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1. Global regulation on genetically modified crops amid the gene edited crop boom
What is a genetically modified organism? Guidelines drafted in early 2000 and contained in the United
Nations Cartagena Protocol for Biosafety for a Genetically Modified Plant state that a plant is genetically
modified when it meets two prerequisites:
1. The plant contains a new combination of genetic material
2. This material was introduced using modern biotechnology.
For many scientists, this definition would not be exhaustive because, prior to the drafting of the Cartagena
Protocol, modern biotechnology consisted of radiation-induced mutations and inbreeding, the latter of
which had already been practiced for centuries. Both techniques introduced new genetic material into the
plant organism, so much so that they alone produced thousands of new crop species.
Recently, more comprehensive guidelines (SDNs) have been provided globally, which take as their
benchmark modern technologies that use exogenous laboratory-created DNA fragments that can either
induce a random mutation in the plant genome or replace a pre-existing DNA fragment. It is a fact,
however, that both the most modern genomics techniques and induced crosses and mutations are capable
of making significant changes in the genotype, with significant consequences in the phenotype as well. For
example, oats resistant to certain strains of mold can be created through both induced mutations and the
most modern CRISPR.
Globally, the laws governing GMOs, can be divided into two broad categories:
a. Process-oriented
b. Product-oriented
The former focus on the technique used to obtain new product varieties, the latter on the intrinsic
characteristics of the expected product. Paradoxically, in certain countries around the globe, a completely
new product obtained by traditional techniques may be allowed at the expense of a product obtained by
modern techniques but with a more pronounced genomic difference.
European Union
The European Union retains a rather strict approach to GMOs, which are process-based. Throughout the
EU, in fact, an organism obtained by techniques other than crossing is defined as a GMO. There is, in
addition, strict legislation regulating the import of products from non-EU countries.
Non-EU Nations
In Norway the legislation is restrictive, so no GMO species are grown or imported, however the Norwegian
Biotechology Advisory Board is considering implementing changes to the existing regulation for the
creation of modified species.

2. In Switzerland, despite the restrictive approach, areas have been created for the cultivation of GMOs
separate from those with crops obtained by traditional techniques, and the import of GMOs species is
allowed for animal feed.
North America
North America holds about 30 percent of the market for genetically modified agricultural products. In
recent years, modern biotechnology techniques have introduced new crop varieties resistant to card
species of molds and pests. The production of that crop is controlled by various agencies, including the FDA.
South America
There is a lack of uniformity: Ecuador, Venezuela and Peru have banned GMOs, while all others have a fairly
open policy, especially Chile, which has become the seed hothouse for all of South America. Venezuela,
despite restrictions, allows imports from neighboring nations.
Asia
India and China are currently the most fervent producers of GM crops, particularly Bt cotton. China, in
recent times, has been implementing the CRISPR technique a lot. One of the examples is Biofortified
Golden Rice GR2E, a rice very rich in vitamin A.
Aspect on properties, use and ethical consideration of embryonic stem cells
Stem cells taken from the mammalian embryo have the potential to differentiate into all cells of the adult
individual. They provide a particularly attractive tool for understanding cell regeneration, maturation and
cell-cell interaction. Their use, however, has generated intense ethical, political, scientific and philosophical
debates. The main sources of discussion are:
1. Reproductive vs therapeutic cloning
In reproductive cloning an identical copy of an individual is generated from its genome (sheep
Dolly) the clone has the same genome as its "original," as is the case with homozygotic twins. At
the root of the debate is the uniqueness of the individual, that is, the whole issue answers the
question," Is the clone an individual in its own right, or is it an exact copy of the original?"
Another source of debate concerns the often poor health status of cloned individuals.
Therapeutic cloning, on the other hand, concerns the creation of an embryo for the purpose of
providing stem cells with the same DNA as the donor, capable of repairing tissue damage, obtaining
organs for transplantation etc. Clearly, the discussion around therapeutic cloning centers around
the religiously and philosophically based definition of life "At what embryonic stage does life
begin?"
2. Using already existing embryos vs. producing new embryos for research purposes.
Generally, worldwide, the use of embryos from which to take stem cells goes hand in hand with
laws regulating abortion; if abortion is banned in one nation, the use of embryos for research
purposes will also be banned. The most extreme position is held by the United States, which grants

3. total protection to the embryo in the early periods of their development. A more libertine position
is taken by Europe. In Sweden, for example, a fetus growing in a woman's body has no right to exist
for as long as abortion laws stipulate. Other governments, such as the Dutch and French, not only
accept but recommend the use of fertilized oocytes as a source of stem cells. In other nations such
as Germany and Norway, abortion is permitted but the harvesting of stem cells from the oocyte is
not.
Among those in favor of the use of embryos, there is a group that allows the exclusive use of
already fertilized embryos intended for artificial insemination, because they are destined to die
anyway, while they disagree with the use of embryos created ad hoc for use in stem cell research.
Production of embryos from eggs and sperm versus through somatic cell nuclear transfer
Embryos can be produced in many ways; through the union of sperm and egg or through the
implantation of a donor somatic cell inside a denucleated oocyte.
Many nations, including Belgium, Sweden, and the United Kingdom, have decided or recommended
that the latter method should be accepted; however, they have banned the method involving
sperm and egg union.
Allowing somatic cell transfer is not exactly the same thing as allowing the generation of potential
human beings. Moreover, at least in theory, it can be expected that unfertilized eggs can be
replaced by other cells capable of generating stem cells, without incurring blastocyst formation.
Beyond the ethical debate, conditioning the latter issue is a financial reason, as both methods
would be very expensive.
The role of genetically modified crop in Food Security
The FAO states that "food security is the condition that occurs when all of the world's population
has available has physical, social and economic access to sufficient and safe food that meets their
nutritional needs and preferences for a healthy and active life" One of the greatest challenges of
the 21st century facing much of humanity is food insecurity. This is also due to the fact that much
of the food resource is lost to drastic weather conditions, pests and diseases.
Biotechnology alone cannot solve all the problems of food shortage, but it can work for specific
problems that include increasing productivity, diversifying the crop, increasing the nutritional value
of food, and reducing the environmental impact of agricultural production.
The main GMO crops are herbicide-tolerant and Insect-resistant (IR). The former include crops
resistant to a wide range of herbicides such as glyphosate and glufosinate; the latter include a
specific bacterium, Bacillus Thuringensis, which is poisonous to certain insects. Increased
production is not the only positive aspect of GM crops; they also help reduce losses due to pests
and diseases. Researchers in Uganda, for example, are using biotechnology to reverse wilting due
to Xanthomonas, a bacterium that causes discoloration and premature ripening in bananas. The
most efficient method of curbing the damage is to grow transgenic bananas by taking specific
genes from green peppers. In Nigeria, the Maruca Vitrata insect destroys approximately $300
million worth of black-eyed beans each year. To solve the problem, Nigerian scientists have
developed a type of pest-resistant bean using a gene from Bacillus thuringensis

4. GMO crop vs crop with classical crossing (classically-bred crop)
Both modern biotechnological techniques and classically bred-crop make genetic changes to the
crop. However, while in classically-bred crop the modifications are uncontrolled, biotechnology
allows for small and well-defined ones. In classical crossing, the unwanted gene can be transferred
to the offspring. For example, some potato species produced by classical breeding produce
excessive amounts of toxic glycoalkaloids, which can cause gastrointestinal, circulatory,
dermatological and neurological problems. Therefore, classic non-GMO methods may have
undesirable effects and generate new and potentially dangerous products. On the other hand,
GMO technology provides timing and precision in gene placement. In addition, GMO techniques
allow several new traits to be introduced into the plant without resorting to costly and extensive
crosses. From a scientific point of view, food produced with GMO techniques and with classical
techniques manages to have the same effect on health and the environment.
GMOs in Pakistan
Pakistan is dominated by agriculture, yet drought and increasing soil salinity, are undermining the
nation's agriculture. Cotton and maize are the major GM products that have been developed with
resistance against insects and weeds. Bt cotton in particular, produced since 2002, accounts for 96
percent of production in Pakistan.
EU
Given the very restrictive legislative atmosphere, only the cultivation of pesticide-resistant GMO
corn is allowed in Europe. Spain is the only European nation with many farms under GM cultivation
since the crop was introduced in 1998, allowing local farmers to gain much experience in its
cultivation. Corn produced in Spain and Portugal covers all the needs of European nations.
India
India is the world's fourth largest grower of Bt cotton, the only crop allowed in the nation. The
cultivation and production of Bt cotton has grown exponentially since then, and India has become
the second largest cotton producer and exporter in the world. Farmers growing Bt cotton have
greatly increased their socioeconomic well-being. In addition to Bt cotton, other types of
agricultural products with innovative characteristics have been developed and marketed in recent
times.
China
China has more than 20 percent of the world's population but less than 7 percent of the world's
arable land. This problem has been exacerbated by rapid urbanization and excessive use of
pesticides. China depends on imports and imported 130 million tons of various foods in 2017. In
2008, China invested $3.5 billion to start a program of genetically modified products, especially
insect-resistant crops. China's experience with Bt cotton teaches a valuable lesson to nations with a
similar situation as China.