CHALLENGES_IN_PROVISION_OF_QUALITY_EDUCA.docx

CHALLENGES IN PROVISION OF QUALITY EDUCATION: A CASE STUDY
OF NAIROBI KIBERA SLUM CHILDREN DURING FREE PRIMARY
EDUCATION PROGRAMME IN KENYA
TUBEI LANDY TUBEI
E42/CE/12098/04
A Research Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the
Requirement for the Award of Post Graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE)
KENYA UNVERSITY
2006

i
DELARATION
This research project is my original work and has not been submitted for any other study
programme in any other university.
_________________________ _____________________________
Tubei Landy Phillemon Date
E42/CE/12098/04
This research project has been submitted for examination with my approval as the
university supervisor.
________________________ __________________________
Dr.John Aluko Orodho Date
Senior Research fellow,Department
Of Education and Administration
Kenyatta University

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DEDICATION
This research project is dedicated to my beloved wife;Phanice Lichuma.Tubei,my
daughters;Tracy Wekaya Tubei and Eileen Busolo Tubei,who were of encouragement that
physically and mentally strenghtned me to undertake and accomplish this proposal in the
prescribed period of time.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Despite the fact that the research report is an individual affair, the amount of work that
goes into its initiation, organization and writing of numerous drafts before its completion
is a result of a number of cooperative efforts.Some were involved in the early stages of its
preparation, while others played a part far distant in time and were unaware of their active
roles.While it may not be possible to acknowledge all these individually; some minimal
crediting is however, inevitatble.
First and foremost,I would like to thank my lecturer,Dr.Orodho A.John,who is also a Senior
Research fellow at the Bureau of Education Research,Kenyatta university,who taught
me,coorected my proposal to be representative,hence getting translated into this viable
project.
Secondly,I would like to express my appreciation to several colleagues both at the
University,w and school where I teach(Calvarly High School) who advised and proofread
my draft and for expert input as I prepared,collected data,analysed and wrote the research
project.Also,Dr.Kulundu,a lecturer in the Department of Economics,University of
Nairobi,who was my lecturer at the undergraduate level in the same university,was very
instrumental in giving my work a professional dimension.To all thses professionals,I owe
special and sincere appreciation.
I would also like to convey my sincere gratitude to Dr.Mubima Manianc,former senior
lecturer at the Department of Literature,University of Nairobi,for exposing me to vigorous
research activities sauch as the ‘African initiation rituals among the Kabras People of
Western Kenya,’’that sharpened my reseacr skills.
The President of African Leadership, Mr.Larry Warren, Director of New Directions
International, Dr.J.L.Williams and Director of Source of Lighet, Mr.John Stiles deserve
special appreciation for their suggestions to stdufy education and their financial
support.They provided the main impetus in writing this research report.
Last but not least, I deeply appreciate the veracity speed with which Mr.Joseph Mulongo
typed the manuscript.
Finally, while appreciating all contributions and comments,I take responsibility for my
shortcomings that may arise from this work.
Thanks you, all.
Phillemon L.Tubei
tubeiphille@gmail.com

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Content Page
Declaration............................................................................................................................i
Dedication............................................................................................................................ii
Acknowledgements ...........................................................................................................iii
Table of Contents………………………………………………………….……..…….iv-v
List of Tables......................................................................................................................vi
List of Figures......................................................................................................................v
Abbreviations and Acronyms ……………………………………………….…………...vi
Abstract..............................................................................................................................vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………1
1.1 Background to the study.............................................................................................1-4
1.2 Statement of the problem............................................................................................4-5
1.3 Research Questions……………………………………………………………….....5-6
1.4 Purpose and Objectives of the Study……………………………………………….6-7
1.5 Hypothesis…………………………………………………………………………….7
1.6 Assumption………………………………………………………………………….7-8
1.7 Limitations of the Study………………………………………………………………8
1.8 Delimitations of the Study…………………………………………………………….8
1.9 Significant of the Study……………………………………………………………..8-9
1.10 Definition of Significant terms…………………………………………………...9-10
CHAPTER 2:
2.0 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE……………….……………………….11
2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….11
2.2 The Concepts……………………………………………………………………..11-15
2.3 The Importance of NFE: Country Experiences…..................................................15-23
2.4 Free Primary Education failing (UNESCO Report)………………………...……23-25
2.5 Theoretical frameworks……………………………………………………….….25-35
2.6 Conceptual framework…………………………………………………………...35-36
CHAPTER 3
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY......................................................................…...37
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................37
3.2 Research Design.....................................................................................................37-38
3.3 Research Procedures………………………………………………………………....38
3.4 Ethical Considerations…………………………………………………………....38-39
3.5 Target population and Sample Selection………………………………………....39-40
3.6 Research instruements……………………………………………..……………..40-41
3.7 Validity of instruments………………………………………………………………42
3.8 Realibility of the instruments………………………...………..……………………..42

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3.9 Data Collection Procedures and Analysis……………………..…………………42-43
CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, DISCUSSONS AND
INTERPRETATION…………..……………………………………………………….44
4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………….….44
4.2 Description of results by Objectives/Hypothesis………………………...……….45-85
4.3 Overall Stakeholders Perceptions of the Quality of education in Kibera Slum….85-86
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONAND RECOMMENDATIONS………87
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................87
5.2 Discussion and Conclusion of the study.................................................................87-94
5.3 Recommendations of the study ..............................................................................94-95
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................96
APPENDICES …….…………………………………………………………………..100
APPENDIX I: Introduction Letter...................................................................................100
APPENDIX II: Work Plan...............................................................................................101
APPENDIX III: Budget………………………………………………………………...102
APPENDIX IV: Questionnaire………………………...…………………………….…103
APPENDIX V: Interview Schedule……………………..…………………………..…108

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.3(a): Founders of NF schools and centres……………………………………....18
Table 2.3(b): Students enrolment in public schools…………………………………..…21
Table 3.5 (a): Population and Sample Size………………………………………………40
Table 4.2.1: Enrolment in Survey Schools (2002-2006)……………………………...…48
Table 4.2.2(a): Comparison of 2002/2003 enrolment in sample non-formal/informal
schools by gender………………………………………………………………………...51
Table 4.2.2(b): Gender enrolment Data at Ayany Primary school 2002-2003…….……52
Table 4.2.3(a): Teachers in Kibera School by Training Status and Gender……………..54
Table 4.2.3(b): Overall Statements on Inadequacy of School Text Books………………61
Table 4.2.3(c): The state of Text Books in sample reporting schools…………………...62
Table 4.2.3(c) School dropout in non-formal/informal schools in Kibera……………....71
Table 4.2.2(d): Incidence of Repetition in Kibera Slum……………………………...….74
Table 4.2.4(e): Schools by Land Size against enrolment………………...………………82

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LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 2.2(a): Framework of school curriculum…………………………………………….12
Fig 2.2 (b): The formal-Non-Formal learning subsectors……………………………..…14
Fig 2.5 (a): Graphically represented in five steps………………………………………..26
Fig 2.5(b):A four-step goal-setting model……………………………………………….27
Fig 2.5.3(a):Motivation…………………………………………………………………..29
Fig 2.5.3(b): Correlation of the Expectancy Theory……………………………………..30
Fig 2.5.6(a): Hierarchy of Needs………………………………………………………...34
Fig 2.8.1(a): The Conceptual Framework on Factors influencing Teacher Motivation to
teach and produce good results…………………………………………………………..36
Figure 4.2.1(a): Enrolment in City/public schools increased in 2002 but decreased between
2003-2006………………………………………………………………………46
Figure 4.2.1(b): Enrolment in private/informal schools declined in 2002 but increased from
2003-2006………………………………………………………………………….47
Fig 4.2.2(a): City council and Private/informal schools (2002-2006) enrolment…....49-50
Figure 4.2.2(b):More boys were enrolled than girls between 2002 and 2003.…………..50
Figure 4.2.3(a): There are no enough teachers in slum schools………………………….52
Figure 4.2.3(b): Most teachers are untrained to be able to handle children……………...53
Figure 4.2.3 (c):Most of the teachers take teaching as a job and not as a call …………..56
Figure 4.2.3(d):There are no enough classrooms to accommodate high enrolment…..…57
Figure 4.2.3(e):Classroom size is smaller than expected………………………………...58
Figure 4.2.3(f): Lack of enough learning materials……………………………………...60
Figure 4.2.3(g): Physically challenged children mostly left out………………………...64
Figure 4.2.3(h): There is Gender barriers in the slum schools…………..………………65
Figure 4.2.3(i): Slum conflicts interfere with learning in the slums…………………......66
Figure 4.2.3(j): Distance to the nearest school lower enrolment………………………...67
Figure 4.2.3(k): There are no enough schools to accommodate increased enrolment…..68
Figure 4.2.3(l): There is poverty in households that brings about poor feeding of the
children…………………………………………………………………………………..69
Figure 4.2.3(m): Educational cost is still high…………………………………………..69
Figure 4.2.3(n): Many children drop out of school because of family pressure and socio-
economic problems……………………………………………………………………....70
Figure 4.2.3(o): Girls drop out of school to get married early….………………………..72
Figure 4.2.3(p): Pupils repetition was both voluntary and involuntary in the schools….73
Figure 4.2.3(q): There are weak rules on absenteeism in slum schools……………...….75
Figure 4.2.3(r): There are Hidden costs such as expenses for lunch, private tutions,
uniforms, and examination fees that reduce enrolment in primary schools. ………...….76
Figure 4.2.3(r): There are Hidden costs such as expenses for lunch, private tutions,
uniforms, and examination fees that reduce enrolment in primary schools. ………...….76
Figure 4.2.3(s): FPE is inadequate programme to expand access to education for Kibera
slum children without addressing hidden costs………………………………………….78
Figure 4.2.3(t): There is lack of school facilities in most schools…………………….…79
Figure 4.2.3(u): Most of the schools don’t have enough toilets and play
grounds………………………………………………………………………………..….80

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Figure 4.2.3(v): Land tenure system is an impediment to schools in Kibera slum……...82
Figure 4.2.3(w): Funding of education is perpetual problem in informal settlements…..83

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ADEA - Association of the Development of Education in Africa
ASALS - Arid and Semi-Arid Lands
CBOs - Community Based organizations
COPE - Complementary Opportunity for Primary Education.
DEA - District education Advisor
DFCYG - Ding Fighters and Conselling for the Young Generations
EFA - Education for All (Making education accessible to all people
regardless of their age.
FE - Formal education-Regular school made accessible by the
government to anybody.
FGD - Focus Group Discussion
FPE - Free Primary Education-education for all (Basic education
made accessible by the government to anybody.
GOK - Government of Kenya
HHs - Households
IE - Informal Education
KIE - Kenya Institute of Education
KISEP - Kibera Slums Education project
LUUM - Lindi Ushirika wa Usafi na Maendeleo.
MKUUU - Mashimoni Kambi Muuuru Ushirika wa Usafi
MOE - Ministry of Education
NFBECS - Non Formal Basic Education Centres-centres providing and
enhancing non-formal education
NFS - Non Formal Schools-schools falling under non-formal
education
NGOs - Non-Governmaental Orgasnizations
PBR - Pupils/Book ratio-number of pupils per text book.
PTR - Pupils/teacher ratio-number of [pupils per teacher.
SPRED - Strengthening Primary education
UNESCO - United Nations Educational,Science and Cultural
Organization
UNICEF - United Nations Childrens’ Fund
UPE - Universal Primary education-set goal to have many children
especially in developing countries to have their citozens being literate by achieving basic
education.

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ABSTRACT
All children in Kibera slum are like any other Kenyan child who has a right to Free Primary
Education (FPE) and not relegated to the periphery because of their Socio-economic and
political background.They are therefore, for the sake of providing o f equity education are
supposed to be given education, learn and pass xaminations like any other child in
Kenya.Therefore, their slum environment has acrted as an hurdle over which one leaps to
go over the vicious cycle of social-economic problems.
Although children are sent to slum schools for learning,in most cases,they have not gotten
quality education before and during FPE programme implementation,hence ended not
performing to their expectations in the final national examinations.This herald their future
in terms of competing for the same job apportunities with their counterparts who happened
to come from and study in enabling environment.This puts them at a disadvantaged
position throughout their lives.It is for this reason that the researcher investigated factors
that militate against quality education acquisition for Kibera children.The researcher has
described any problems the pupils,parents and face in this teachers in the implementation
of Free Primary Education(FPE) programme in Kenya.
This study therefore, looked at the hurdles now and future that stand in the way of
marginalized children in Kibera slum.The whole thesis is divided into five
chapters.Chapter one gives the th introduction to the study that contain background
information,statement of the problem,purpose and objectives of the study,research
questions,scope and limitations,assumptions and finally definition research terms.Chapter
two deals with related literature review,thus looks at concepts,theoretical and conceptual
frameworks and their gaps.
Chapters three,four and five looks at the field deduced facts that are key to the whole thesis
and how they were collected,analysed and presented.Chapter three deals with the
methodology that was used to gather data and how it was anlysed.Chapter four wholly
dedicates itself to research findings,analysi and interpretation.Chapter five finally deals
with the conclusion and recommendations as deduced from the conclusion of the research
report.
For the success of FPE programme, there is need for concerted efforts by government,
community, Faith Based Organizations, Community Based Organizations, Civil Society
Organizations, Non-Goervenmrntal organizations and private sector.None of the above can
be able to have FPE programme implemented alone.Therefore, government need to
recognize the efforts done by the latter in contributing to quality provision to children who
are marginalized by virtue of being found in marginalized areas.

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List of Boxes
Box 2.2.1(a) Distinguishing features of Non-Formal Schools………………………….15
Box 2.3(b): What is a community Scool...........................................................................19
(Box 4.1(a).Impossibility of FPE………………………………………………………...44

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Kibera informal settlement is the largest slum in Kenya.The slum lies on a 5kmsq
(250hectares) government land and is composed of nine villages: Silanga, Lindi,
KambiMuruu, Kisumu Ndogo, Kianda, Mashimoni, Gatwekera, Laini Saba, Soweto and
Makina.
Kibera,pronounced ‘‘Kibra’’,which is a Nubian word meaning forest was originally part
of Jamuhuri forest allocated to Nubian soldiers who fought in the British colonial
army(King’s African Rifles-KAR).The slum is a home to 528,000 people and has a
population density of 250 housejhold units per hectare(approximately 2,00 people per
hectare).Average household population is six persons. The slum is a multi-tribal settlement
of Nubians, Kikuyus, Luos, Kambas, Luhyas, Sudanese, Ethiopians, Somalis, etc.
Increasing access to basic education has been a stated goal of the the government since
independence.In the first Kenya African National Union(KANU) Manifesto of 1963,the
party proposed to offer seven years of Free Primary Education(FPE),and restated as much
in 1965 in the Sessional Paper No.10.However,its implementation was not to be a reality,as
the government got preoccupied with higher education,and this despite the resolutions of
the 1961 Addis Ababa Conference which had committed African countries to achieving
universal primary education(UPE) by 1980(Raju,1973).Not much therefore,happened in
implementing the FPE Policy,and it was not until 1971 when tuition fees for Arid and
Semi-Arid Lands(ASALs) districts was abolished through a presidential decree.
Two years later.and perhaps having experimented with FPE in the ASALs,the president
issued a second decree in 1973,this time abolishing tuitition fees for pupils in classes one
to four throughout the country.When a new president took over the reigns of power in
1978,fees was abolished in primary schools in all classes and for all public schools in the
country.This measure was followed a year later in 1979 with the introduction of free school
milk,also following a presidential decree.The decrees altogether resulted into significant
enrolment in primary education,taking the country much closer to achieving universal
primary education.
It was estimated that following the 1973 presidential decree, enrolment in primary school
increased by over one million (Eshiwani, 1993, Muhor, 1975) while the 1978 and 1979
presidential decrees resulted into an increase in enrolment by 23.4% from 2.9 to 3.7 million
children (Yildz, 2000).However, no assessment was ever done to investigate the impact of
those policies on quality of education in the slum areas in the country.
Of all interventions aimed at improving basic education in Kenya, the boldest so far was
the launching of the free primary education programme in January 2003.This was a land-

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mark policy decision by the new NARC government.It even made serious its commitment
by increasing the education.
Kenya attained independence in 1963 and since the has enjoyed considerable level of
political stability compared to majority of other African countries.Despite 42 years of
independence and massive investment in education.Kenya is still reeling under chronic and
pervasive poverty.The country is ranked as the 17th
poorest in the world and comes only
second to Brazil in terms of income inequality, which is also realosed in education access
and acquisition.
The World Bank report released on April 2000,indicated that Kenya does poorly with an
average Gross National Product(GDP) growth of only 2.7% in 1997/1998 which is far
below the population growth of 2.2% that of the previous decade of 1980s.These staticis
also reveal that the country remains a fundamentally unequal society in terms of education
disparity with the top 10% owing 47% of the country’s national income ,hence their
children gaining access to quality education.About 50% of the country’s population live
below poverty line of $1 a day,most of whom are found in slums and ASALs ,that is
marginalized areas.
The 1994 World bank report indicated that the proportion of urban population under
poverty line remained as high as 30%.Similarly, the top 10% of income earners make 36
times more than the earnings of the bottom 10%.The total number of urban poor in kenya
averaged 1.3 million in 1997.Unemployment, hunger and economic disparities between the
poor and the rich continue to wide thereby worsening the poverty situation in Kenya slums.
1.1.1 Description of the Study Area
Kibera is the third biggest informal settlement in Africa after Soweto in South Africa and
a nother in Nigeria.The slum is however the biggest informal settlement in Kenya and
covers an area of 5km sq.It lies in Kibera location, South Division of Nairobi Province.
Two river stream (Motoine and Motsura) traverse the slum.River Motsura divides Kibera
into almost two halves while river Motoine separates the slum from Lang’ata/Otiende
estate.Another notable feature is the famous Nairobi dam to the South end, which is
currently filled with the water hyacinth.
1.1.2 History Profile
The history of Kibera dates back to the end of the First Worls War in the early 1920s.During
this period,ex-Nubian soldiers,who had fought in the British colonial army-Kings African
Rifles(KAR),were given the option of going back to Southern Sudan or remaining
behind.Those who opted to remain were relocated from Kariokor to Kibera, a name they
gave to the settlement.Though initially settled by the Nubians,the slum started expanding
in the 1960s and in the 1980s,Kibera had attained full-fledged status of a city

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slum.Government policy and neglect,unplanned growth and development,poor
infrastructure and high population growth rates among others have shaped the current state
of kibera.
Kibera is a Nubian word pronounced as ‘’kibra’’ which means forest.As a slum,kibera was
originally part of Jamuhuri forest.
Conotation of some of the kibera slums are as follows:
Mashimoni-place of holes/depressions.Women in search of stones to eat during pregnancy
and stone sellers from the old Makina village and collection of soiuls for house building
created these holes/quarries.Makina-a Luhya word meaning area of stones.
Kambi Muuru-A camp for the Muuru clansmen, one of the nine clans of the larger Nubi
tribes who were allocated this area by the British in 1920.
Lindi-A Swahili word meaning ‘Island’’because initially, the village was surrounded by
two rivers, which flowed into Nairobi dam.Silanga-A Kikuyu word that means a ‘dam’’.
1.1.3 Population and Democracy
In Kenya, urban population constitutes about 35% of the total population, a quarter of
which live in Nairobi.It is estimated that over a third of Kenya’s population will be living
in towns by 2025 if the urban population growth continues at 7%.This implies that 7.5%
of Kenya’s urban population lives in Nairobi slums.Over 31% of kenya’s urbanized
population lives in unplanned and overcrowded settlements.
Urban slum population census may not be very exact depending on several different
factors.the above population figure for Kibera is used officially by organizations working
in the area and was approved by its residents contrary to the 1999 census figures of 2.1
million.
Nairobi’s population has grown fast from 35,000 at independence in 1963 to over 2.8
million in 1999.This rapid growth has been characterized by an increase and expansion of
informal setlements where majority of the urban population live.It is estimated that
55%(1.54 million) of Nairobi’s total population live in theses settlements that occupy only
5% of the residential land (Matrix 1993) making them highly overcrowded.
Kibera slum has a population of 528, 000, which translates to 25% of nairobi’s
population.this population is growing at a rate of 7%(WB, 1998).Kibera’s population
density is over 250 household units per hectare that works out to 2000 per hectare (World
Bank).The average household population is between 5 and 7 persons.In some cases,
residents’ families stay in rural areas and visit once a while.Kibera is a multi-tribal slum.
1.1.4 Land Tenure

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The land in the whole of Kibera slum covering an area of 250 hectatres is govenement
land.thus, kibera’s land ownership takes the form of ‘tenant at will’’, that’s the occupier
remains on site simply at the will of the state without any contractual obligation between
the two parties.Occupiers are therefore, very insecure as the state is free to ask or force
them to vacate at will.
Plots are allocated with temporary occupation licenses by local administration officials by
means of a letter or verbally.This, coupled with a high number of absentee landlords and
lack of land tenure security, makes improvements in this informal settlement difficult.
1.1.5 Political Administration
There are multiple political administrations in Kibera.The location falls under Woodley
Division administered by a District Officer.As a location,Kibera is centrally under a Chief
below whom are assistant chiefs and then village elders.The turnover for village elders is
very high as they are hired and fired at will by the Chief as they have no security of
office.There also exist other quasi self-elected leaders,who include political party youth
wingers or supporters from KANU,NARC,etc,some of which have some influence in the
area.
1.1.6 Socio-economic Activities
There is a ‘‘bee-hive’’ of activities in Kibera slums,including small-scale business/Jua Kali
and vending.However,a big percentage of residents work in industrial area,town centre or
surrounding posh neighbourhoods as house workers.Idling,loitering and prositition are
very common among the aged and middle-aged residents.
A large population (57%) of the sampled population is not working but rather depended on
the tiny proportion (29%) for a living.Of the socio-economically active population,18%
earn a living from employment(as watchmen,domestic workers,load carriers,etc) in the
industrial area,town centre and the surrounding posh estates.Some insignificant
proportionof only 11% is engaged in business
(barbers,salon,hawkers,butchers,charcoal,videos,tailors,sho menders,paraffin sellers,etc).
1.2 Statement of the Problem
In spite of the policies that the government has put in place with regard to the management
of education with a view of achieving education for all,slums have not been very much
considered,hence the assumption has been detrimental since the slum being an informal
settlement most of the learning institutions even though moving towards formal,they still
posses the non-informal setting.This meant that children in this area do compete with the
rest in the country who are well placed and more so advantaged.

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Justification of selecting to address the education problems/needs is because World Bank
had taken an extensive survey on water, health and environmental sanitation.Problems
associated with water and sanitation have been addressed by the organization.Similarly,
communities through an NGO (Maji na Ufanisi) operating in Laini Saba and Soweto had
extended further to many other villages.In addition, Undugu and AMREF are addressing
this sector.Thus there is need to address the educational needs.
This therefore,called for a thorough study like this one to unearth the problems bedeviling
the children in Kibera slum in accessing quality education.It was wise to claim that many
have not accessed education,but even if some have accessed was it quality education in the
light of Free Primary Educational Policy?
1.3 Research Questions
Two sets of related questions enabled the researcher to explore the factors affecting
education in the slums in the various components.The first set dwelt on the school factors
and the second on out-of school factors:
i) Questions on school factors
 What is the effect of the type of school on quality of education?
 What is the effectof class-size,availability of instructional materials,school
administration,textbooks,expenditure per pupil,laboratories and workshops,proper
classrooms,frequency of homework,preparation for examination,utilization of time
etc on quality of education delivered?
 What teacher qualities boosts performance?-Total years of teacher experience,in-
service training,socio-economic background,their distribution,duration in the
schools,useof teaching aids,relationships between teacher-pupil and
teachers/teacher and teacher administration.
ii) Questions on out-of-school factors
 What was the effect of health or nutrition on performance/
 What was the effect of pre-school education on performance at primary level?
 How are pupils motivated by selection process and their parents? How often did
parents help their children with homework? Or how often did parents look at their
children’s academic progress?
 What is the role of parents, teachers associations in enhancing education
performance?
 How has cost-sharing in the slum promoted learning, attitude of parents towards
their children’s performance?

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 Did a pupils’ home background affect their performance?
 What has been the extent of participation or involvement in primary schools
education by the government, parents and any other stakeholders?
1.4 Purpose and objectives of the Study
1.4.1 Purpose of the Study
Education is one of the very important basis of social life and contributes greatly to the
development of the individual and the society.It makes valuable contributions to progress
and prosperity and is a pre-requisite for improved living standards.It plays the most
important role in the development of human resources and is a fundamental right for all.It
serves as an empowerment factor in development.
Lack of access to education mainly affects the poor.As a mechanism for selection and
allocation of positions within the occupational structure,it contributes towards the
establishment of a just society.However,as with other social services,there are many
obstacles that make it inaccessible to many people thereby denying them the opportunity
to realize their full potential and meaningful participation in the social and economic life.
Based on the problems stated, the purpose of the study was to investigate factors hampering
access of Kibera slum children to quality education.As much as we may talk of high
enrolment due to Free Primary Education, there are still declining gross enrolment rates at
primary and even at secondary school levels.Therefore, this study analyzes the low quality
of education offered in Kibera slum and alos uncovers factors responsible for the above.
1.4.2 Objectives of the study
The study intended to:
 Identify school factors that accounted for the poor quality of education in the Kibera
slum as measured by the KCPE examination.
 Identify out of school factors that account for poor quality education.
 Identify the most-effective ways of improving quality of education in the Kibera
slum.
 Make recommendations aimed at improvement of quality of educational provision
in kibera slum.
1.4.3 Relevance of the Study
Parents and communities are therefore spending considerable proportions of their incomes
to improve the schools so that their children couod do better at the KCPE level.Bertrand
and Graffin (1993) estimated that in the early 1980s, NGOs expenditure on education was

7
21-29% at primary, 69% on secondary and around 50% at the university level of Kenya’s
total expenditure on education.
These prportions have increased as a result of the current policy which stresse on passing
on heavier financial responsibility to parents in what is often referred to as cost-sharing in
education.With such constrains on the government budget also, there was need to know
both out of school and school variables that influence equality education to justify the
spending on the large number of pupils in primary school, and to manipulate them so as to
mprove the quality of primary education.
The distribution of teachers is an indicator of allocation of financial resources which go
into their salaries.The schools with more qualify qualified and long-serving teachers get
quality education than those with less qualified and relatively newly recruited
teachers.Teachers’ qualifications,although not the sole criterion,tend to reflect the quality
of education offered in a particular school.
As would be expected, other urban areas apart from the slums have better qualified and
lon-serving teachers and therefore, offer quality education unlike the slums where the
turnover is very high.Temple (1973) showed that in Nairobi,in category C schools,each
pupil got as much as 3.6 times as a pupil in category A got,and those in category B got 1.5
times as those in A.
Apart from slum education analysis, there was need to examine the role of slum programs
on education; the role of administration; the interpersonal interaction within schools and
effect of gender difference in access to quality education.
1.5 Hypothesis
H1 There is a significant relationship between in and out of schools and quality of
education received by students.
1.6 Assumptions
In this study, the following assumptions were made:
 All respondents would be cooperative and would provide reliable information.
 The research did not know the exact level of students’ performance in Kibera slum.
 All students sampled for the study would be found in a similar academic
environment.
 The government was interested eradicating education imbalance.

8
 The poor and vulnerable students in Kibera slum were aware of their access to
quality educational rights.
 All the non-formal schools in the slum were familiar with KIE developed
curriculum.
1.7. Limitations of the Study
The following were the limitations of the study:
 The study limited itself to only one urban slum (Kibera) in Kenya.For more
comaparative and representative findings other slums such as Mathare and even
Korocho would have be studied.However,this was not possible because of the
researcher’s incapacitation of time and resources.
 There was very little literature on urban-slums as far as access to quality education
was concerned.
 Some respondents were not willing to give reliable information due to apathy or
expectations of payments from the researcher.
 The researcher lacked reliable logistics to access a house-congested slum.
1.8 Delimitation of the Study
The project study confined itself to students, teachers, parents, and community in Kibera
slum.The teachers and pupils included in the sample were those in session in their
respective schools at the time of the study.
1.9 Significance of the Study
The prposed study findings had both theoretical and practical implications for the future of
education of slum children.Theoretically, the study findings would contribute to the non-
formal and formal curriculum development harmonization with a view to the provision of
quality education.the findings also highlighted the factors that influence poor performance
among slum schools in the KCPE exams.
A new report released by the UNESCO and OECD on the impact of FPE on ECD in Kenay
shows that there has been a decline in ECD enrolment and primary school enrolment since
2003.FPE,introduced in Kenya in 2003,has enabled 1.3 million poor children to benefit
from primary education for the forst time through the abolishment of fees and leviesfor
tutition.The gross enrolment rate in primary education jumped from 86.8% in 2002 to
101.5% in 2004.The practical practical implication;this would enable the stakeholders to
lay down strategies out of identifying strength and constraints in the implementation of the
FPE.The government through the Ministry of Education will be able to move in and see to

9
it that whatever curriculum being offered by different parties in education is in the spirit of
quality education for all.
From the study findings, the curriculum developed will have a base from which to
formulate future educational policies that are workable on the ground.over and above all,
other researchers in this field will have this study findings unshakable base to develop their
studies from, which will bring about comprehensive reform in the education sector.
1.10 Definition of significant terms
 Hidden costs are the charges that are not catered for by Free Primary Education
yet they have to be paid for like uniforms, PTA funds, food, watchman fees.
 School dropouts refer to the pupils who fail to complete the primary cycle of
education
 Learning resources are things used to support the learning process like textbooks.
 School levies refer to the fees which have to be paid for by the parents
 Community School is one which is established in and run by a community
 A closed-ended question refers to any question for which a researcher provides
research participants with options from which to choose a response. Closed-ended
questions are sometimes phrased as a statement which requires a response.
 Child labour is refers to the employment of children who are otherwise supposed
to be attending school instead of working so that they can get enough money to pay
for hidden costs of education
 Open-ended questions is a question that cannot be answered with a "yes" or "no"
response, or with a static response. Open-ended questions are phrased as a
statement which requires a response. The response can be compared to information
that is already known to the questioner.
 Participation is refers to the access to education, retention, performance and
graduation of learners
 Repetition is the act of a student/pupils learning many ore years in the same class.
 Untrained teacher-A teacher who has not undergone Teachers Trainng College to
teach
 Land tenure is rules invented by societies to regulate behaviour. Rules of tenure
define how property rights to land are to be allocated within societies.
 Teacher –pupil ratio is obtained by dividing the number of full-time
equivalent pupils at a given level of education by the number of full-time
equivalent teachers at that level and in similar types of institutions.
 Pubil-book ratio is the average number of pupils for every textbook in schools.
 Motivation is what makes teachers to work hard at school (needs, desires, wants
or drives within the individuals).

10
 Stakeholders is anyone who is invested in the welfare and success of a school and
its students, including administrators, teachers, staff members, students, parents,
families, community members, local business leaders, and elected officials such
as school board members
 A quasi-community school is apparently but not really or seemingly community
owned school.
 Lobbying is seek to influence (a legislator) on an issue
 Advocacy is an activity by an individual or group that aims to influence decisions
within political, economic, and social systems and institutions
 Pupil/student is a person who is taught by another, especially a schoolchild or
student in relation to a teacher.
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
The dabate on the formal,Non-formal and informal education has become central in
defining policy interventions to increase access and participation of children to quality
education especially in this time when globally,education systems are trying to reforma to

11
confront challenges that face many developing countries.These are namely:inequality,low
participation,declining quality,relevance and governance,etc.While the concept of non-
formal,formal and informal education has gained root not only in Kibera slum but
worldwide,debates on what exactly constitutes them continue,though not as much as the
arguments on its quality and relevance.
Some would want to see the NFE as aprt of the broader ‘non-conventional approaches to
primary school.’’Several scholars have attempted to give definitions and demarcate the
boundaries of the three approaches to education(IE).However,Rosa Maria Torres(2001)
notes that trying to demarcate precise boundaries between FE/NFE,State/Civil
Society,School/out of school,Public/Private,Conventional/Innovative is less significant
because new and hybrid forms of education frequently emerge because of the different
cultures and contexts within which education is provided.Mumba(2002) on the other hand
sees the need to narrow the gaps between formal and non-formal education as one of the
strategies that could be employed to realize the goals of education for all(EFA).Far from
being conclusive,the debate only underscores the need to revisit the whole concept of
formal versus informal versus non-formal education.
2.2 The Concepts
The International Standard Classification of education (ISCD) defines formal education as
comprising of ‘regular school and university education.’’ On the other hand, non-formal
education comprises ‘out of school and continuing education, on the job training, etc’’,
while informal education comprises’family and socially directed learning.’’A fotrth
category, experimental learning, was added to embrace ‘learning by doing, self-directed
learning, etc.’’
In expounding on non-formal education,Bishop(1994:130)notes that ‘non-formal
education refers to all the organized and semi-organized educational activities that operate
outside the regular structure and routines of the formal education system,aimed at serving
a great variety of learning needs of different sub-groups of the population both young and
old.’’This is not in any way dismilar from Coombs’ earlier(1968:11;1974:23) definition of
non-formal education as ‘….any organized educational activity carried on outside the
framework of the formal system to provide selected types of learning to particular sub-
groups in the population,adults as well as children.’’NFE ought not to be seen as either
competing with or inferior to the formal system.rather; both should be seen as subsystems
that are meant to complement one another through ‘equivalency’.
This in itself raises the further question as to whether the existing systemes have been able
to do that.The equivalenct problem begs the question of whether the education system is
structured in such a way as to allow mobility between formal and non-formal educational

12
activities.In other words,whether each subsystem provides an easy point of
entry,departure,or transition for participatnts of one subsystem to another.Another question
is whether the social context of formal and non-formal education fosters different kinds of
teaching and learning.However,there are special circumstances when formal schooling is
of no use and where non-formal education forms must be the predominant forms of
provision(Williams,1997).Hopper(1999) makes three observations on NFE:
 NFE is not just a separate provision for dropouts;
 NFE can be an alternative but equivalent provision for basic formal education or
for adult learning within the mainstream;
 NFE can be an approach to the organization of learning that has relevance across
the system as a whole.
Curriculum is an essential component of any schooling and the demarcation of formal,non-
formal and informal education need to be recognizant of the curriculum ‘dimension’.Closer
home,Oluoch(1990) relates the three dimensions within three ‘elements’ or parts of a
broader ‘framework’ of school curriculum.
Fig 2.2(a): Framework of school curriculum (source: Oluoch, 1990, p.8)
Formal Dimension
Non-Formal dimension
Informal Dimension
While basically dealing with a formal school system,Oluoch(1990) defines non-formal
dimension as ‘learning activities that are organized in a less rigid manner…are not carried
by students in the regular class…rather,students group themselves in accordance with such
factors as individual interests,aptitutde and age’’(p.10).This introduces an interesting,if not
intriguing aspect,as it reveals that features of NF are to be found within the
Objective
s
Student
Assessmen
t
Learning
Activities

13
‘normal’(formal) school system.In this regard,it is only points to the power of non-formal
learning organisations/activities and the crucial role it plays in the entire education process.
Kiiirya (www.adeanet.net) notes that NFE encompasses three main categories:
 Non-formal basic education programmes for children,youth and young people;
 Basic adult literacy and continuing literacy;
 Community development basic learning initiatives.
On the other hand, NFE is seen as a stool with three legs:
 Non-formal basic education for children and youth;
 Community development basic learning initiatives;
 Basic adult literacy and continuing literacy.
In both cases, we are concerned with the first set of elements, namely; non-formal basic
education programmes for children and youth.
Because of its importance in meeting the felt (learning needs especially of the
disadvantaged groups, there is a strong reason why it should be included in the basic
education system.Thompson (2001) envisages the link between the three dimensions
(Oluoch, 1990) of education within a broader web of life long learning.
While Oluoch(1990) conceives of the three components within the context of curricum
development(hence what constitutes its ‘essentials’).Thompson(2001a) chains them as the
spokes of life long learning that forms the source of the education process.In Thompson’s
schema,the NF schools would neither be eclusively ‘compensatory’ institutions nor
alternative channels but ‘feeder’ units for the formal school system.This in itself does not
disparage the role of NF schools but is in recognition of the complementarity between the
two subsystems.However,the extent to which the NF schools can adequately serve as
feeder units could be questioned when they may be following an alternative curriculum,or
a modified version of the formal curriculum.It si further questionable whether the formal
system would have capacity at the higher levels to absorb qraduates of lower levels when
the NF schools emerged because of serious under capacity(or supply,defiency) of the
formal system at he lower levels.Unles the government of Kenya through the Ministry of
Education enacts clear policies,this could be a tall order.
Fig 2.2 (b): The formal-Non-Formal learning subsectors.
INFORMAL

14
2.2.1 What then are Non-formal Schools?
About 98% of Kibera slum schools are non-formal,since there arer a few city council
schools(Olympique,Old Kibera ,Ayany,and Toi primary schools) that serve this aera.From
the formal-non-formal-informal dichotomy,it then follows that non-formal schools are
learning institutions which strive to offer an education that includes school equivalency
programmes,occupatuional skilss training,agricultural extension and farmer training
services,adolescent and adult literacy programmes,youth activities with substantial
educational purposes,community education and community programs of
instruction,among others.The issue of quality of non-formal schools has been a subject of
debate,though the evidence suggests that in most cases,they are as much good,if not better
than the formal systems.For instance,in Pakistan,it is reported that the standard of education
in the NF schools are either equivalent to formal schools or in some cases much
better(www.dawn.com/2000/06/07 nat 23.htm).On their role in facilitating the
achievement of literacy,it is reported further that if the organisations supporting NF schools
are provided with proper patronage and adequate funds,Pakistan will be able to achieve
60% literate rate within three years.
As an innovative formula,NFE can be of both high quality,reach a large number of people
where they live and work,can be highly diversified and play a significant role in facilitating
life-long,national learning experience(Bishop,1974).Developed mainly by NGOs and local
Life-long Learning
Secondary Education
Primary Education
Initial/early childhood
Education
Continuing Education
Post-literacy Education
Alternative
Approaches
Literacy education
Life Skills education
Feeder schools
NON-FORMAL
FORMAL

15
communities and associations,with or without the help of public bodies,these innovative
formulae seek to enable more children to exercise their right to education.Thus the need
for NFE stems from socio-economic and even regional inequalities and the need to redress
the same.
Box 2.2.1(a) Distinguishing features of Non-Formal Schools
Non-formal schools have a number of features which distinquish them from government
and other schools.Some of these include the fact thst the teachers are selected from the
local community;the schools are closer in location to the children.The curriculum is
practical and related to issues the children face in their daily lives;there is parental and
community participation in all of the different levels of the students’education,and
particular emphasis is placed on educating girls and underpriviledged groups.
These features also make the schools more cost-effective, since a non-formal school
costs less than two percent of the capital costs of formal school.They are also time-
efficient.It takes only one month to establish a make-shift room in a house or building
of a local teacher.In contrast, it takes an average of two years to begin a formal school
which must be set up in new building.
But while the quality of the physical environment may not be as good in non-formal
schools, the curriculum and content of these schools is the same or sometimes, even
better than formal schools.
Source:www.yespakistan.com/education/non-formal-edu.asp
2.3 The Importance of NFE: Country Experience
Non-formal schools(NFS) have been used to increase opportunities of access to the
disadvantaged in different parts of the world.the need for increased opportunities of access
is more crucial for sub-Saharan Africa(SSA),where it is estimated that up to 9 million
children will be out of school by the end of 2005(Oxfam International 2000).For Africa to
get on track for a 2015 target of universal enrolment,it will have to raise enrolment by 22
million children over the next five years,overt and above current
trends(Hoppers,n.d.).There is thus an urgent need for African countries to take practical
steps in expanding access to education.
Other countries have used the informal route to substantially enhance
participation.Pakistani,for instance,is making all out efforts to attain higher literacy rate by
establishing more non-formal schools throughout the country as part of the government’s
plan of providing education to the children of underdeveloped areas and achieving
EFA(www.dawn.com/2000/06/07 nat23.htm).To this end,the Nation Commission on
Human development(NCHD) plans to establish a etwork of community based non-formal

16
schools.these non-formal schools will function as a support system addressing the
immediate needs of the education sector while the Ministry of Education builds its own
capacity to cover akk of Pakistan.
In Uganda, the need to address the plight of the children out of school led to government
of Uganda and the UNICEF to launch a programme called complementary Opportunity for
Primary Education (COPE).COPE aims at imparting in the children agaed 8-14 years who
are unable to participate in the formal school system with basic literacy, numeracy and life-
coping skills (Kajula, 1997).Some of the key feautres of COPE include:
 Community participation in planning and management of the lerning centres or
posts.
 Development of a group of paraprofessionals to serve as instructors who are based
in the community.
 Participatory teaching and learning methods.
 Child centred learning with extensive individual attentions.
 Smal class sizes of 30-40 pupils
 Only core subjects are taught such as mathematics,science,English,social
studies,and language instruction in the mother tongue
 Flexible timing of classes and three-hour school days
 A skill-oriented curriculum to enrich life skills
 Continuos assessment of learning achievement
The programme runs a syllabus that is compressed to three years which qualifies children
to join the formal primary schools at leve six.COPE is by and large a successful programme
that has not only expanded access to education especially for girls and the disadvantaged
communities, but also complemented the existing foral education system by imparting life-
coping skills to children.
The characteristic features of COPE are to a great extend similar to another experimental
NFE innovation in Burkina Faso,called the Programme experimental d’euseigvent de base
a partir des acquis de l’alphabetisation daus les lauques nationales au profit d’enfaute non
scolarises(EBAALAN),designed to serve out of school youth aged 9 to 14 years.Features
of this programme include:
 Reducing the primary school cycle from 6 years to 4 years.

17
 Genuine parental and community participation in the education of their children
through productive work,culture and moral and civic education
 Linkages between education and productivity
 An introduction of cultural and productive components to the curriculum
 Bilingual schooling beginning with the mother tongue
 Ensuring the participation of both mothers and fathers at school meetings
 Ensuring the equal enrolment of girls to boys in the program.
Like COPE,EBAALAM targets a specific group of people who are excluded or
underserved by the formal education system.A bigger national programmme was launched
in January 1995 in Burkina faso which has so far seen the establishenment of the Non-
Formal Basic Education Centers(NFBEC).To date there are 28 operating centres.The
general philosophy of the NFBEC is to ensure equity of access to education through basic
education for all,as well as to encourage effective participation of communities and
individuals to their own empowerment(Niada,n.d).
Under the Ganokendra(Community learning centre) in Bangladesh,the Non-Formal
Primary Education Programme has been designed to cover non-school children of six to
ten years and dropouts of primary school.The duration of the course is four years,and
covers the primary education cycle(i.e Grade I to V of the formal primary
schools),(Rahman,n.d).
A study on NFE in urban Kenya(Thompson,2001 b) revealed that though there are a
number of NFE centres in urban Kenya,the concept of NFE is not well understood by those
who offer it(Thompson,2001 a).The study involved a total of 88 NFE schools and centres
in Nairobi(36),Mombasa(28),and Kisumu(24).A notable finding was that community
owned centres constituted less than half of the total.
It is evident that majority of centres and schools are funded by the community followed by
the church and individuals.however,community ownership of NF schools and centres in
Nairobi is particularly low.As for 1994,it was estimated that the number of organizations
involved in NFE in Kenya stood at over 300(Yildz,2000).This is much lower than,say
Ethiopia where there were 12,036 basic education centres and 366 community skills
training centres with 28,868 facilitators in 1999/2000(Mulugeta,2001).
Table 2.3(a): Founders of NF schools and centres
PROVIDER NUMBER BY TOWN
KISUMU MOMBASA NAIROBI TOTAL

18
Local community 0 1 1 2
Church 4 2 12 18
Muslim 1 1 0 2
Community 14 10 8 32
Government DAE 1 1 2 4
MOHA 1 2 0 3
Groups 1 3 6 10
Individuals 2 4 6 12
Total 24 24 35 83
Source: Thompson (2001b)
The figures above do not include NFE programmes which are offered by variouys NGOs,
meaning that the number would be substantially higher.A previous survey by the KIE
(1994) found that NFE is offered by four categories of institutions: centres for religious
education, NF primary schools, adult education centres, and skills training centres.
In Guinea, the government initiated the National Non-formal Education Programme
designed to complete and extend the formal system (Sow, n.d.).One of the main
innovations introduced as a means of strengthening non-formal education is the
institiutionalisation of the NAFA centres or ‘second-chance schools’, which are intended
to cater for the educational needs of those excluded from the traditional system (dropouts
or un-enrolled children from 10 to 16 years of age.
Namibia has taken NFE to a higher level,with the Namibia college of open learning
(NAMCOL) running three NFE programmes,two of which are essentially remedial in
nature while the other is intended to upgrade the educational and professional levels of
development delivery agents in literacy,health,community development and other
roles,including functions of NGOs.The programmes are:
 Junior Secondary Certificate (JSC), for the upgrading of holders of Grade 10
qualification but who have not made sufficient grades for further education.
 International general Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE),for holders of
Grade 12 who have deficiencies in the grades obtained,that disenables their entry
into Tertiary |Institutitons or even hinders their ability to get jobs
 Certificate in Education for Development (CED), which is a middle level
qualification for para-professionals in government, the private sector as well as
NGOs (Indabawa, n.d).
Box 2.3(b): What is a community Scool?

19
A community school is one which is established in and run by a community which
indicated the need for a school to cater for the less priviledged children.Many of these
children are girls and many are orphans,who for social and economic reasons,have never
been to school or have dropped out of school at an early age.Community school is
currently being used as a term for initiative in basic education outside the formal
system.It can also be defined as community participation.Durston(1996) identified three
types of community schools.
 Those wholly outside the government system with varying degrees of community
participation.
 Those which began as community initiatives but which now have assistance from
the Ministry of Education, many of which have either been taken over by the
Ministry or are planned to be incorporated into the Ministry system.
 Governement schools with effective community participation.
In urban areas, community schools can be seen as interventions by agencies whose
constituencies are poor, children of HIV/AIDs affected families, orphans and girls.They
are normally run by volunteer teachers, usually chosen by the agency itself.In rural areas,
community schools are those began by the community, which has either found its own
buildings or began to contrast multipurpose building.The Ministry of Education provides
teachers for such schools.
Source:Mumba 2002
Majority of schools in Kibera are neither community schools nor are they informal centres,
with the exception of the ECD under KISEP which are wholly community
initiatives.Ideally, only two schools-Makina Self-help Primary and Raila Educational
Centre qualify to be called community schools.On the other hand, Undugu School is the
only un-informal centre among the identified schools.
During the Jomtien Conference on education for all,the world committed itself to the
provision of basic education to every child by the year 2000.The world met again later in
Dakar,Senegal in April 2001.Reports indicated that achievenment of education for all was
still a dream.New targets were set in Dakar-Elimination of gender disparities by 2005 and
achievement of education for all by 2015.Had Kenya been serious with this
commitment,she would now be in a position to fulfill the goals.Like other sectors,education
demands careful planning,beginning with well calculated and,if necessary,controlled birth
rates.Such planning helps predict what numbers must be catered for each year in terms of
facilities,hence quality education could be achieved(Daily Nation,4th
March,2005).

20
Universal Free Primary Education (UFPE) and Early Childhood Developemnt (ECD)
programmes founded on the understanding of quality formal education as basic human
right are not in themselves the culmination of EFA goals.
At global level,the role of the mass media in public education was understood first at World
Conferencce for All in Jomtien in Thailand,in june1990 and re-emphasised a decade later
at a World Education Forum in Dakar,Senegal,in 2000.At both for a,it was generally agrred
that the media should be utlised for public information,advocacy and community
mobilization for education for all initiative.The first major policy initiative implemented
by the government in 2003,was the introduction of FPE.Inevitably,the programme had
numeriuos challenges,key among them being lack of clear understanding among people of
their new roles in a challenged policy framework.For instance,many parents thought that
henceforth it would be the role of government to provide not only teaching and lesrnning
materials but also uniforms and even food to their children.
This brought confusion and tensions in some schools.Handling such issues and clarifying
the roles required, public education through mass media, which play a fundamental role in
image formation, attitude shaping and socalisation, was necessary.
The Ministry of Education is central to the national socio-economic and intellectual well-
being.It is responsible for nurturing the country’s youth,equipping them with
knowledge,skills and attitudes to prepare them for further education and training and
eventually gainful occupations.Its activities affect everyone,which is the reason why
everybody is interested in what goes on at the Ministry.To be able to portray the image of
what it does,it needs diverse communication strategies coordinated by the public
relations,and advocacy department.to ensure that the FPE initiative succeeds,there is need
for close collaboration and effective partnership between the government and all other
players in education (Daily Nation,May 24th
2005).These include the civil society ,private
schools,teachers,parents,children,professionals,local authorities,politicians,the
administration and local communities.This will change the image of education from only
quantitative to qualitative realization (Kenya Times,4th
October,2005).
Since independence,the Kenya government set up a number of commitees and task forces
to review the education system and tackle the emerging issues with a view to improve the
quality of education and delivery of education services.
This has resulted in unprecedented growth both in terms of number of educational
istitutions and enrolments as follows:ECD (1993) 18,487 to 25,489 in 199;15,804 to 17,611
in 199,secondary (19930 2,641 to 3,234 in 1999.Increase in the number of educational
institutions was matched with a corresponding increase in enrolmnets as in table 2.3 (b)
below:

21
Table 2.3(b): Students enrolment in public schools
1990 1995 1999(Provisional)
ECD 924,094 988,826 1,063,883
Primary 5,392,319 5,536,396 5,392,319
Secondary 618,461 632,388 661,824
Universities(Public) …… 39,902 41,268
Source: Ministry of Education
To cater for this unprecedented growth, the government’s budget for education has
increased four-fold over the years.However, the bulk of this expenditure to education goes
towards the paying of teachers’ salaries.To support the delivery of education, the
government encourages other education provides to supplement its efforts.Therefore, other
stakeholders such as communities, NGOs, the private sector, religious organizations are
also involved in the provision of education.
With increased enrolments and the decline in economic performance, the government is
now faced with issues of sustaining equity, equality and relevance in education.This has
been addressed in various education reviews earlier mentioned, whose main objectives
have been to make the education system more efficient, effective and responsive to the
changing needs of the Kenyan society.
The report of the Presidential Working party on Education and Manpower training for the
next Decade and Beyond,of 1988(Kamunge Report),states that the philosophy of education
and training must always be in consonance with and positively contribute to national
development.This was further echoed by the Commission of Inquiry into the Education
System in Kenya of 1999(Koech Report) which states that ‘the philosophy of education
must be based on the need to fashion the individual to grow and develop into a sound and
effective citizen with the needed capacity to appreciate the cultural heritage of his/her
nation as well as being able to make a meaningful contribution towards further
development and the socio-economic stability of the nation.’’
The Kamunge report also addressed issues of access,equity,cost-effectiveness,internal and
external efficiency as well as quality of education.Other critical documents that have
guided the development of education since1963 incude:Kenya African National
Union(KANU) Manifesto,Seessional Paper No.10 of 1965,The Kenya Education report of
1964(Ominde Report),Kenya national development Plans,The Report of the National
Committee Educational Objectives and policies of 1976(Gachathi Report),The Presidential
Working Party on the Establishment of a second University of 1981(Maekay Report) and
Sessional Paper No.1 of 1986 on Economic management of Renewed Growth.

22
The guiding philosophy, objectives and policies that drive education for now and the future
are articulated in these documents.
In spite of the tremendous growth that the government has recorded in its effort to provide
quality education to all Kenyans and to meet the needs of the society, the government has
been faced by a myriad of challenges.Key among them are:
 The retraining of the teacher and the curriculum offered during teacher training,as
the teacher is at the centre of learning activities and must therefore be prepared to
face the challenges of the 21st
century.Among these challenges are
HIV?AIDS,insecurity,skills to utlize new Information and communication
Technology(ICT) so as to improve his/her knowledge and teaching methodologies.
 Provision of adequate teaching and learning materials such as text books and
reference materials.
 Poverty;52% of Kenyans live below the poverty line and most parents therefore
find it difficult to send and retain their children in school since they cannot raise
the usual charges that they are expected to pay as part of the cost sharing policy.
 HIV/AIDS; which has greatly impacted on the provision of education due to high
numbers of teachers dying of the disease and the many AIDS orphans currently
estimated at over six thousand (6,000) per annum and 1.3 million respectively.For
the teacher, their absenteeism, because of opportunistic illnesses and eventual death
greatly affects the government’s effort to offer quality education to its citizens.
 High cost of financing education to both parents and the government.
 The high demand for secondary and university education,which in the face of
limited opportunities at both levels,has contributed to congestion in the few
wducational facilities available which lowers the standards of education especially
in the public schools.
 Globalisation as a result of advances in information and commerce technology.The
world has,therefore,become a global village and information from whatever source
is readily available.This greatly impacts on the Kenyan society both positively and
negatively;
 Environmental hazards both within the school and its environs, which make schools
unconducive to learning hence making it difficult to retain them and offer quality
learning.
 Decentralisation of management of education to bring it closer to the communities
who are the majority stakeholders in the provision of education in terms of
financing and management;

23
 Development of a curriculum that is manageable and responsive to the individual
and societal needs;
 Absence of a legal framework to facilitiate implementation of the various
recommemdations from the various education reports;
 Politisation of education;
 Media influence in education;
 Lack of adequate fincaing to support implementation of education programmes;
 Attainment of Universal primary Education (UPE) by the year 2005 and education
for All (EFA) by the year 2015.
2.4 Free Primary Education Failing-UNESCO Report
A new policy brief,released by the UNESCO and OECD on the impact of FPE on Early
Childhood development(ECD) in Kenya slums that there has been a decline in ECD
enrolment and primary school enrolment since 2003 in public primary schools.
FPE introduced in Kenya in 2003 has enabled 1.3 million por children to benefit from
primary education for the first time through the abolishment of fees and levies for
tutition.The gross enrilment rate in primary education jumped from from 86.8% in 2002 to
101.55 in 2004.however, the report says that though intended to boost primary education,
FPE has had concequences in other areas of education, including early childhood
development (ECD).
Entiled ‘Impact of free Primary Education on early Childhood Development in Kenya’’,the
policy brief singles out North Eastern Province,one of the most disadvantaged regions,as
one place with a sharp becrease in early childhood development enrolment since the
implementation of FPE.
UNESCO says that enrolment appear to be so acute and widespread that there is a serious
concern about the ‘collapse’ of ECD services.In the better-off regions, such as Rift Valley
Province and Nairobi City, decreasing enrolments are observed in public and community
owened ECD Centres, which typically serve poorer children, but not in private ECD
Centres, which accommodate the more affluent ones.
The main reason for this phenomenon explains the report, is that since implementation of
FPE, poorer parents are choosing to withdraw their children from ECD centres and or keep
them at home until they reach the age of primary school entry.They refuse to pay fees for
ECD on the grounds that ECD, like primary education, should be free.
Decrease in enrolments have meant reduced salaries for ECD teachers.In Kenya,ECD
teachers’ salaries are in most cases covered by parental fees,unlike their counterparts in

24
primary schools who are paid by the government according to an official teacher salary
scale.In ECD centres,parental fees are paid in proportion to the number of children one
enrolls and are mostly,if not entirely,used to cover teachers’ salaries.Thus,the level of
teachers’ remuneration depends on the total number of children enrolled as well as parents’
ability to pay fees.
As a result, the reduced number of ECD erolments brought about by FPE has been a blow
to teachers whose remuneration was meager and unstable already before rhe introduction
of FPE.
The brief released on February 2, 2006, notes that with parents increasingly reluctant to
pay for ECD, FPE has made it even more difficult to mobilize resources from parents for
ECD.Casess of increased job insecurity and ECD centres closures are on the rise,
particularly in poor countries.
FPE has also had unintended consequences for ECD in terms of resource allocation.ECA
classrooms set upon the premises of public primary schools have been shut down in order
to accommodate the surge of enrolment in primary education sparked by FPE.
UNESCO says that in some cases,ECD children and teachers must put up with reduced
space in others,they have been moved to the worst classrooms on the premises.At the
district level,inspection and supervision of ECD centres,some of which is carried out by
the district-based Zonal inspectors of schools,have reportedly become less frequent.
Instructed by the government to closely monitor the progress of FPE,the Zonal inspectors
are spending more time visiting primary schools,leaving little room for work with ECD
centres.What does UNESCO consider a policy option?Provision of a free year of pre-
primary education to all five-year-olds,the year preceding entry into primary school-taught
by government-sponsored teachers and also allowing ECD centres to continue to ensure
children’s continuous and holistic development by providing small government subsidies
for ECD teachers working in poor countries,regardless of the age groups they look after.
UNESCO argues that the first option is aimed at ensuring that all five-year-old children
have at least one year of preparation for primary education.Viewed as a strategy for
resolving the twin problems of children unprepared for formal schooling and inequitable
access to early learning opportunities, the option is under consideration by the national
authorities and receives support from many ECD teachers and parents.
However, some argue that the second option is financially unrealistic, given that the
Ministry of Education-the government body responsible for ECD-has been allocating less
than 1 percent of its total budget to ECD for years.Another concern with this option is that

25
it would most probably shift the effects of FPE on ECD down by one year, causing the
overcrowidnig of ECD classes for five-year-olds while emptying the younger classes.
In this situation, ECD centres would start stressing pre-primary education and become less
concerned with laying the foundation for learning by attending to the child’s cognitive,
social, emotional and physical aspects in an integrated manner.
Moreover, as it would involve government sponsorship of ECD teachers for five-year-olds,
it would mena absorbing these teachers into the official teaching workforce, thereby
splitting the ECD workforce into those working for five-year-olds and those for the yourger
groups.In town, this could discourage teachers from working with children under five and
increase the risk that younger –age class will be shut down.
The alternative ECD option is designed to assist ECD teachers working in disadvantaged
communities by offering minimum government subsidies and mobilizing parents and
communitieis to make up the difference to pay teachers’salaries.proponents of this option
argue first of all that it would primarily benefit poor communities.
Children perform best in school when they have had opportunities to develop socially,
emotionally, physically and cognitively in their early years.Supporters of the second option
would also argue that specific learning skills, such as reading, writing and counting, can be
best acquired later at school when children reach the age, developmentally, to tackle
abstract tasks.Pre-school children do not learn in the abstract but through concrete
experiences.
2.5 Theoretical Framework
The study draws from the following theories developed by several scholars whao had an
aim of researching in education and eventually formulating theories.
2.5.1 Goal Setting Theory
The main propnents of this theory were Edwin A.Locke and Garry P.Lathaan.This theory
shows how the field of organizational behavior should progress from a sound theoretical
foundation to sophisticated research and to actual application of more effective
management practice.it lies at the centre of performance-based motivation programmes
which are effectively applied in human resources management in the form of management
by objective (MBO).
In 1968,Edwin Locke presented a seminar paper which has been considered as the
pioneering work on goal-setting theory.In the paper,Locke suggested that goal-setting

26
theory can be traced back to taylor’s scientific management movement.Theoretical
formulation of goal-setting theory is very similar to the expectancy of theory.According to
the theory,Locke indicates,the values and value judgement are important cognitive
determinants of behaviours.he defines values and value judgement as the things the
individual acts upon to gain and keep.Locke further says that emotions or desires are the
way a person experiences these values.
According to Locke, people work hard to achieve goals so as to satisfy their emotions and
desires.he emphasizes that for goal setting theory to work employess must show
commitmemt to the goals which they set.he defines commitment as one’s achievement or
determination to reach a goal, regardless of origin.After an employee has set the goals to
be achieved, he or she then responds and performs accordingly.The results of their rsponses
are consequences, feedback or reinforcements.
Fig 2.5 (a): Graphically represented in five steps
Goal-setting performs four important functions for school management,teachers,students
and supporting staff.The first function is that goal-setting helps them to focus their attention
on a particular task or objective.The second function is that goal regulate or increase their
efforts.The third function of goal-setting is that they enhance their persistence on a
task.Goals constantly remind them of when they are moving.The fourth function is that
they enable them to become more creative in charting out new strategies and action plans
for achieving the agreed upon results.
Fig 2.5(b):A four-step goal-setting model
Step 1:Education mangers set specific goals which are not difficult for workers to
achieve.The goals should be measurable and challenging.Research studies have shown that
difficult but achievable goals lead to better employee-peeformance than easy ones.If goals
Values and value
judgement
Emotions and
desires
Goal or intentions Response,actions or
performances
Consequences,feed
back or reinforcement
Setting specific and
moderately difficult
goals
Group participation
and employees
acceptance of goals
Provision of appropriate
instruments for goals’
achievement
Provision of objectives and
timely feedback on goal
performance

27
are too difficult to achieve,workers get frustrated and this reduces their motivation and
hence work performance.
Step 2: In this step, workers are made to participate in goal-setting so that they feel that
these goals are their own.Workers who efficiently participates in the goal setting process
performs better than those for whom goals habe been prescribed.
Step 3: Management provide the workers with appropriate support and resources for goal
achievement.
Step 4:In this final step,management should provide an objective and timely feedback
about the employees’ progress towards goal attainment.The feedback should tell the
employees what they are doing right and what they are doing wrong.Feedback should be
well timed if employees are expected to benefit from it.This theory was found relevant for
the research because,goal-setting is widely applied in education management since
education is a highly result-oriented discipline.At the outset,educational managers must set
general aims of education of the community.Educational managers need to tailor the goals
of educational institutions to the needs of the students and teachers.They have to ensure
that teachers participate in goal-setting and should help teachers to achieve their goals
through lesson plans,schemes of work and participate in decisionmaking.
2.5.2 The classical Liberal Theory
The classical liberal theory of equal opportunity and Social Darwinism asserts that each
person is born with a given amount of capacity which to a large extend is inherited and
cannot be substantially changed.That is,educational systems should be designed so as to
remove barriers of any nature(economic,gender,geographical) that prevent bright pupils
from lower economic backgrounds from taking advantage of inborn talents,which
accelerate them to social promotion.Liberal progressivists like Horause Mann termed as
‘the Great Equalizer’’ main instrument which would enhance life chances of those born
into humble circumstances.The teory demands for further going enough education at
primary and secondary level to which access would be determined on the basis of
individual’s merit and not on social background.
Social Darwinism emphasizes that evry citizen should be given through education,the
social status which entitles them to inherited aptitude(organization for economic
cooperation and development,1975).Schematically,the social Darwinism theory observes
that provision of formal equity of access to education by putting everybody on the ‘scratch’
guarantees that the ensuing run is a first one.

28
With introduction of FPE,looking at it from the classical liberal theory,it states that social
mobility will be promoted by equal opportunity of education.The roots of the theory can
be traced to writers such as Rousseau(1712-1778),who claimed that the ‘natural’’ statement
were born equal and personal quality should not jeopardise social equity so long as society
rewards people according to their status.that is,the wrters of the American Declaration of
Indepoendence claimed that all people are equal,i.e born with the same moral and political
rights.it follows from the belief that social institutions such as education should in some
sense attempt to treat people equally.
American educator Horace Mann(1796-1889) could tell education as a great
equalizer.Evidence in favour of this is mainly in the form of case study.There are
innumerable examples of people from poor families who have taken advantage of
education opportunities andproceded to obtaine better jobs and higher incomes than they
would otherwise have done.If the government of Kenya could not provide FPE,these
individuals would have been denied the opportunity for education acquisition.In a country
like Kenya where the government elites inherited the colonial inequalities of educational
provisions,it was desirable to pursue the goal of equal distribution of educational
opportunities.Before the FPE there was increased primary school dropout,abseteesim and
repletion occasioned by the affected the internal efficiency of many city council schools.
A good example, the introduction of universal free education programme in public primary
schools in 2003 by NARC government has raised the total primary school enrolment from
5.8-7.5 million children.Before its introduction in Nairobi city council schools charged
excessive fees of over 10,000/= for children enrolling in standard one.Exorbitant user
charges and other school related costs had locked many children of school-going age out
of primary education.
In Kenya,the NARC government has made primary education free and highly subsidized
secondary education in a bit to enhance access to education.However,with the introduction
of cost-sharing in education against the background of high povery levels in the
country,many parents may not be able to enroll and sustain their children in primary and
secondary schools given the rising hidden and actual costs of education.Therefore,for the
equity consideration,it practically becomes impossible to ignore the fact that unequal
participation will,in the long run,lower the status of the poor and the vulnerable
groups(Njeru and Orodho,2003).This theory was found relevant for this study because
before FPE,there was cost-sharing which had kept many school-going children out of
school especially those from the poor families,an issue that had seriously marginalized
many children from education,and is some managed,they got into the hands of
unscrupulous private schools which did not offer quality education.

29
2.5.3 The Expectancy Theory
It was originally proposed by the pioneering psychologist Kurt Lewia and Edward Tolman
as part of their purpose psychology of behavior (Cognitive concept) in 1932.In 1964, the
expectancy theory was formulated and aimed directly at work motivation by Victor
Vroom.This theory rests on the assumptions that motivation is a conscious process in which
decisions can fully relate to psychological events.
The theory posits that motivation is a force or drive within a person and that this force vries
according to three factors:valence,expectancy and instrumentality.For an individual to be
motivated to perform a certain task,he/she must expect that completion of the task will lead
to the achievement of his/her goal.this can be expressed algebraically as:
Fig 2.5.3(a):Motivation
Motivation=Valence x expectancy x instrumentality.
The main constructs in the expency theory are:motivation;-the force to perform an act or
engage in an action.It is the internal enrgy or arousal that has direction and
intensity.Valency;-the degree of perceived attractiveness or repulsiveness of an object.It is
the degree to which objects are described or rejected by individuals.Expectancy;-a
momentary belief concerning the probability that a particular outcome or sets of outcomes
will follow a particular action that ranges from the strength of certainty that action will not
result in the outcome,to the action will not result in the outcome.Instrumrntality;the
expected utility or usefulness of a direct outcome of the attained or a voided relation
between direct outcomes and indirect outcomes.
The motivation process is, therefore, a complex process which can best be understood by
analyzing the possible outcomes, the valence of those outcomes and their perceived
instrumentality of producing the second level of outcomes whith high valence as shown
the table below.
Fig 2.5.3(b): Correlation of the Expectancy Theory

30
Source: Harkman (1997) in perspective Behaviour organization
Key:
E-P Expectancy-percieved probability of successful perfornce gives effects.
Instrumentality-percieved level of first outcome leading to second level outcome.
Although the expectancy theory exhibits a number of deficiencies, it does however,
recognize the complexities of work motivation unlike the content theories of work
motivation whcich oversimplify human motivation.
The expectancy theory provides educational management with a strong conception
framework for understanding how motivation and oerformance can be improved.the
teaches’beliefs that their efforts will lead to performernce can be ehnenaced through a
nuber of ways, such as further training, supervision, guidance, counseling and participation
in job-related decisions in staff meetings.By enhancing teachers’ abilities in this way, they
will feel that high levels of performance are feasible.
Educational management should also design reard systems which are based on actual
performance.The performance-reward contingencies should be increased so that teachers
are assured to that good work is equitably rewarded.This encourages them to work hard
not only for their personal growth,but also for the successful achievement of the
educational objectives.
It is incumbent upon educational managers to ensure that teachers are matched to their
jobs.Educational management should be cognizant of the teachers’abilities and traits so
that these are used in job placement in order to ehance performance.They have to clarify
job objectives during the teachers’ induction.
Effort Performanc
e
Outcome
B
Extrinsic
Outcome A
Extrinsic
Outcome C
Intrinsic
Outcome D
Outcome E
E-P Expectancy

31
2.5.4 Jean Piaget’s Theory of Intellectual Development
Piaget’s theory of intellectual development deals eclusively with cognitive development
beginning with the primitive reflexes and motor coordination of infancy and attending to
the thinking and problem solving of adolenscents and adults.In his theoretical
argument,scientific and mathematical abilitieis are stressed.Those abilities include
abstracts and logic reason,generation of hypotheses and organizing actual activities into
more complex structures.
In Piagets’s theory,knowledge is assumed to have a specific goal or purpose;to aid a person
in adapting to the environment.the child or adult does not receive information passively
and thoughts are not simply the products of direct teaching by imitation of others.Neither
is cognitive progress seen as primarily a product of the brain.Knowledge is acquired and
thinking processes become more complex and efficient as a consequence of the maturing
child’s interactions with the world.Piaget’s central thesis is that the individual is
active,curious and inventive thoughout the life cycle.Human beings seek contact and
interaction with the environment,search out challenge,and most important,interpret
events.Children and adults continually construct and reconstruct their knowledge of the
world,trying to make sense of experience and attempting to organize their knowledge into
more efficient and coherent structures(Musseu,Coger Kagan and
Hudson,1880:Driver,1983).
Piaget’s work emphasizes the skills,process or logical structures thought to describe
children’s intellectual operations (Dibeutley and Watts,1992).He claims that in all
development,experience and maturation are necessary components.Thus,like any other
process skill,the development of skills of prediction and hypothesizing depend on
experience and maturation level of an individual.As children develop and understand more
science concepts and processes,their predictions and explanations should become more
sophisticated,frequently reflecting a rich scientific knowledge base,evidence of
logic,higher levels of analysis and greater tolerance of criticism and uncertainty
(NAS,1995).
2.5.5 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Cognitive development is that aspect of development that deals with thinking,problem
solving,intelligence and language (Black and Pucket,1996).Piaget conceptualized a stage
theory of cognitive development,especially on children’s development and specifically on
how children develop knowledge.In piaget’s view,cognitive development is a combined
result of the maturation of the brain and the nervous system,and the experiences that help
individuals adapt to the environment.he contents that cognitive development in all children
will follow predicatable and qualitatively distinct levels or stages,which will occur during

32
specific periods of a child’s life.These stages are said to average in an invariant and
universal sequence.
The stage progression portion of piaget’s theory has important implications to
learning.First,learning is development and no child skips a stage.Second,individual
children may take different lengths of time and need different experiences to complete their
development.Third,mental development does not merely click into place with a passing
birthday.Fourth,learners differ in capability,probably due to variations in their physical and
mental experiences.in ECD,children should be seen and treated as unique individuals.They
should be allowed to develop science progress skills at their own rates.
According to Piaget,the order in which the periods occur is appropriately fixed,but a child’s
rate of progress through them is not,and the age at which each stage or sub-stage is
negotiatioted varies from child to child.This progress can be speeded up.piaget is
,however,opposed to high pressured,extreme acceleration.he feels that there is an optimal
level tie for the development of each concept and that this optimal time depends on the
individual (Sharp,1970).Of special attention in this study is the preparatory stage before
entry into the formal school.If a child joins primary school(standard one) while he/she is
still a non-conserver,he/she cannot really understand much of the school work and will
resort to memorizing and parrot-like learning.
Pre-operational Stage (2-7 years)
This stage of cognitive development extends from two years of age to approximately seven
years of age.Pre-operational stage is marked by the appearance of language and symbolic
functions,and also the child’s ability to understand logical cocnepts as well as the onset of
conservation.The child can use symbols and can judge on the basis of appearance,but
cannot perform mental operations such as reversibility (Kaplan,1991).This does
not,however,suggest that young children are deficient in their thinking.They are not,they
are only different in thinking from older children and adults (Black and Pucket,1996).
The development of symbolic thought,as represented by the establishment of object
permanence,mark the dividing line between the sensor-motor and pre-operational
periods.As the pre-operational period sets in,the child demonstrates greater and greater use
of symbolic functions.
Language development increases dramatically,and imaginative play becomes more
apparent as children spend much of their time in the make-believe.They can imitate a
mother’s behavior after some time has passed,implying that they have away of
symbolically remembering behavior originally observed in a model
(Dworetzky,1996).During pre-operational period,the child’s ability to think has some

33
limitations.Children often focus on one aspect of a problem i.e.the most salient and seen to
forget the other information that is equally important(Fogel and Melson,1988).The child is
also characteristically egocentric and has difficulty imagining how things look from
another person’s perspective.
The pre-operational stage is characyerised by two stages: pre-conceptual and intuitive
stages.These stages have been outlined by (Dworetzky, 1996) as follows:
Pre-conceptual stage (2-4years)-As children begin to symbolize their environments, and
develop the ability to internalize objects and events, they first develop premature objects,
which Piaget called pre-concepts.For instance, a pre-conceptual 3-year old child may have
a general idea that all cars found on the street are his father’s and then call each car Daddy’s
car.during the pre-conceptual stage, children reasoning processes are limited to two kinds
of reasoning: Syncretic and transductive.
Syncretic reasoning refers to the method by which pre-scholars tend to use limited and
changing criteria to sort and classify objects.A pre-conceptual child may classisfy
objects.A pre-conceptual child may classify plates together because they are plates, but
may also classify a red book with a plate because they are both red.Syncretic reasoning
may occur in part because the child’s conceptual understanding is not fully developed.
Transductive reasoning involves correct identification of cause and effect relationships that
link two specific events that occur close together (Fogel and Melson, 19880.Suppose it
rains on the first day of school, a pre-school child might think schools started because it
rained.Transductive reasoning can lead to animistic thinking, which is the belief that
inanimate objects are alive.An example is when a child thinks that the sun is alive because
it is moving.
Intuitive stage (4-7)-The latter position of the pre-operational period is called the intuitive
stage because the child’s beliefs are generally based on what they sense to be true rather
than what is logic or rational thought would dictate.Most children in pre-school fall into
this pre-operational stage although some will still be in the sensor-motor stage while others
will have progressed to the concrete operational stage.it is children in this stage that this
study is concerned about.
In ECE,children develop science process skills through the continuous interaction with the
external world.Whether these process skills are developed in pre-school children in an issue
to be investigated through a systematic study.If you intent to adopt this thery to your
study,you should state that this will be the essence of the study.

34
2.5.6 Needs-Hierarchy Theory
Although several theorists have proposed theories which show needs arranged in a
hieararchy, Maslow’s work has been the most influential.Maslow’s studies in human
motivation led him to propose a theory of needs based on a hierarchical model with basic
needs at the bottom and higher needs at the topThese are physiological needs, safety needs,
basic needs, love needs, esteem needs, and self-actualisation needs (secondary or higher
needs).
Fig 2.5.6(a): Hierarchy of Needs
In educational setting,Maslow’s needs hierarchy implies that educational management has
a responsibility to create a work climate in which teachers and other educationists can
satisfy their needs.most primary school teachers have not met their needs and
therefore,educational managers at this level should concentrate on the satisfaction of thses
needs.however,in secondary schools and higher educational institutions,most teachers have
met their basic needs and therefore,educational management should focus on creating a
working environment should provide opportunities for greater variety in teaching
methodologies,autonomy in work schedules and increased responsibility so that the
maximum potentials of the teachers can be realized.If an enabling environment is not
provided for teachers,they will have frustration,lower performance and job
satisfaction,increase work restriction,tardnessand high turnover,which impact negatively
on the quality of education given to children.
2.5.7 Ruth Pearson’s Framework on Gender Relations
The theoretical framework of this research study is a mix of Ruth Pearson’s (1992:320-
330) framework of thinking on gender relations and the quest for agrarian transformation
Self-actualization
Needs
Esteem (prestige) Needs
Love and belonging (affiliative)
Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological (biological)
Needs

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