, 2014a) has given
public facilities and recreational space important roles in planning (FIGURE 21).
The HDB complexes are scattered with basketball courts, skateboard parks,
community spaces, playgrounds and exercise grounds. Nurseries and local schools
can be easily by foot from the station. There are also churches and mosques to
cater to Singapore’s diverse cultures. These works together in order to create a
liveable city making it true ‘suburban living’ (URA, 2014d) and reducing demands
for travelling (Newman & Kenworthy, 1989).
Recreational Space
Public Amenity
IMAGE 8 : Food court in the area IMAGE 9 : Bishan community centre
IMAGE 10 : Bishan public library (Source: Archdaily)
Bishan Sport Complex
Girl Guides Singapore
MOE Language
Centre
St. Joseph’s
Institution
Kuo Chuan Presbyterian
Church & School
Sport Field
Bishan Home
Sport Field
Singapore Scout
Association
Guangyang
Secondary
School
Sport Field
Bishan
Community
CentreBishan Public
Library
Cemetry Building
Zion Bishan
Church
Masjid
An-Nahdhah
Bishan Depot
(SMRT)
Masjis Ugama Islam
Islamic Religious Council
Catholic High School
Junction 8
Shopping Centre
250 M
100 M

25
Gated property
HDB with free ground floor space
Impermeable ground floor
FIGURE 22 : Bishan permeability figure-ground
‘No one likes getting caught in the rain on the way to
or from public transport hubs.’
(URA, 2014)
Covered Walkway
Always Footpath
Most of HDB buildings are elevated on the ground floor with strict prohibitions
of permanent activities, making the whole area permeable and suitable for
walking as shown in FIGURE 22 and IMAGE 11. Residents can conveniently access
public transport stops and stations by walking under the HDB buildings or covered
walkways. The latest Master Plan 2014 intends to extend the covered walkways
from 200m to 400m from transport nodes to further reach trips generation hubs
(URA, 2014d). This reorients urban infrastructure to support non-automobile mode
(Newman & Kenworthy, 1989).
The footpath is always provided within HDB development area and alongside
the roads with effective storm-water management. In private landed-house areas,
the setback regulation safeguards land for footpath on at least one side of the
street (IMAGE 13). The footpath is invested and maintained by the National Park
Board (NParks) and LTA (Wee, 2014).
IMAGE 11 : Elevated ground floor of HDB development IMAGE 12 : Covered walkway connect directly to bus stops
IMAGE 13 : Landed house neighbourhood
250 M
100 M

26
Bus stops
Car entrance
Covered walkway
Pedestrian access
FIGURE 23: Bishan HDB development
‘We will make public transport an attractive mode of
travel so that you will rely less on the personal car.’
(LTA, 2013)
There are limited car entrances to the HDB area while accessing the development
by foot from public transport stops or stations is more convenient, as illustrated
in FIGURE 23. The HDB development also has a limited number of charged parking
spaces for residents. These allows for the marginalisation of private vehicles in the
development.
Limited Parking
Minimal Roads for Development
IMAGE 14 : Covered walkway between HDB buildings
IMAGE 15 : HDB on-ground parking
IMAGE 16 : Pedestrian accesses to HDB complex
50 M
250 M

27
STRATEGIES INITIATIVES INTENTIONS
• Create better connection between public
transport modes to encourage the use of
public transport.
• Decentralise development.
• Provided day-to-day convenience.
• Minimise the requirement to commute.
• Reduce convenience of private
automobile.
• Reduce space used for automobile
infrastructure, create more land for
other purposes.
• Provide convenience for commuters to
change modes.
• Efficient boarding time.
• Accurate fare charged.
• Enhance walking experience, make
walking a better choice especially for
tropical weather.
MoreCivic
Space
WalkableLivingEnvironment
Day-to-DayConvenience
OneStop
Hub
CarReduced
ResidentialArea
Workingas
One
Analysing the intentions as in FIGURE 24, the inputs have the intention of
increasing accessibility to public transports, reducing the need of travelling and
discouraging automobile usage. These three intentions lead to the same goal,
which is to make public transport more attractive than private vehicle usage
(LTA, 2013a). This helps to contribute to the decrease of automobile dependency
that brings about sustainable transport (Newman & Kenworthy, 1996) as shown in
FIGURE 3. These input initiatives from the source city will be applied to target
cities in the transfer exercise.
FIGURE 24: Singapore input initiatives and intentions
Integrated Transit
Public Amenity
Recreational Space
Covered Walkway
Minimal Roads for
Development
Limited Parking
Commercialisation on
Ground Floor
Always Footpath

28
Interchange nodes
CBD
Site
4.2 BANGKOK
4.2.1 BANGKOK NEIGHBOURHOOD
The target area for Bangkok is the Mochit interchange area. It resembles Bishan
as an inter-modal transport interchange at the fringe of the city. Mochit is where
commuters interchange between two mass rail services, BTS and MRT. It is also
where they disseminate from, with the origin being at the city’s CBD. Here, they
also traverse other parts of Bangkok that is outside mass transit coverage area via
buses, vans and private vehicles. However, unlike Bishan, the services do not share
the same stations or have any proper integration typology.
FIGURE 25 : Bangkok site location
FIGURE 26 : Mochit aerial view (Source : Google Map)
‘...Bangkok large ‘footloose’ residential areas based
predominantly on car access have been spreading
rapidly across the landscape in the 1980s and 1990s’
(Newman & Kenworthy, 1996)
250 M
100 M

29
FIGURE 27 : Mochit land use map
Bus stops
MRT entrances
Mochit BTS station
Chatujak MRT entrances
Geographic and Land Use
Mochit is located approximately 12 km from the CBD in the Chatujak district.
The whole district is 32 km2
with an average density of 5,363 people/km2
(Chatujak
District Office, 2013).
Refer to FIGURE 27, the west side of the site is mainly residential, consisting
of landed houses, condominiums as well as shop houses. Shop houses introduce
commercial elements to the ground floor, while office buildings are mainly located
along the main road. The areas are private owned, apart from the government office
complex of the Department of Land Transport and Civil Aviation Training Centre.
There is also a large parking space adjacent to the station on the land belonging
to State Railway of Thailand (SRT). It is currently used as a depot for BTS train
bogies. The parking lot is fully occupied by commuters driving to connect to public
transport at Mochit, and in turn this helps to reduce the number of motor vehicles
driven into the city centre. The east side of the sky train is mainly commercial, and
it also belongs to the SRT. The main element of the area (considered an attraction
as well) is the Chatujak Weekend Market, one of the world’s largest weekend
markets (Anon., 2010).
Transit Location and Network
Mochit BTS and Chatujak MRT stations connect to the city centre. Phahonyothin
Rd. has over 40 bus lines running through it while other fix-routed vans run from
both Phahonyothin and Kamphaeng Phet 3 Rd., connecting the area with outer
parts of Bangkok. There are also services of motorcycle taxis along Phahonyothin
Rd. to feed into small streets or ‘sois’ where buses cannot access. The Vibhavadi
Rangsit Rd. is the main road leading to northern parts of Thailand, passing Don
Muang Airport via the Don Muang Tollway for those who can afford to escape the
congested daily traffic. The tollway also connects to expressways for faster options
to accessing the CBD.
IMAGE 18 : Street atmosphereIMAGE 17 : Parking area adjacent to Mochit BTS stations (Source: Exploring Tourism)
ToNorthofThailand
PhahonyothinRd.
KamphaengPhet2Rd.
KamphaengPhet3Rd.
Tocitycentre
Tocitycentre
ToNorthofThailand&
DonMuangAirport
VibhavadiRangsitRd.
250 M
100 M

30
Depot : underused
space
Impermeable
development
Transit stations
Chatujak weekend
market
Government office
complex
Parks
Existing footpath
Bus route
Bus stop
Key destinations
Development block the access
Sois with street sholders
4.2.2 IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS ON SITE
While Singapore is trying to get the best out of their land (Tan, 1999), the
Mochit area has a large under-used space adjacent to the station. The valuable
land is now an on-ground parking, in front of a large depot. There are no certain
plans indicating the depot land is ‘reserved land’ for future needs. The BTS and
MRT stations on the site could have been linked, but they are still disconnected at
the moment. This demonstrates how projects in Bangkok are treated as isolated
projects without coordination with one another (Pianuan, et al., 1994). Unlike
Singapore where half of its land belongs to the government (SLA, 2014), Bangkok
lands are mostly private. Together with a weak planning act to control private
developments (Gibson, 2011), it is difficult to drive any development into intended
directions.
Moreover, the accessibility to and from public transports on the site is poor,
especially to reach residential areas, as shown in FIGURE 28. Buses, currently the
main public transport in Bangkok, only runs on the main streets and do not reach
any residential area. This is normal even in Singapore where bus routes do not enter
private residential streets. However, in Mochit, residents cannot easily reach the
transits due to big developments along the main streets (Gibson, 2011). The depot
and government office forms a wall, separating residents from transit stations.
To worsen the condition, the available walking infrastructure is not sufficient.
There are either blocked footpaths, or no footpath at all. Hence, the site becomes
impermeable.
As the accessibility to and from public transports is low, people becomes more
reliable of their own private vehicles (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999). Thus, parking
space is an essential part of any developments, and the lack of it further encourages
automobile dependency.
FIGURE 28 : Mochit problem
IMAGE 19 : Disconnected between BTS and MRT stations IMAGE 20 : Chaotic conditions in Mochit
IMAGE 21 : Bus queuing at Mochit (Source: Tasty Thailand)
250 M
100 M

32
Integrated Transit
Bangkok’s tropical climate, which is similar to Singapore, could highly benefit
from covered walkways. The initiative should be implemented by creating a network
of covered walkways connecting buildings within the same developments as well
as connecting the key developments on the site together. These links between
trip generators would enhance the walking experience and hence improve public
transport convenience (URA, 2014d).
There are footpaths on the main streets with heavy pedestrian flows, but these
lack any proper infrastructure on smaller streets. The unplanned urban fabric of
Bangkok creates a mixed-use quality which is suitable for walking (Boonlua, 2008).
Therefore the initiative should be implemented to improve the existing footpath
routes. This will help introduce more footpaths in some smaller streets for better
accessibility to residential areas and support the existing mixed-use quality.
Bishan applies these initiatives in public residential developments. Thus they
could be implemented within the government office complex. These should be
done through reducing car access within the complex. The limited central parking
should be provided with the removal of on-ground parking spaces. These are meant
to marginalise private vehicles on the complex.
Public amenity is a new concept for Bangkok. Amenities such as public libraries
should be provided within the transit hub where residents can easily have access
to.
The initiative could take advantage of the adjacent parks on the site by
improving the accessibility to the parks.
Each transport mode in Bangkok has its own payment system. The initiative
should be implemented by introducing integrated ticket systems for all public
transports for convenience of inter-modal changes.
Mochit is already a busy interchange area with different modes of transit, but
these modes do not have proper connections to one another. The implementation
is to modify the under-used depot next to the BTS station into an integrated hub
that connects the BTS and MRT through commercial spaces and create a regulated
buses and vans terminal similar to those employed in Bishan. These would ensure
convenience for public transport mode changes (Newman & Kenworthy, 1989).
Mochit station has commercial activities in the form of street vendors with
no built environments to house them. This indicates the existing demand for
commercial activities and therefore the initiative can be implemented through
integrations of shops and stalls within the integrated transit hub, effectively
providing residents and commuters with day-to-day amenities.
Recreational Space
Public Amenity
Covered Walkway
Always Footpath
Limited Parking
This pre-assessment process, as part of the transfer exercise, studies appropriate
applications of input initiatives identified in Section 4.1.2 to formulate possible
‘output initiatives’ that would follow the same intentions as the source city. This
process is fully illustrated in the coming up table (FIGURE 29).
The exercise has formulated possible output initiatives for Mochit and
demonstrated possible obstacles and assistances in transforming input to output
initiatives while maintaining the same intentions. The goal of these intentions
is to decrease automobile dependency through ensuring attractiveness of public
transports over private automobiles. These possible ‘output initiatives’ will be
explored fully through the implementation process in the next section.

33
STRATEGIES INITIATIVES INTENTIONS PRE-ASSESSMENT MAJOR IMPLEMENTATION
INTEGRATED TRANSIT
• Create better connection
between public transport
modes to encourage the use
of public transport.
• Mochit is already an informal inter-modal interchange area
between the BTS, MRT and the buses and vans that is used by
a large number of commuters on a daily basis. Therefore, any
connection between different modes would enhance the use
of public transportation.
• The under-used depot has the potential to be intensified due
to its adjacency to transport stations.
• There is no effective unified plan between the land use and
transport infrastructure (Gibson, 2011) which results in the
lack of proper integrated transport hub, and insufficient
space to create one.
• The current conditions of the site are;
• BTS – Elevated station with stairs and escalators to
serve the street level (APPENDIX E; IMAGE R)
• MRT – Underground with entrance on the street level
• Bus – Stops along the street adjacent to entrances to
the BTS and the MRT (IMAGE 21)
• Van – Informal terminals along the street (IMAGE 18)
• Motorbike taxis – Informal terminals at the BTS and MRT
entrances for further connection into small streets
• Shops – Scattered along the footpath (IMAGE 20)
• There is also a lack of coordination between different
agencies in connecting different transport modes. The
problems include disagreements on investments and profits.
Modify the underused space adjacent to
the station, which is currently serving as
on-ground parking, into an integrated hub
which connects the BTS to the MRT through
commercial spaces and create a regulated bus
and van terminal similar to those in Bishan.
DAY-TO-DAYCONVENIENCE
ONESTOPHUB
PLUSMINUS
FIGURE 29 : Ex-ante assessment detail (1/4)

34
RECREATIONAL SPACE
• The two large parks within the site are operated and
maintained by the SRT, which is a government agency.
• ‘Going to the park’ is not a common culture in Bangkok due
to the lack of green spaces and climates. The main road is the
barrier for residents to reach these parks. The green space is
also fenced up with few entrances and in effect, isolating it
from the footpaths.
Improve the accessibility to the existing park.
PLUSMINUS
• While Singapore recognises public amenities as a very
important function, Bangkok has not mentioned about it in
their plans yet (URA, 2014; DPT, 2006). The existing form of
public amenities are usually provided by private agencies or
constructed by politicians without further maintenance plans
in place.
• The concept of public amenities is not very common in
Bangkok and there is low visible demand that would guarantee
the success of such programs. However, there are some sport
facilities in the park but they are not easily accessed by the
residents.
Incorporate public facilities with the transit
hub which will allow residents to easier
access.
MINUS
PUBLIC AMENITY
MORECIVICSPACE
• There are commercial activities on the site but in the forms
of street vendors, especially along the pedestrian influx
corridors. Most of the vendors are food, accessories and
clothing stores utilising push trolley or mat typology (IMAGE
20). This shows the demand for appropriate commercial
spaces.
• There is no existing ‘built up’ space dedicated to these
commercial activities. Chatujak Market is one of the big
commercial spaces in Mochit, but it only operates on the
weekends.
Integrate shops and stalls facing the street
within the transit hub.
PLUSMINUS
• Provided day-to-day
convenience.
• Minimise the requirement to
commute.
COMMERCIALISATION
ON GROUND FLOORWALKABLELIVINGENVIRONMENT
DAY-TO-DAYCONVENIENCE

35
ALWAYS FOOTPATH
• Bangkok’s dense mixed-use urban fabric condition is suitable
for walking (Boonlua, 2008).
• There are large pedestrian influxes between different
transport modes and key destinations such as the Chatujak
Weekend Market.
• However, the existing footpaths are not sufficient. They
are narrowed, neglected and blocked by street furniture
locations and vendors.
• Moreover, not all streets have footpath, especially that of
privately owned ‘soi’.
Improve the quality of existing footpath and
introduce more footpath in major sois with
the residential areas.
PLUSMINUS
WALKABLELIVINGENVIRONMENT
• Enhance walking
experience, make walking a
better choice especially for
tropical weather.
COVERED WALKWAY
• Bangkok and Singapore has similar tropical climates of high
temperature, humidity and rainfall which partly prevent
citizens from walking to and from public transport stations.
The covered walkway will be beneficial to encourage walking
in such climates.
• The office complex could benefit from the covered walkway
by creating better connections between buildings to assist
and improve walkability.
• The elevated ground floor of the HDB makes Bishan
permeable. Yet, Mochit does not allow for the same physical
conditions as the covered walkway needs to be an external
part of the buildings.
Create covered walkways network connecting
key destinations on the site as well as
connecting buildings within the same complex.
PLUSMINUS

36
• As the accessibility via public transports are relatively low,
major modes of transportation becomes private vehicles
due to its convenience. Therefore, most of Bangkok’s
developments prioritise private vehicles access.
• In Bishan, the initiative is implemented in HDB developments
which are owned and operated by the government, but
Mochit consists mostly of private lands which the government
has limited authority in dealing with and controlling, apart
from the government office complex.
Minimise private vehicular access in
government office complex areas and improve
walking facilities.
MINUS
MINIMAL ROADS FOR
DEVELOPMENT
• Bishan’s HBD areas provide limited charged parking for
residents but on-street parking in private residential areas
is allowed. Singapore also controls parking spaces only in
government developments, which Mochit does not have many
of.
Provide limited and centralised parking in the
government office complex areas, remove
on-ground parking in front of buildings and
improve walking facilities.
MINUS
CARREDUCEDRESIDENTIALAREA
• Reduce convenience of
private automobile.
• Reduce space used for
automobile infrastructure,
create more land for other
purposes.
LIMITED PARKING
• Provide convenience for
commuters to change
modes.
INTEGRATED TICKET
SYSTEM
WORKINGASONE
• Even though Singapore’s public transports belong to different
companies, both private and public, the ticket system is
coordinated. In contrast, each of the transport modes in
Bangkok has its own payment system;
• BTS : Single, daily or monthly ticket.
• MRT : Single or daily token, monthly ticket.
• Bus : cash on board or yearly ticket with in the same bus
company.
• Van : cash to driver or queue manager.
Introduce integrated ticket systems for all
public transport modes.
MINUS

38
Covered Walkway
Minimal Roads for
Development
Limited Parking
Always Footpath
Integrated Transit
Integrated Ticket
System
Recreational
Space
FIGURE 30 : Mochit implementation of Singapore strategy
Public Amenity
Commercialisation
on Ground Floor
In this section, the ‘output’ initiatives’ derived from Bishan, Singapore will be
implemented on the site in Mochit, Bangkok, to fully explore the transferability.
However, it is important to keep in mind that this process would not reveal the
actual outcome of the implementation but to explore the output initiatives.
‘Since changes in Bangkok metropolis are so rapid and dramatic, the integrated
planning of land use and transport including environment is much more important
and effective than in developed countries’
(Udomsri & Miyamoto, 1995; cited from Miyamoto, 1992)
250 M
100 M

39
Commercial area
Bus/Van route
Integrated Transit
Current underused depot and parking lot adjacent to BTS station are proposed
to be developed into an integrated transit hub, creating convenient connections
between BTS, MRT, buses and vans. There are over 40 bus lines running through
Mochit BTS station (Transit Bangkok, 2012), therefore the introduction of
a bus interchange would help ease the traffic caused by the queuing of buses
that is currently taking 1-2 out of 4 traffic lanes. For the very same reason, the
incorporation of vans into the transit terminal would improve the traffic flow.
Commercial spaces within the same development provide commuters with
amenities, facilities and entertainment as well as create vibrant connection to
residential area. The proposed implementation is shown in FIGURE 31, FIGURE 32
and FIGURE 34.
The current characteristic of street-facing shops in Mochit will be maintained
and utilized as to provide day-to-day for commuters and residents.
MRT Entrance in between shops under
covered walkway
Commercial space facing street
Commercial space
Sheltered boarding area
Indoor waiting area
Sheltered boarding
area
Through access to
residential area
Indoor waiting area
Shops facing street
50 M

40
Recreational Space
Public Amenity
OFFICES
OFFICES
RESIDENTIAL
SHOP
HOUSESSHOP
HOUSES R RRR RR R
R RR RRR
MRT
BTS
BUS
INTERCHANGE
PARKING
DEPOT
SHOPS
SHOPS
AMENITYSHOPS FOOD COURT
RESIDENTIAL
RESIDENTIAL
RESIDENTIAL
RR R R
RRRR
RESIDENTIAL
RESIDENTIAL
MRT
BUS INTERCHANGEBUSBUS
FOOD
COURT
PARKING
SUPERMARKET
SHOPS
COMMUNITY
CENTRE
CINEMA FOOD HALL
OFFICE
RESIDENTIAL
FIGURE 32 : Mochit integrated hub conceptual section
As the demand for public Amenity is not currently assessable, a public library
is introduced within the hub as a pilot project that would address and observe
public feedback, before introducing further expansion (FIGURE 32). It would be an
introduction to the new kind of public spaces.
One ticket should allow commuter to use on all mass public transport – BTS, MRT
and bus.
This initiative takes advantage of the existing park, creating permeable access
from integrated hub by removing the fence along the station for commuter and
residents to easily access this green space (FIGURE 34).

41
Separationfromgreenspace
withfence
Connectionwithgreenspace
withwiderfootpath
Directconnectionto
commercialarea
Widerfootpath
Indoorwaitingarea
Shelteredboardingarea
Businterchange
Smallfootpath
NodedicatebuslaneBuslane
Dedicatedshop
spaces
Shops&Streetfurnitures
blockfootpath
On-groundparking
Rooftopparking
Shopsandcommercialarea
Depot
ExistingDepot
Groundfloorconnectionto
residentialarea
Groundfloorconnectionto
residentialarea
Noconnectionto
residentialarea
FIGURE 33 : Mochit station - before implementation
FIGURE 34 : Mochit station - after implementation
10 M
5 M
10 M
5 M

42
FIGURE 35 : Mochit footpath and covered walkway
Existing footpath
Bus stops
Sois with street sholders
Proposed new footpath
Proposed covered walkway
Covered Walkway
Always Footpath
Covered walkway is proposed to extend from the hub to key destinations in
the area such as government office and weekend market in order to enhance
convenience of public transport accessibility (FIGURE 35). The network of covered
walkway is also proposed to connect buildings in government office complex to
encourage walking (FIGURE 36).
Existing footpath will be improved to become more pedestrian friendly by
regulating vendors and introducing maintenance plan. Major sois are proposed to
have at least one side footpath. Shared streets maybe acceptable for branch sois
(FIGURE 35).
250 M
100 M
“While there are many examples of well-planned cities
in the temperatre regions, there is no well-developed
city in the tropics ...”
Mrs. Dhanabaland in (Tan, 1999)

43
FIGURE 36 : Government office complex proposed implementation
Proposed green leisure space
Proposed parking building
Proposed covered walkway
Government office complex
Proposed street for private vehicles
Private automobile access to the government office is proposed to be restricted
to some area while pedestrian friendly environment is created to encourage
walking without automobile (FIGURE 36). On-ground parking in front of buildings
is proposed to be removed and replaced with centralized parking infrastructure.
Parking charge for both employees and visitors should ensure that travelling via
public transport is an obvious choice.
This section has illustrated the application of output initiatives, which intend to
pursue automobile independency, in the target site. The implementation and the
accomplishment of intended purpose will be discussed in the next section.
Limited Parking
50 M

45
7.1 IMPLEMENTATION REFLECTION
This section will reflect on the transfer exercises in sections 5.0 and 6.0 which
have provided this research with possible obstacles and advantages in transforming
input initiatives into output initiatives and to implementations of identified output
initiatives. The reflection will further explore possible obstacles and appropriate
amendments to achieve the initial purpose. These will help draw the conclusion to
the transferability of Singapore’s strategy. The detailed reflection can be found in
FIGURE 37.
Integrated Transit
The initiatives may not be able to increase the permeability of the site due
to the presences of dense private developments. However, Bangkok’s mixed-
use urban fabric condition is already suitable for walking (Boonlua, 2008). Thus,
provisions of quality footpath and covered walkway typologies would increase
walking convenience. This is because covered walkways are indeed appropriate to
Bangkok’s tropical climate.
The introduction of these initiatives in the government office complex may
still raise employees’ resistance (Marsden & Stead, 2011). The restriction of
automobile convenience alone will not reduce the requirement of traveling, and
hence public transports need to be an attractive option that commuters could turn
to (LTA, 2013a; Newman & Kenworthy, 1996). Therefore, the intentions need to
be simultaneously supported by other strategies that would improve accessibility
of public transports. Bangkok and the Vicinities Regional Plan 2056 suggested that
the improvement of public transport is imminent but the accessibility to it is still
unclear (Infrastructural Strategy Division, 2006).
Moreover, one of Singapore’s motivations for minimal roads and limited parking
is its limited land (Barter, 2008). Bangkok, on the contrary, does not have the same
pressing problem at hand. Thus, higher value functions like commercial areas and
severe traffic problems could be alternative motivations for the initiatives instead.
A pilot project is suitable for this initiative, as it could always turn back to
commercial spaces as it once was before if necessary and if the public response
is negative. The automobile dependency may not be significantly reduced as
the existing trip generated to reach public facilities is low. As mentioned, this is
because the notion of having a public facility is not a common concept in Bangkok.
Nevertheless, the success of the project could provide a sense of community to the
neighbourhood (Tan, 1999).
Creating better accessibility to parks may not have much contribution to
automobile independency as there is only 0.7m2
of green space per person (Vanno,
2012 cited from Phongspul, 2011). Thusly traveling is still a requirement.
Yet, ‘going to the park’ is not a common culture in Thailand due to the hot
and humid climate in the country. Green spaces are not considered current trip
generators. Nevertheless, improved accessibility for the parks would increase the
quality of life for residents in the Mochit area. The ticket system will create a smooth transition between different modes,
and henceforth increase attractiveness of public transports. Coordination between
different modes, especially for privately owned vehicles such as vans that normally
accepts cash payments, could be one of many issues. This would either create
exclusions for such modes or depreciate the whole integrated system.
The under-used space would be utilised to support public transit, instead of
current parking spaces that Boonlua had suggested to avoid (2008). The hub makes
public transports more convenient and accessible. Hence, it has become more
attractive and lead commuters to move away from private auto vehicles. However,
there may be financial and collaborative difficulties if the initiative is executed by
the public sector (Nims, 1963; Pianuan, et al.,1994). Therefore, the integrated hub
could be privately funded and operated with lease lands from the SRT.
Creating space for commercial activities on ground floor is, in fact, reorganizing
and relocating the existing commercial resources on the site. This serves present
shopping culture and day-to-day convenience for commuters. It would not only
reduce travel requirement but also increase attractiveness of public transport.
‘high density nodes of activity within the medium density suburbs, again making
public transport and walking more viable.’ (Newman & Kenworthy, 1989)
Recreational Space
Public Amenity
Covered Walkway
Always Footpath
Limited Parking
The reflection has shown that output initiatives may not all be valid for pursuing,
especially in the case of aiming at the same intentions as the source city. Some
intentions could be achieved with certain alterations of the output initiatives,
while some others may need other systems for support.
Both initiatives enhance the accessibility to public transports and make such
modes more attractive. However, the limited and private lands could become
complications to the execution of both initiatives. Moreover, Thais’ attitude of
how walking is for the poor and of how car ownership defines financial status will
be one of the main obstacles which is difficult to alter (Gibson, 2011).

46
OFFICES
OFFICES
RESIDENTIAL
SHOP
HOUSESSHOP
HOUSES R RRR RR R
R RR RRR
MRT
BTS
BUS
INTERCHANGE
PARKING
DEPOT
SHOPS
RESIDENTIAL
OFFICES
OFFICES
RESIDENTIAL
SHOP
HOUSESSHOP
HOUSES R RRR RR R
R RR RRR
MRT
BTS
BUS
INTERCHANGE
PARKING
DEPOT
SHOPS
RESIDENTIAL
INITIATIVES INTENTIONS IMPLEMENTATION REFLECTIONS CONCLUSION
INTEGRATED TRANSIT
• Create better connection
between public transport
modes to encourage the use
of public transport.
• Bangkok’s development plan suggests that there will be more
interchange stations similar to that of Mochit’s in the future
(FIGURE 11). Therefore, the strategy would help improve
the accessibility and respective convenience to the transit
stations.
• The under-used spaces will be more practical as commercial
areas and transit hub areas rather than that of parking spaces
(Braun, 2011).
• The implementation would help provide day-to-day
convenience for the commuters. The business plan could
be similar to that of the integrated hubs, through private
funding on leasing land.
• To assist in the lack of incentives from the government
(Boonlua, 2008) and collaborative problems (Pianuan, et al.,
1994; Kenworthy, 1995; Nims, 1963), private agents could
drive this project themselves. The redevelopment could be
funded by private investors with incentives of returns from
the commercial spaces. The lands and buildings can be leased
from the STA and the BTSC.
• The government should assist in the control of rental prices
in order for existing vendors to be able to afford the rents.
There could be spaces that are dedicated to them without the
typology of built forms. This may help reduce investments.
Automobile independency is encouraged here through
making public transports more attractive to users, by
increasing the convenience of commuting through public
transports. The development breaks the barriers between
public transport and residents with better access. The land
would also be used more wisely as Braun had suggested
(2011). The integrated stations of Siam Square and Asoke
with adjacent commercial developments suggest that this
initiative could be successful.
However, the lack of cooperation between different
agencies to create connections with shared interests could
prevent the success of this initiative.
Singapore use this initiative as part of the holistic plan.
In neighbourhood level, the hub increases convenience of
public transportation and enhances commuting experience.
In larger level, the hub are located at the strategic location
to ensure the decentralise development indicated in
concept plan (Wong & Goldblum, 2008; URA, 2014d).
The informal commercial spaces and shopping areas on
the streets are common cultures in Bangkok. The initiative
reorganises and regulates the existing resources on the site
by providing appropriate spaces for existing commercial
activities. This would reduce travel requirements and
increase attractiveness of the transit hubs.
PLUSPLUSMINUSMINUS
convenience.
• Minimise the requirement
to commute.
COMMERCIALISATION
ON GROUND FLOOR
FIGURE 37 : Reflection of implementation (1/5)

47
OFFICES
OFFICES
RESIDENTIAL
SHOP
HOUSESSHOP
HOUSES R RRR RR R
R RR RRR
MRT
BTS
BUS
INTERCHANGE
PARKING
DEPOT
SHOPS
RESIDENTIAL
• The initiative introduces new functions that are of easy
accessibility and reach for the residents. Less interaction
spaces such as public libraries is proposed as an initial
project.
• Since the concept of public amenities is quite innovative to
Bangkok, the project can be introduced within the transit
hub as a pilot project to prevent investment losses. This
allows residents’ feedbacks to be monitored. The space can
be modified back to commercial spaces later if there are no
positive responses.
This concept may be difficult to introduce in Bangkok
and the public responses could be unpredictable. The
public may not understand or feel responsible for the space
(Pujinda, 2014). Unlike in the case of Singapore, where
public amenities are essential for the residents’ quality of
life and are highly used, Bangkok does not reciprocate such
responses. Bangkok does not have those existing usages
that would require commuting.
Therefore, the initiative may not help reduce any
travel requirements or pursue automobile independency.
Nevertheless, the attempt could still provide a sense of
community for the residents (Tan, 1999).
PLUSMINUS
PUBLIC AMENITY
• Singapore’s fenceless parks may not be the best solution for
Bangkok. The capital of Thailand has homeless individuals
who do not get any support from the government and may
also use the parks inappropriately during night time.
• Introductions to more access points could be an effective
alternative. Entrances to the parks shall be coordinated with
the crossing points from the residential area and the flow of
the people.
Better access to green spaces will help increase the
quality of life for the residents around the Mochit area.
Yet, green space ratio for Bangkok is only at 0.7 m2
(Vanno,
2012 cited from Phongspul, 2011). Therefore, the creation
of accesses to green spaces would not help decrease the
travelling requirements to the parks. Nevertheless, ‘going
to the park’ is not a very common culture in Bangkok.
Hence, parks are not major trip generators at the present
time. Therefore, the initiative may have low contributions
to automobile independency regardless of improved
accessibility.
MINUS
convenience.
• Minimise the requirement
to commute.
RECREATIONAL SPACEOFFICES
OFFICES
RESIDENTIAL
SHOP
HOUSESSHOP
HOUSES R RRR RR R
R RR RRR
MRT
BTS
BUS
INTERCHANGE
PARKING
DEPOT
SHOPS
RESIDENTIAL

48
COVERED WALKWAY
• Enhance walking
tropical weather.
• The unplanned urban fabric condition of Bangkok creates
a mixed-use quality which makes it suitable for walking
(Boonlua, 2008). The infrastructure would increase walking
convenience and also improve foot access to public transports.
• Implementing this within the government complex would
increase walkability which also supports the minimising of
roads for developments.
• However, because of the limited area of the footpath in
residential areas, inserting covered walkways may negatively
affect the streetscapes. The location of the infrastructure
needs to be considered carefully by the importance of the
linkages and the sizes of the streets.
• One of the options is to attach walkways underneath the BTS
railway. This has been successfully done in the city centre;
Sky-walks around the Siam Square BTS station joins stations
together with department stores, hotels and office buildings.
• As Bangkok also does not have any elevated ground floor
structures like that of Singapore’s HDB, the permeability of
Singapore cannot be fully initiated.
The similar tropical climate allows Singapore to be a
good role model for Bangkok to take after, as well as to other
developing tropical cities in South East Asia. ‘While there
are many examples of well-planned cities in the temperate
regions, there is no well-developed city in the tropics ...’
said Mrs. Dhanabaland in (Tan, 1999). The initiative may
not be applicable to all streets due to the different sizes
and characteristics, and the level of permeability of the
Bishan area may not be achieved. However, introducing
covered walkways within the development and between
key destinations could be a good introduction to the walking
culture for Thai people.
Another challenge for the success is that Thai people
associate walking as being an act of the poor and they see
the owning of cars as a status indicator. The convenience
of walking alone may not be able to change these attitudes.
It should be done together with car restriction measures
and improvements of the public transportation networks,
in effect, ‘creating public transport more attractive than
automobile’ (Newman & Kenworthy, 1996). This has been
the overall strategy of Singapore.
PLUSMINUS

49
private automobile.
purposes.
• This initiative reduces the convenience of private vehicle
commuters, while other initiatives make public transports
and walking more attractive (URA, 2014).
• The government office is a good introduction to vehicle
restricted developments.
• However, as populist government policies and politics are
introduced, they may affect and upset the mainstream or not
benefit them at all. Such policies will not be proposed. ‘The
problem is that politicians who benefit from one project
are likely to obstruct the other projects’ (Suthiranart, 2001,
cited in Gibson, 2011). Therefore, public objections due to
car ownership attitudes could become a major obstacle to
the implementation of the initiative.
As the traffic in Bangkok is already severe (Gibson,
2011), the initiative will further reduce the comfort of
motor vehicles. Nevertheless, marginalised private vehicle
needs to work together with other measures (Macário &
Marques, 2008). The initiative alone will not help reduce
any car dependency especially with the current car
ownership rate. Public transport networks also need to
be amended to become more attractive than the private
modes of transportation. The current plan implemented by
Bangkok suggests that improvement is on its way.
Moreover, as Singapore’s limited land motivates this
initiative (Tan, 1999), Bangkok does not have the same
issue. Higher value functions could be an alternative
incentive.
PLUSMINUS
MINIMAL ROADS FOR
DEVELOPMENT
ALWAYS FOOTPATH
• The footpath will help to improve walking experiences,
enhance existing fine grain and mixed-use urban fabric
conditions (Boonlua, 2008).
• The government should regulate illegal usages of footpaths
and set aside funds for maintenance to ensure that
pedestrians have access to well-maintained footpaths.
• The initiative is difficult to implement in the existing private
residential areas where there was no proper setback to
safeguard the land for footpaths. However, introducing new
setback regulations for future developments is still possible.
This will allow for the introduction of proper walking
infrastructure.
• There are certain streets which have shared spaces between
pedestrians and cars. These spaces, under certain conditions,
are suitable such as in the case of small dead-end sois with
mostly slow vehicles.
Thefootpathwouldhelpprovidewalkinginfrastructures
to the already walkable urban fabric of the area in Bangkok.
It will help to reduce motor vehicle requirements for short
distance travels and increase the convenience to access
transit stops by foot.
Private lands with no safeguards for walking
infrastructures are main obstacles to this initiative
‘Singapore’s planners have always understood the need
to be judicious with space, to avoid making short sighted
mistakes, such as prematurely developing and ‘using up’ land
that should have been reserved for potentially better, future
uses.’ (Bin, 2013). The attitude towards walking is still an
issue that needs to be slowly altered. Moreover, some of
the new residential developments in the out-skirt areas
of Bangkok are heavily zoned and henceforth lack any
mixed-use characteristics that will support and encourage
walking.
PLUSMINUS
• Enhance walking
tropical weather.

50
• Even though Thailand does not have any major land limitation
problems like that of Singapore, higher value for usages
of the properties could be incentives to move away from
parking lots.
• There will still be high demands for parking following high
car ownership rates. This is illustrated in landed house areas
where cars are parked on public streets because residents
have more cars than their private parking space (APPENDIX
E; IMAGE I).
• Building regulations in Bangkok also requires large numbers
of parking spaces especially for commercial buildings
(APPENDIX F and APPENDIX G - MOI, 2012; Barter, 2010). It is
very common for buildings to be equipped with multi-storey
parking spaces or large on-ground parking lots. The building
regulations should reduce parking space requirements or
limit parking spaces for building within walking distance from
public transports. Urban planning should discourage car parks
especially around public transport stations (Braun, 2011).
As mentioned earlier, the initiatives that restrict
conveniences of motor vehicles would not work on its own
without the aid and support of other initiatives (Macário
& Marques, 2008). The action would not help reduce the
current rates of car ownerships but it may help discourage
private vehicle usages.
PLUSMINUS
LIMITED PARKING
private automobile.
purposes.
• The implementation will allow smooth transitions between
different transport modes for commuters.
• However, the system could get complicated when it comes to
vans, as this mode of transportation in Bangkok is relatively
informal. Each van is registered but is privately owned and
usually runs under managers who get commissions from each
van trip. Cash payment allows them to split the income
directly and instantly. Integrated ticket systems will affect
the existing solution to the vans’ fee system.
This reflects coordination issues between different
agencies. Private owned vehicles would be one of the
major difficulties that come into play when negotiating.
Nevertheless, the implementation of the ticketing system,
if possible, would increase the convenience of public
transports. This is especially true in the case of those
outside mass rail transit system coverage who needs to
change transit modes. Yet again, this initiative would not be
successful unless the public transport coverage is sufficient
for commuters.
PLUSMINUS
INTEGRATED TICKET
SYSTEM
• Provide convenience for
commuters to change
modes.
(Source: Cichaz.com)

51
7.2 CONCLUSIONS
The preceding chapters have explored different planning principles and
backgrounds of Singapore - the source city, and Bangkok - the target city. Together
with transfer exercise, they have found possible obstacles and advantages of
strategy transfers to Bangkok.
For Bangkok, and possibly many Asian cities, one of the pressing obstacles is
the private ownership of land. Singapore’s success comes from its ‘obsessively and
thoughtfully controlled urban environments’ (Bin, 2013, cited from Betsky, 2013),
which is partly made possible through government ownership of land. Bangkok
‘In countries that have weaker central control, more political corruption and little
tradition of planning, Applying the Singapore model will involve attention not just to
the transport sector but to other parts of politics and economic management’
(Han, 2010)
needs to instead rely on controlling and regulating of the urban environments to
support the development plans. This brings up the next obstacle that the Thai
government lacks the power to control land use. Initiatives generally are delayed
or cannot be realized. Apart from a vague land use plan, this is also due to a
populist government authority and their politics where the execution of projects
rely on possible benefits gained (Gibson, 2011). These confirm that sometimes the
transfer could not be completely successful without the transfer of relationship
between institutions that comprehends the strategies (Macário & Marques, 2008).
However, Bangkok has organically evolved to become a dense mixed-use city
which is a good foundation of mass transit system (Kenworthy, 1995) and walkability
(Boonlua, 2008). These are part of the focuses of Singapore’s planning, suggesting
positive outcomes from the initiatives implementation. Bangkok’s high public
transport usage also suggests demand for mass transit system. This research has
proposed how Bangkok can use Singapore’s strategies to manage and organize
interchange nodes and the surrounding vicinities in order to support automobile
independency. Given the proposed Bangkok and Vicinities Regional Plan 2056,
there will be many more interchange nodes which can benefit from this study.
The implementation has advised that successful strategies for automobile
independency in Singapore could be transferred to Bangkok with appropriate
adjustments. Some initiatives may not reduce automobile dependency in the same
way as they do in Singapore, and therefore suitable initiatives shall be selected
and adapted to ensemble, not only problems, but also institutional, physical and
financial conditions of the target city. The initiatives studied in this report are only
on the neighbourhood level, around the interchange hub. They work together with
larger level initiatives such as the distribution and location of the hubs around
Singapore to achieve the nations’ planning goals. Therefore, some target cities
may require strategies from different levels to achieve automobile independency.
Singapore’s strategy on the neighbourhood level essentially aims to increase
accessibility to public transports, reduce travel requirement and marginalise
private vehicles. Achieving these three goals would increase the attractiveness of
public transports altogether. Together with other measures, Singapore’s strategy
would help developing cities move from private vehicles to public transports. These
pursue automobile independency and hence contribute to sustainable transport
systems.

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