On 25 April 2015, central Nepal was shaken by an earthquake of magnitude 7.6 which resulted in more than 8,000 causalities and more than 22,000 injuries. As with all such disasters, disproportionate negative effects towards the most marginalized groups were experienced. More than eight million lives, about one-third of the country’s population, were affected by the earthquake. In the situation of such disaster, it was observed that the centralized government of Nepal was not prepared to deal with such a catastrophe. The statutory plans of the government were impeded by both structural and political factors. However, this disaster triggered many local citizen-led groups to activate and provide support. This paper observes the development of citizen-led groups in two historic settlements of the Kathmandu Valley – Sankhu and Bungamati, both of which were severely damaged by the earthquake. Although these citizen groups have already been formalize, their origins lie in informal self-organized actions, this paper explores the evolution of these groups and their decision making processes, and critiques them through the lens of urban governance theories. An important factor in this paper is also the history of communal living and self-organization in the traditional settlements of Nepal guided by socio-cultural entities. Community based groups have evolved through centuries, therefore this paper studies their history and current stage, especially in the aftermaths of this major disaster. In some instances these local groups were able to find and mobilize resources and also work in collaboration with the government and other organizations, particularly UN-Habitat in Bungamati and UNESCO in Sankhu. The role of such groups in the development of collaborative governance and bottom-up decision making processes, increasing the resilience of the community and to find solutions to issues caused by the crisis, is further explored in this paper.

1. Community Responses to the 2015 Gorakha Earthquake in Nepal
Swati Pujari
Damaged homes in Gorkha District [1 May 2015] Credit: AFP Photo/ Sajjad Hussain]
[AUTONOMA]
International Conference on Urban Autonomy and the Collective City
Onassis Cultural Center, 1 & 2 July 2016 ‐ Athens, Greece

2. FIGURES & IMPACTS
Date 25 April 2015 (11:54 am)
Epicentre Barpak, Gorakha – 76 Kms from Kathmandu
Epicentre
Magnitude 7.6
Aftershocks >6 = 4 Nos.
>4 = 424 Nos.
C liti 8 891Causalities 8,891
Injuries 22,302
Lives Affected 8 Million
ff d f
Kathmandu
Affected Districts
Districts Affected 34 out of 75
Houses Affected 608,155 Complete Damage
298,998 Partial Damage
Government 2 687 Complete DamagePrivate
All Others
Combined
Impact on Buildigs
Government
Buildings Affected
2,687 Complete Damage
3,776 Partial Damage
Heritage Sites
Affected
133 Fully Collapsed
95 Partially CollapsedPrivate
Private
Buildings
Damaged
33%
< 1%
515 Partly Damaged
Total Loss
Monetized
NRP 706 Billion ≈ USD 7 Billion
Buildings
Collapsed
67%
Total Buildings Affected = 914359

3. IMPACTS
Source: epa/Narendra Shrestha SourceAmul Thapa/ kathmandutoday.com
There is variation in Vulnerability & Impact within the society

4. LOCATIONS
67 Deaths
179 Injuries
1 235 H D d1,235 Houses Damaged
Sankhu and Bungamati relative to the city of Kathmandu [Base‐map source: www maps google com]
7 Deaths
53 Injuries
1,168 Houses Damaged
Sankhu and Bungamati relative to the city of Kathmandu [Base map source: www.maps.google.com]

5. GOVERNANCE & GEO-POLITICS
o People often help each other in these situations – because the government often cannot
o Rescue and Relief
Sh l d C i P i io Shelter and Community Provisions
o Youth Participation and rise in Volunteering
o Working in Groups
o Government bodies are hierarchical with time consuming bureaucracy
o Rescue and Relief
o ICNR – 25 June 2015, release of PDNA (June 2015), release of PDRF (May 2016)
o Coordination Platformso Coordination Platforms
o Owner based approach in Rebuilding
o National Reconstruction Authority – Policy/ Plan
o Communicate to local government and citizens
o Local government – implement the plans
There has not been a local election in Nepal since 1997!!!
Most Local Government bodies (Sankhu & Bungamati) are recently restructured.

6. GOVERNANCE & GEO-POLITICS
o Political (IN)stability? – Often considered a result of the 10 year armed conflict (1996‐
2006)
o But Besides the armed conflict:
o 1768 – Unification & Institutionalization of absolute monarchyy
o 1814‐1816 – Anglo‐Nepalese war
o 1846‐1951 – Gain and lose of power by Rana Prime Ministers
o After 1951 – Return to absolute monarchy
o 1954 Floods King Mahendra seizes direct control solidifies hold of monarchyo 1954 – Floods, King Mahendra seizes direct control, solidifies hold of monarchy
(contributes to the end of Rana dominance)
o 1990 – Constitutional Monarchy
o 2006 – Dissolution of Constitutional Monarchy
o 2008 – Declaration as Federal Democratic Republic
o 2015 – Promulgation of a new Constitution
Thi ti l liti l t t dl d fi t t tThis continual political unrest repeatedly redefines government structure
Power‐play for political lead – Sharing of power by the elites & neo‐elites

7. LOCALLY LED – The Solution?
Bungamati
o Atelier for Artists at Bungamati
Sankhu
o Comprehensive Master‐plan –o Atelier for Artists at Bungamati
(implementation stage)
o Bungamati is a settlement popular
for its art – especially woodcarving
o Comprehensive Master plan
Sankhu (conception stage)
o Historic and cultural settlement
o Increasing citizen participation
o Impact on livelihood and
monument reconstruction
o Multi‐stakeholder
– eg. Sakwo Vintuna Pucha (local
youth group)
o Sankhu Reconstruction Society
o Universities + Master‐Trainer
o Local Professionals – Trainees
o Non‐academic Partners
o University
o Local Government
o Professional Collective

8. Self-Organization as a Tradition
o Collective participation is a key development strategy in the ancient
settlements of Nepal
o Socio‐cultural groups called Guthis have institutionalized citizen
participation in ritual, social, cultural and public activities
o This Collective Participation is also Exclusive in Guthis as they are
primarily mono casteprimarily mono‐caste
o Yet this exclusively mono‐caste system has contributed to the
development of the cities, settlements and the societies
o At the same time – Exclusion from traditional systems also equalso At the same time Exclusion from traditional systems also equals
marginalization
o Political
o Economic
o Social
Thi t diti f t S lf O i ti i l h iThis tradition of mono‐caste Self‐Organization is also changing,
but a strong influence of the caste system can still be felt

9. LOCALLY LED – The Solution?
o Responsiveness
Considering Communities in Bungamati & Sankhu as ‘Agents’[1] of Resilience Building
p
o Identify Problems/ Issues etc.
o Coordinate amongst relevant stakeholders
o Develop plans and activities, with minimal support from the government
o However Results not yet achievedo However, Results – not yet achieved
o Resourcefulness
o Finding & Mobilizing Assets
o Technical Resources – Bungamati & Sankhug
o Human Resources – Bungamati & Sankhu
o Financial Resources – only Bungamati
o Capacity to Learn
N t ti l l t i f d ft th th k t l t t llo Not entirely relevant in groups formed after the earthquake – too early to tell
o BUT, lessons from previous earthquakes are not well communicated
Processes of self‐organization are present and influential in resilience building – they are
1. The attributes of the agents are refered to from Tyler, S. and Monech, M. 2012. A framework for urban climate resilience.
Processes of self organization are present and influential in resilience building they are
in coordination with the government but are also challenging the government processes

10. THANK YOU!
Contact:
swati.pujari1@gmail.com