Ashley Menegon DISSERTATION

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Research Dissertation
Master of Architecture!
ARBE4121B: Research in the Built Environment B
Ashley Menegon!
C3164557
!20/11/2015
Ghost Lab - ”Lower Building Construction Site”. Image from
http://monocle.com/magazine/issues/16/hammer-time/

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Figures
Images taken are the authors own unless otherwise noted and ethics approval has
been given for such conduct.
Figure 1: Methodology Diagram
Figure 2: Sauna Workshop
Figure 3: Sandane Workshop
Figure 4: Timber Preparation
Figure 5: Timber Installation
Figure 6: Timber Milling
Figure 7: Timber Allocation
Figure 8: Group Work 1
Figure 9: Group Work 2
Figure 10: Small discussion with tutor
Figure 11: Entire group discussion with tutors
Figure 12: Floor level setting
Figure 13: Smaller group decision making
Figure 14: (Not Authors Image) Soe Ker Tie House’ http://www.tyinarchitects.com
Figure 15: NTNU Live Studio Handbook
Figure 16: Bunker Openings
Figure 17: Bunker ceiling opening
Figure 18: Sauna floor plan
Figure 19: Timber Joints
Figure 20: (Not Authors Image) ‘Tagpuro Waiting Shed’ - NTNU Live Studio Handbook

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Table of Contents
1.0 - Introduction
1.1 – Introduction 5
1.2 - Research Question 5
1.3 - Research Aim and Objectives 6
1.4 - Research Gap 8
1.5 - Research Scope 9
1.6 - Significance / Justification of Research 10
2.0 - Literature Review
2.2 - Architectural Education 13
2.3 – Experiential Learning 15
2.4 – Situated Learning and Ethnography 17
2.5 – Conclusion 20
3.0 - Research Method
3.2 – Methodology 22
3.3 – Limitations 24
3.4 – Conclusion 25
4.0 - Discussion
4.2 – Argument 27
4.3 - Aim 1: Multidisciplinary Learning 32
4.4 - Aim 2: Theory and Practice 39
4.5 - Architectural Education and Assessment 43
5.0 - Conclusion
5.1 - Aims and Objectives 46
5.2 – Research Question 47

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1.0 - Introduction
1.1 - Introduction
Due to the current nature of architectural education being largely of a theoretical
orientation, there has been a resurgence of Architectural design build studios aiming to
reintegrate Architectural Education with the more practical and contextual matters of
the Built Environment. In the current learning environment of NTNU: Norwegian
University of Science and Technology, past and present practice based educational
studios have contributed to consecutive build works over the past 12 years. As it
currently stands this orientation now entails research facilities of which to facilitate such
transformative learning.
Through examination of experiential educational theories, the nature of such learning
and its role in reintegrating theory and practice within architectural education will be
investigated. Such a shift may require a reconfiguration of matters of assessment within
architectural education.
1.2 - Research Question
Can architecture students be better equipped during their education through alternate
models of contextual real world projects?

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1.3 - Research Aim and Objectives
The primary aims of this research are outlined below followed by objectives or steps to
be taken to satisfy these goals. To not extend the scope of this research to all
architectural educational structures, it will be limited to a particular area of analysis of
which to enclose my investigation. These will be particularly focused on the relationship
between theory and practice in architectural education enabled through experiential
practice based education.
Research Aim 1
To investigate the potential of situated learning, within real world projects, and it’s
contribution to the multidisciplinary education required in Architecture.
Research Objectives 1
Along with the analysis of the dual dialectics of experience, further observation will lend
insight into the various roles and modes of operation available within such studios. This
data will be assessed alongside another recent project at NTNU in an attempt to outline
the multidisciplinary potential of such real world studios. This learning will be discussed
alongside situated learning theories and how such differing learning experiences could
be shared through legitimate peripheral participation with a community of practice.
Research Aim 2
To investigate the role of experiential learning in integrating theory and practice within
practice based models of architectural education.
Informed by discourse surrounding experiential learning, during participation in two
design-build studios data will be collected through observation and photographs to

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assess the intertwining of these qualities of experience. This data will be assessed
alongside further analysis of recent projects at NTNU in order to find ongoing themes of
the quoted “pragmatic creativity” being explored at the university.
Research Aim 3
To investigate alternate models of architectural assessment not based solely on results
but upon more process oriented educational outcomes.
The accomplishment of these aims will contribute to a final argument on the nature of
Architectural assessment. The collected data will assess how a greater focus on
process-oriented qualities of experience may be a more suitable form of assessment
than solely goal oriented outcomes. This discussion will occur alongside discourse of
Proximal Development and how such real world scenarios interact with the University
Environment.

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1.4 - Research Gap
The implementation and development of design build studios has continued over the
past decades attempting to reintegrate Architecture with the more practical matters of
the built environment. Discourse upon these with observations and viewpoints have
been commonly noted however further investigation of these studios making reference
to qualities of experience and situated learning is believed to reveal a greater
perspective on these matters.
Little has been said about the dialogue between theory and practice within design build
studio. The studios aren’t devoid of theorising, however some critique states that such
concrete matters of experience inhibit the potential of studio based theorising.
Furthermore, minimal discourse is available surrounding process oriented Architectural
assessment as opposed to the predominant focus on final outcomes.

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1.5 - Research Scope
The discussion within this thesis is entirely context related. The very nature of
experiential or situated learning is making a case for greater knowledge acquisition and
retention while imbedded in the particular context of the subject matters application.
Therefore discourse around architectural education again has to be context related and
for this thesis will largely focus on a culture of design build education at NTNU:
Norwegian University of Science and Technology. The extent of which the conclusions
may be applicable within other environments would have to be assessed with
consideration to varying environmental, historical, economic and cultural factors as
required.

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1.6 - Significance / Justification of Research
The call for architectural education to be reintegrated with the more practical and
contextual matters of the built environment does come with its critique. This generally
refers to the fact traditional educational structures remain separated from real world
considerations permitting knowledge to remain objective and generalised with the
potential to overcome the concrete limitations of one’s own personal experience.
Justification for this research is based upon a necessity not for a resolution to this
discussion, but to find an overlap of these arguments, particularly with reference to the
“pragmatic creativity” found in the current educational environment at NTNU. It is the
aim of this thesis to investigate this relation of theory and practice to give the discussion
greater grounding.
This critique also includes concerns on matters of assessment and maintenance on
levels of quality, but it is argued that a re-configuration of such outcome-focused
assessment to a more process oriented structure may be the solution to this. Such an
investigation of these programs may give insight into the less discernable and implicit
capacities of learning within more contextual learning environments. Such information
may then be utilised for justification for implementation of such studios within traditional
educational structures and potentially an adjustment of the understanding of
assessment.

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2.0 - Literature Review
2.1 – Introduction
The Literature will be divided into 3 areas of analysis to maintain some clarity set out in
sequential order similar to the process of investigation of the author. These are will be
Architectural Education, Situated Learning and Experiential Learning.
Throughout the past decades there has been a resurgence of Architectural design build
studios aiming to reintegrate Architectural Education with the more practical and
contextual matters of the Built Environment. Alternate educational models such as
design build studios seek to challenge the apparent overwhelming focus on theoretical
educational practices having largely removed manual labour from its intellectual
pursuits. The case for course development and student attendance of such studios is
continuously outlined as a desire for personal agency and greater intellectual and
manual labour integration. Additional discourse in regards to craftsmanship and manual
work has also been included in this literature review for the shared qualities of learning
through making.
Such discourse has however already been firmly established and the validity of design
build studios is reflected in the ever increasing amount of programs and workshops
being implemented internal and external to Universities worldwide. However such
discourse has a primary focus on the aspect of making and many projects provide
much greater multidisciplinary learning outcomes than simply that of construction.
The discussion of this thesis will also be in the realm of design build discourse but will
be more specifically focused on specific capacities of learning and established
educational theories enacted within these studios as such analysis is quite limited in
said discourse. Throughout the 20th century until present, progressive discourse,
development and ranging analysis of educational theories has continued, including the

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likes of situated learning, practice based learning and experiential learning, mostly in
reference to the capacities of learning facilitated within the particular context of the
subject matters relevance. These theories will be analysed and a particular framework
will be developed of which to collect date from previous and current design build
studios.
This analysis will include observation during participation in a design build course at
NTNU: Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Further literature on particular
case studies of courses or educational structures of a similar nature to the course of
analysis, primarily at NTNU, will aim to provide supportive or additional information to
this observed data.
This literature will help to ascertain qualities of Situational learning and Instructional
Design, i.e. design build and studio based learning, and the potential overlap of these
qualities. How these experiential qualities of theory and practice inform one another will
include investigation of knowledge acquisition through reinforcement, sequential
decision-making and how the practical matters of construction influence design.
Critique of such practical matters in Architectural education will also be examined such
as the inhibiting factors concrete experience has on the scope of creative theorizing
within hypothetical projects. This thesis outlines this dialogue between qualities of
situational learning and instructional design, hypothetical vs. practical, explicit vs
implicit, rational vs. empirical, aiming to assess their relevance and as to whether it’s
necessarily one or the other or a continual flux of both.

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2.2 - Architectural Education
This literature will give an overview of discourse surrounding Architectural Education,
Making and Craft, focusing most particularly on discourse expressing a need for
Architectural Education to be reintegrated with the more practical and contextual
matters of the Built Environment. This discourse will solely aim to establish the subject
matter for this thesis and will limited to particular references and not cover the entire
breath of this well-covered topic.
Literature on Architectural Education in the Australian setting outlines the current state
of the building industry having shifted away from its craft based roots to one of a
knowledge-based economy. The book outlines the outcomes of recent research within
Architectural education including contemporary technological and material practices,
accreditation, integrated curriculum, sustainability and more. (Ning Gu 2009)
Early discourse on practical Architectural education includes reference to the pioneering
work and life of Frank Lloyd Wright of most particular relevance in the development and
ideals of the Taliesin Fellowship and School of Architecture. This model integrated of
“life, learning and work” (Smith 1966) compared to the likes of the Bauhaus’, and John
Ruskin’s ‘Guild of St. George’. Successful contemporary examples include Rural
Studio, Ghost Studio and ranging programs, including the likes of design build studios,
have continued to develop in recent years. Acknowledgement of these studios has
been due to the high demand from students wishing for greater agency within matters
of ‘hands on building experience, social responsibilities and community
engagement’.(Menegon 2015) This Literature outlines the interdisciplinary and flexible
nature of such an approach, with varying timeframes, available technologies, funds
allocation, with all studios integrated with communities and external programs
differently. (Sokol 2008)

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Albers also proposes that the exploration of new technologies, as encouraged within
architectural education, “is to first be preceded by progression through general design
skills, handicraft and craftsmanship”. (Albers 1944). As derived from ‘The
Craftsman’(Sennett c2008) and ‘Shop Class as Soul Craft’(Crawford 2009), such an
approach could be seen as a form of craftsmanship which outline the necessity for a
more holistic development process, perhaps most relevant in the multifaceted and
interdisciplinary environment of Architectural practice. (Menegon 2015)
A relevant contribution to the discussion are the collated writings within the books of
Brian Mackay-Lyons in ‘Ghost: Building an Architectural Vision’ and his most latest
release ‘Local Architecture: Building Place, Craft, and Community’. The reference is
important as it makes reference to the integration of design and theory throughout the
studios where learning is facilitated through the transition between the different modes
of thinking and making.

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2.3 – Experiential Learning
The divide between the majority of established Architectural educational environments
of design based theorising and such practical forms of Architectural education, in other
words theory and practice, will find a similar reference within the following literature. This
reference will give greater insight into this Architectural debate and further foundations
from this extensive body of knowledge within educational discourse. Beginning with an
overview of experiential learning, this section will provide discourse from which to
develop a framework of analysis during investigation of past and present design build
studios.
Experiential learning is a multifaceted approach to education with the theory having
development through continual contributions and discourse over the past two
centuries. Several important contributors to the debate on experiential learning
throughout the 19th
and 20th
centuries include the likes of John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Lev
Vygotsky and finds it’s earliest known reference, as stated by David A. Kolb, in the
writings of William James and his notion of radical empiricism. Within “Experiential
Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development”, Kolb outlines
fundamental characteristics of Experiential Learning and from these theorists, an
overview of their theories culminates in general characteristics not limited to the
following.(Kolb 2014)
In it’s broadest sense, as stated by Dewey, experiential learning is an ongoing holistic
process of education imbedded within the continual restructuring of experience. Within
Jean Piaget’s constructivist discourse, this ongoing learning process will be determined
by how this new knowledge assimilates with the subjects existing knowledge and prior
experience. Further to this, such life experience entails a continual flux of interaction
between said subjective nature of an individual, and with them the entirety of their
personal conditioning, and the objective nature of the environment and all the entities of
its particular context. This interaction or dialogue within learning is understood to occur

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upon the resolution of tension between polar opposing forces of world experience
including qualities of “insight and action, perception and conception, knowledge and
valuation, theory and practice”.(Schrag 1969) Additional discussion of James’
Empiricism, in it’s simplest form referring to learning occurring through the senses, and
rationalism could be outlined however this brief overview in no way aims to covers the
entire scope of experiential learning but only to express its extensive depth. (Kolb 2014)
In order to aid understanding of this extensive topic, this thesis will utilise Dewey’s
concepts of ‘Interaction’ and ‘continuity’ to make reference to such forms of
experiential learning. The thesis will not seek to give an entire overview of experiential
discourse and as such comparisons to other pragmatist and constructivist discourse
found within Dewey’s concepts will be taken for granted.
Discourse surrounding process-oriented learning found within experiential education will
facilitate the final discussion on matters of assessment. One particular reference is
made to Lev Vygotsky’s theory on the Zone of Proximal Development, which refers to a
student’s ability to operate with or without assistance from educators. This will be used
as a framework within which to compare the potential growth that may take place
between case studies.

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2.4 – Situated Learning and Ethnography
The following literature covers further educational theories focused on situation learning
and Legitimate Peripheral Participation (LPP) within a community of practice. Where the
experiential learning discourse will provide guidance on the development of knowledge
in appropriate environments, the situated learning literature will continue focusing more
specifically on the social qualities of interaction in the environments of which they take
place. Coinciding with this, this literature will include discourse on ethnographic
research and research techniques of which the situated learning data was first
obtained, which will allow me to generate a methodology within these observational
research tools. These are believed to be relevant to the practical environments of
construction, to utilise while collecting data during the course of analysis at NTNU.
Shared knowledge and learning through LPP (Legitimate Peripheral Participation) within
a community of practice, as discussed within the work of Jean Lave, refers to how
involvement in community with a shared domain of interest helps foster knowledge
acquisition. Communities of practice exist in ranging forms however the environment in
which it is situated will determine the identity and operation of said community. In other
words communities of practice do exist within both situated learning and instructional
design environments, however what and how information is shared may well differ. In an
Architectural education context this could refer to such examples of design-build
studios and design studios.
Ethnography refers to a form of empirical research, which entails the collection of data
or information through experience. An established understanding of social science
research is that it distinguishes itself through the individual nature of such data
collection via participant observation.
In the historical context, earlier forms of ethnography referred to research undertaken by
those who were different from the subjects being researched including the likes of

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Colonial analysis of indigenous cultures. Contemporary ethnographic models however
largely entail researchers attempting to gain a similar status to those being researched.
The origin of such an approach is largely associated with Bronisław Malinowski’s
fieldwork among Trobriand Islanders, which entailed Malinowski’s full immersion in the
native culture including community participation and communication in the local
language.
Within ‘Situated Learning Perspectives’ ranging ideas of subjectivity are expressed
which reveal qualities of which to keep awareness while conducting participant
observation. Finding similar reference to discourse within experiential learning, these
include that response to any form of teaching, perhaps most particularly within the
framework of situated learning, is determined or affected by the intellectual and social
constructs in which, and from which they are produced. In other words, during such
observations of students, who for that matter come from different countries and have
ranging practical experience, the environmental conditions of the setting, or context,
and the environmental conditioning of the student need to be continuously measured.
Ethnography research is conducted through continual process of reflection where along
with these aforementioned environmental factors need to be considered, my own
perspective and interpretations need to be considered perhaps most particularly.
The nature of research undertaken with such insider and outsider perspectives raises
issues on the nature of objectivity of research findings. Jean Lave in an interview with
Steinard Kavale, states that disregarding the element of subjectiveness is futile in
ethnographic research as analysis of the infinite complexities of human behaviour
requires the personal interpretation of a human researcher within the framework of his
or her own development and lens of the world. Lave however outlines particular “tools”
of analysis of which can be utilised to dilute such subjectivity which include ongoing
fieldwork and findings, most particularly at a slow pace causing such issues on validity
and potential personal distortion to fade away. There is a necessity to be continuously
critical to what is and isn’t known in an open-ended manner, with the initial research

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theory being influenced by the research as much as the research is influenced by the
theory.(Lave)
The extent of this field work will be limited to ethics constraints between parties.
However through observation and photographs, data will be collected throughout the
process and will be considered with the following in mind.
• Integration into the community of practice
• Awareness of context, subject’s and my own conditioning including the likes of
environment, culture, age, gender, experience etc.
• Continual reflection.
• Continual criticism of what is and isn’t known.
• Theory to be influenced by the research as much as the research is influenced
by the theory.
It is to be noted that through the nature of ethnographic research as further discussed
within the methodology, there is an expectation that through the process of analysis
other things will come to awareness, and these objectives may change.

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2.5 – Conclusion
This literature review provided a background to the discourse on the current state of
architectural education. This discourse expressed a need for the theoretical pursuits
within architectural education to be reengaged with the more practical matters of the
built environment.
This dialogue between these matters of theory and discourse found reference in the
discourse on experiential learning. The discussed nature of learning is best facilitated
through the resolution of dialectic qualities within life experience. These tensions will be
investigated through a process of analysis of participatory observation, interviews and
case studies and will lead to a final discussion on the nature of assessment.

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3.0 - Research Method
3.1 - Introduction
The following methodology has been utilised in the investigation of current models of
architectural education that aim to resolve current dilemmas with its current state. The
nature of conducting research on more practical forms of architectural education has
lent itself to conducting such research of such a practical orientation.
Due to the nature of such research being a form of fieldwork, a methodology including
the likes of Ethnographic research has been utilised. This form of research is stated to
be conducted with a certain flexibility, as during the fieldwork process the data being
collected is expected to define the research just as much as the research defines the
investigation. Being implemented in and conducting research of a such a process
oriented nature, covering a topic which is also process oriented, namely the course of
analysis, a form of research that permitted flexibility methodology that has continually
developed.
Tools from which to undertake such fieldwork were taken from the literature on
Ethnographic research that were to work in conjunction with understood theories of
experiential and situational learning. This first hand data was then compiled with
previous case studies to inform the discussion and satisfy the first two aims. This led to
a final discussion on the nature of Architectural education and assessment.

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3.2 - Methodology
Through participation in a design build studio, data is collected through participatory
observation to assess the intertwining of these qualities of experience and
multidisciplinary education. The following diagram visually outlines the methodology
utilised in the formulation of this research.
Figure 1: Methodology Diagram
The overarching area of study is that of Architectural education and relevant literature
informs all areas of the research. The literature provides a stance on the current state of
Architectural Education and discuss issues and potential current practices that attempt
to resolve these matters. These issues developed the three main aims of the

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dissertation, which refer to relationship between theory and practice, multidisciplinary
learning and matters of assessment.
Two additional bodies of literature, being Experiential Learning and Situational Learning,
provided established discourse on method of learning in relation to these Architectural
matters from which to conduct analysis. The ideas within these theories are John
Dewey’s concepts of continuity and interaction and second the capacity of social
learning within communities of practice. These qualities were used, along with
Ethnographic Research tools, to conduct research in the field during the two
workshops of analysis.
The data collected from The Sauna Workshop and the Sandane Workshop is then
compiled with a body of information sourced from previous case studies at NTNU. This
data is then discussed, again in reference to the learning discourse, in how these
particular forms of current education resolves these matters.
Upon the compilation of this data, a final argument on the nature of Architectural
assessment will be developed. The role a sufficient process plays in the impartation of
architectural education will be investigated regardless of the final outcomes. A stance
on how students can be equipped for practice with reference to further educational
discourse around the Zone of Proximal Development.

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3.3 - Limitations
Due to the undefined exploratory nature of ethnographic research, a definitively
appropriate methodology is difficult to ascertain. However establishing a framework,
and then being open to continual questioning of the research, my personal world view
or perspective, necessity to be reflective and critical of viewpoints with awareness to the
subjective and objective contextual matters will permit flexibility within this methodology
during experiential observation.
It is argued quantitative and scientific approaches are rejected within ethnography as
they deny the social complexity and creativity within human social constructs and
potentially abstract them into universal generalisations. As such personal distortion may
be a limitation of this research and as such the subjective nature of the research needs
to be continuously assessed. Images provided with these observations aim to provided
additional weight to the discussion.
Matters to consider during field work:
• Honest integration into the community of practice
• Awareness of context, subject’s and my own conditioning including the likes of
environment, culture, age, gender, experience etc.
• Continual reflection.
• Continual criticism of what is and isn’t known.
• Theory to be influenced by the research as much as the research is influenced
by the theory.

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3.4 – Conclusion
The discussed methodology has been developed throughout the research process and
at its current stage represents a year long period of investigation. Continued research
on a greater amount of case studies for an extended period of time would contribute to
a greater understanding and potential further shifting of focus. The following discussion
will now be conducted throughout the following section structured as per the developed
methodology.

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4.0 - Discussion
4.1 - Introduction
This discussion will begin an overview of a current area of thought in relation to matters
of architectural education. Certain problems are identified along with potential current
practices that attempt to resolve these matters. These problems have defined the three
aims that refer to a necessity to reintegrate theory and practice, multidisciplinary
learning and matters of assessment.
These aims find reference in a body of educational learning theories including situational
learning and experiential learning including the likes of Jean Lave and John Dewey. The
discussion on the case studies is set out sequentially with separate reference to the
initial two aims. These results then informed the discussion of the final aim covering
matters of education and assessment.
During the ‘field work’ conducted during two design-build workshops, questions that
arose throughout the process were as to whether the workshops were to run exactly as
a worksite or still very much an educational environment. Would fabricating a
construction workshop environment would be detrimental to indirect, inherent or implicit
qualities of real world practice? The matters of how such studios handled such a
relation being education and practice led to the final aim on ideas of matters of
assessment, with input from further discourse from Lev Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal
Development.

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4.2 - Argument
Changes in Architectural practice and education has seen it shift away from it’s practice
based roots requiring greater ‘specialist knowledge than specialist skills’.(Ning Gu 2009)
Not solely limited to Architecture, current educational discourse calls for a
reconfiguration of a contemporary monoculture of formal intellectual learning.(Crawford
2009) Despite these multifaceted requirements, many Architectural Educators state the
current limited interrelation between theory and practice due to a predominate focus on
disengaged theorising.
Architectural practice in its earliest traces existed through the work of journeymen with
education generally occurring through forms of apprenticeship. Over time this
progressed through varying forms and finally into the contemporary models of studio
based learning such as that of the Beaux-Arts. (Michael J. Ostwald 2008) Originally
related to ‘building services and material properties’ architectural practice now
encompasses the likes of computational research, industrial applications and ecological
sustainability. (Ning Gu 2009) However there is certain scepticism with the current state
of Architectural practice and its numerous area of specialisation, including that of
Landscape, Sustainability, historic preservation etc. The very nature of Architecture
practice is of a interdisciplinary nature necessitating ranging “economical, functional,
ecological, constructive, structural, material, aesthetic, sensorial, social and cultural”
considerations. (McCarter 2008)
Josef Albers critique of ‘laissez-faire learning’ alludes towards an alternate educational
structure working to counter the “premature specialisation” found within Architectural
education. This is to be achieved through greater interaction between the formal and
informal models of learning through theory and practice. (Albers 1944) This is further
substantiated by renowned Architect Renzo Piano, as cited by Sennett, describing a
certain circularity working procedure between traditional means of drawing and making.

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Such a procedure is said to facilitate greater knowledge retention than that of solely of a
singular practical or theory based focus. (Sennett c2008)
Early discourse on such practical Architectural education includes the likes of Frank
Lloyd Wright’s integration of “life, learning and work” in the development of the Taliesin
Fellowship and School of Architecture.(Smith 1966) The most successful contemporary
example of such practical education is found in that of Samuel Mockbee’s development
of ‘Rural Studio’ in response to his belief that architects have become segregated and
limited in their influence within contemporary practice. Rural Studio was established
following steps taken by Mockbee to impart his architectural influence within more
contextual matters including ‘education, healthcare, transportation, recreation, law
enforcement, employment, the environment, and community’.(Dean c2002)
Design build studios, have continued to develop within universities throughout the world
and examples lend insight into their benefits and continuing success. These alternate
educational structures operate to challenge the overwhelming emphasis put on
theoretical practice within universities ‘having largely detached manual labour from its
intellectual pursuits.’ (Albers 1944) Such an approach is deemed suited to the
interdisciplinary nature of Architecture, with varying timeframes, available technologies,
funds allocation, with all studios integrated with communities and external programs
differently.(Sokol 2008)
Ghost Studio was developed as a response to overwhelming bias “towards
ungrounded and disengaged theorizing” within architectural education. This form of
architecture, having disconnected making from it’s academic pursuits is said to have
lost sight of it’s own fundamental principles, such as ‘place making, the construction of
communities and shaping of experience’.(McCarter 2008) Determinants of geometry,
construction and certain pragmatic decisions, such as that described as the
‘realignment of existing columns to permit uniform-sized members and to minimise
cutting’, are largely neglected in contemporary practice. (McCarter 2008) McCarter

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states that there is limited progression from design decisions of ‘how to imagine a
building’ to ‘how it should be built, how it could be built and how it was (will be) built’.
Such outcomes are argued to be of a more process oriented focus with general
assessment criteria not on only percentages, but qualities of client engagement, time
management, communication, hands on construction experience, teamwork,
perseverance and self-motivation and community service. (Sokol 2008) Benefits include
influence upon student’s entrance into work life - some even starting their own design
build studios – counteracting education in isolation, and contribution to greater
knowledge retention that a more passive approach of directly instructed education.
(Badanes 2006)
It is this call for a re-integration of theory and practice along with the necessity for more
holistic, multidisciplinary learning that has informed the first two aims. Reference to how
these two matters are found within such practical education has been made to the
following educational discourse on experiential and situated learning. Situated learning
within a community of practice is used to satisfy the multidisciplinary requirements of
architectural education while Dewey’s form of pragmatic experiential learning has been
used to explain the integration of theory and practice.
Situated learning theory states that learning is best facilitated while embedded within
context, activity and culture, as opposed to the abstracted knowledge offered in
classrooms, through Legitimate Peripheral Participation (LPP) within a community of
practice.(Wenger 1991) The theory was developed by Jean Lave following difficulties
and frustrations she found with Western perception of education as that solely gained
through ‘formal’ modes of learning, such as that within schools and institutions. It is
argued that such a narrow view lends oversight to the informal means of education
such as that found in everyday modes of life and communities of practice such as that
of traditional forms of apprenticeship.

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Jean Lave’s research of informal models of education entailed ethnographic research
and analysis of the “Vai and Gola tailors in Liberia in the 1970s”. (Lave 2012) Lave found
that learning was not taking place through formal modes such as that of classes,
lectures, lessons or examinations but developed within “the matrix of social relations”
within the workplace. Similar such research includes that of Tim Ingold’s thoughts of
learning as embodied practice, and refusal to separate knowledge from processes of
knowledge production, (Ingold 2013) matters further echoed in Richard Sennett’s ‘The
Craftsman’ and Simon Crawford’s ‘Shop Class as Soul Craft’. Other examples included
the research of archaeologist and ethnographer Olivier Gosselain, his analysis of a
community of potters in Niger, and the contribution of social relations to the
development of craft and forming of identity.(Gosselain 2011)
Derived from these is a belief that the sharing of information within a community of
practice may facilitate multidisciplinary learning of a more informal nature. Architectural
education may be able to encompass such contextual learning to encourage greater
social interaction and the sharing of varied information. It is argued that these matters
will be utilised alongside the following further discourse on
Experiential learning is defined as an ongoing holistic process of education imbedded
within the continual restructuring of experience.(Kolb 2014) Dewey outlines that the two
concepts of ‘continuity’ and ‘interaction’ – being prior knowledge operating in
conjunction with internal and external factors of present experience - offer the full scope
of such experience. Within this, Dewey challenges education occurring in a vacuum or
that solely focused on an individual’s acquisition of explicit knowledge as found in many
institutions.(Dewey 1997)
Interaction is outlined, as any particular experience operating with equal focus given to
internal conditions of subject and the external environmental conditions. These two
qualities functioning together, in what Dewey calls a situation, are inseparable from one
another in the transaction of experience between an individual and objects and other
persons. Dewey outlines that efficient experience and education entails continual

31
growth, and as such, continuity refers to the changes that occur between experiences
following the use and modification of extracted information taken from one experience
to the next. The principle of continuity in this sense therefore necessitates considering
the future throughout an educational process in preparation for future experience.
However, Dewey expresses the limitations of this principle in education in that
considerations of how prior knowledge will be utilised, as defined by continuity, or
further acquired at some time in the future, are neglected. Dewey challenges learning in
isolation or learning removed form the context of a subject matters as it disrupts the
unity of continuity and interaction and is segregated from experiences occurring within
the ‘actual conditions of life’ and as such the information cannot be drawn upon within
the same conditions under which it was learnt. Dewey’s analyse of such qualities of
experience - in both the acquisition of past knowledge from prior learning and
experience, being continuity, and it’s interface with external factors, being interaction -
finds reference to Architectural discourse in the commonly known difficulties with how
education equips students for life in practice.
It is in this sense that such experiential learning would aim to resolve the divide between
theory and practice while also satisfying the multidisciplinary education required in
Architectural Education. The following case studies have been examined with these
factors in mind during participation in two design build workshops. These being how
LPP within a community of practice permits greater learning of a multidisciplinary nature
and how the interaction of theory and practice is enabled through Dewey’s concepts of
‘interaction’ and ‘continuity’ within pragmatist or instrumentalist learning.

32
4.3 - Aim 1: Multidisciplinary Learning
The author participated in the following two workshops along side students and tutors
while undertaking a course at NTNU (Norwegian University of Science and Technology).
The analysis of previous projects, contextually specific to NTNU, will also give further
insight into differing forms of operation, inherent constancies and additional qualities.
Figure 2: Sauna Workshop
Location: Trondheim, Norway
Date: 21/09/2015 – 03/10/2015
The workshop entailed construction of a Sauna
inside an existing concrete bunker in Trondheim
Norway.
Figure 3: Sandane Workshop
Location: Sandane, Norway
Date: 23/10/2015 – 01/11/2015
The workshop entailed construction of three sleeping
shelters in the forest.
The Sauna workshop ran over two weeks with very little preparation before hand and as
such the varying roles of project delivery seemed to be condensed into a shorter time
frame. The roles throughout the week concerned material acquisition, quantities and
allocation, including a continual flux of design and construction. Education across the
workshops is by no means even, as the external environments affect the internal
environments of individuals differently, not to mention different jobs simply having to be
allocated. However it was found that it was how interaction occurred in such an
environment between such particular roles permitted exchange of such information.

33
The main construction of the project was a single timber wall was which ran through the
inside of an existing concrete bunker. Natural timber pieces were milled, then cut to size
and prepared with joints to be pieced together inside the Sauna. The construction roles
were therefore divided largely between students allocating materials, students outdoors
preparing the timber, and students inside the Sauna piecing them together. This can be
seen below.
Figure 4: Timber Preparation Figure 5: Timber Installation
The student pictured below spent 3 days of the workshop milling timber in preparation
for the walls of the Sauna in continual discussion on sizes and quantities with students
on site. Following this period this student, along with one other, continued the allocation
of materials on site to ensure the different sized timber members were used efficiently in
the varied walls of the Sauna.

34
Figure 6: Timber Milling Figure 7: Timber Allocation
The necessitating continual stream of interaction between materials allocation, material
preparation and installation ensured that information was shared between roles. It also
worked the other way from inside the sauna making alterations to joint design and
various details and as such, the students on material allocation and preparation needed
to adjust accordingly. This sharing of information was enabled through collaborative
communication that contributed to understanding beyond individual roles. This was
enabled through awareness of each particular roles impact, upon the entire process
and as such, despite said allocated roles, the education was shared.
The Sandane Workshop operated differently in how information was shared. Being that
the project itself was divided into three comparable structures, the group didn’t work
together on the delivery of one structure but divided in smaller groups for each
particular structure. Therefore roles were more evenly shared but communication
hinged on how the structures interacted and therefore decisions were made in varied
ways. Instead of information being passed along a chain, decisions were made in these
smaller groups, decisions between the entire student group and then lastly with tutors
input also.

35
Figure 8: Group Work 1 Figure 9: Group Work 2
Major group decisions made throughout the workshop included set out, the upper and
lower levels of each platform, roof orientation and the cladding for each unit. Differing
levels of the platforms, orientation of the units and how the three types of cladding were
divided, would change how each unit responded to each other functionally and
aesthetically. Such decisions were made throughout the project as the design was
developed during the construction process. The roof orientation of the second unit was
flipped to take advantage of access from the rear embankment, the height of the third
unit was raised in response to the verticality surrounding trees, and the three types of
cladding, initially to be divided across the project was changed to allocate one type of
cladding per unit and not a mix as initially intended. These were fundamental group
decisions in the final product.

36
Figure 10: Small discussion with tutor Figure 11: Entire group discussion with tutors
Smaller group decisions however gave each shelter finer differences as show below.
These included the extent of the eaves, platform dimensions, use of the available
cladding in which walls were to be clad and subtler things including ladders, window
openings and fire wood storage.
Figure 12: Floor level setting Figure 13: Smaller group decision making
The Sauna workshop was run first and conducted with significantly more input from the
tutors and as such had a much greater range of expertise and experience from which

37
to learn and observe. Such matters are not going to be judged by what was better or
worse but different ways of operating a workshop. At the potential detriment of direct
instruction form expertise, the second workshop perhaps benefitted through the
personal agency of self-directed inquiry.
NTNU Projects
The Architecture practice TYIN encompass the most successful example of self-
directed projects undertaken at NTNU. ‘Behind the Lines’ outlines the formation and
growth of the architecture practice TYIN Tegnestue tracing the completion of
consecutive built projects whilst still completing their Architectural Education at NTNU.
TYIN’s self-titled “pragmatic creativity” allude towards the discussed qualities of
experiential and pragmatist learning.
Figure 14: (Not Authors Image) Soe Ker
Tie House’ - http://www.tyinarchitects.com
Such a standpoint can be seen in, but not limited to, the
operation of their first project ‘Soe Ker Tie House’ on the
border between Thailand and Burma. The Architects are
quoted stating that following the initial cultural shock of
the social realities of the area, they ‘figured out what
materials and skills were locally available, the form of
existing housing and how this reflects the needs of the
people living there. This then leads to agreements, initial
ideas and the formation of the project’. These projects
entailed design in the field, the coordination of projects
and people, design and construction utilising vernacular
construction techniques and local builders and ranging
societal lessons.
The authors outline that book has been written not only to highlight their successes, but
to lend insight into mistakes, lessons and personal growth between projects. Dewey’s

38
concepts of ‘interaction’ and ‘continuity’ find reference here in the development of
appropriate knowledge between different experiential learning.
Additionally to this resource, the ‘NTNU Live Projects’ handbook has been developed
with input from students and teachers outlining common experience and observations
following years of practical output from the University. The handbook defines ‘Live
Projects’ as those generally resulting in, but not limited to, built works undertaken “in
real time, with real people, that have made very real commitments” outside of the
educational institution. The ranging projects have culminated in this body of knowledge
upon reflection of said case studies.
Such self-directed projects go beyond the discussed qualities of design build studios
offered as a part of a curriculum as they put the responsibility of all factors of a project
onto the student. The booklet outlines the varied roles of a self-directed project, going
beyond design and construction to ranging responsibilities including brief, time frame
and budget development in communication with a real client a client, finance and
construction management along with cultural differences!, health, safety and
environmental issues! of the particular context and so on. The handbook outlines the
varied responsibilities of the student Architect as follows:
• Being the project leader responsible for the main idea of the project
• Being the project manager responsible for the planning, administration and budget of
the project
• Being the design process leader, generating design decisions and leading the design-
and building process
• Being the building manager on site, responsible for the building- and construction
process
• Being the designer responsible for the interaction of all parameters of the project, the
development of design concepts, visualisation and building drawings of the project.
Figure 15: NTNU Live Studio Handbook

39
4.4 - Aim 2: Theory and Practice
Dewey’s concepts of interaction and continuity were found to be a simple way of which
to make reference to pragmatist or experiential discourse surrounding education.
Pragmatism finds that a proposition or an idea only finds relevance through it’s practical
implication. As such the appropriate environment from which to guarantee future
reference and the knowledge building of appropriate knowledge as defined by Dewey’s
interaction and continuity is argued to find reference in these educational models while
also solving some commonly found issues of the divide between theory and practice in
Architectural Education. The following observations and analysis aim to outline such
integration through a certain “pragmatic creativity” at NTNU.
Sauna Workshop
The nature of the project was very much of an internal nature delivered within the quite
restricted confines of a concrete bunker. However with such a significant constraint, the
few queues given, along with certain problems that arose throughout the process, the
students were able to deliver creative solutions to these practical problems.
These particular cues were existing openings in the bunker - one being the door, two
windows with a fourth opening in the rear ceiling, diagonally to the door as shown
below. Initial designs proposed making openings in the bunker in different ways
however these were simplified due to the limited timeframe. As the design drawings
developed this constraints of the sauna informed the floor plan which consisted on one
continuous wall element, wrapping through the bunker defining three spaces. Each
space had one existing external opening, and a natural light source, for each with the
fire located beneath the existing opening at the rear.

40
Figure 16: Bunker wall openings Figure 17: Bunker ceiling opening
Once construction began a system had to be developed for joining all the pieces of
timber together and as such each student attempted to design details for the timber to
meet at the corners. The timber form the mill was cut at varying heights and so as each
piece was different, the timber joint required a design where it cut right through each
piece in plan as one piece of timber might interact with two pieces in an adjacent wall
as shown in the image below.
Figure 18: Sauna floor plan Figure 19: Timber Joints
A tutor suggested an angled frame joint at the corners with a butterfly type pin holding
them together, however another student outlined that this would require one layer of all

41
6 internal walls would need to be placed at once in order to hit each butterfly pin in as
opposed to completing each wall at the back of the bunker first. Simple timber joints
were designed to hold each adjacent wall that would be able to be placed from the
sides. Therefore one wall could be built, then the next and so on. These joints were also
developed and revised during installation with such quality control perhaps only
permitted through such integration of theoretical matters of design and the pragmatics
of construction.
Difficulties were found in the appropriate allocation of materials in that the width of the
timber from the mill generally came in two widths. There was not enough available
timber of the initial width of 4” to complete all internal walls of the Sauna. As such this
necessitated the remaining 3” wide timber to be used for two of the short walls.
However as the widths were different, how the joints of the 3” walls, met the joints of
the adjacent 4” no longer aligned with one another and required a redesign of joints to
suit the construction. It was such moments where the materials allocation, preparation
and installation came together in an entire group readjustment in the construction
process. Such moments show the potential of such workshops to encompass
multidisciplinary, experiential learning within a community of practice.
Sandane Workshop
Where the sauna workshop adapted in finer details, the shelters at Sandane shifted in
larger design elements in response to environmental matters due to the nature of the
project. The major group decisions previously mentioned were made again is response
to certain constraints, treated as opportunities to inform the design. Setting the columns
on rock foundations, creating a terrace from the second hut to the rear embankment,
reducing the footprint of the third hut to fit between tree while also raising it’s height in
response to their verticality and finally the efficient use of the limited available cladding
were all creative solutions to concrete problems.

42
NTNU Projects
Without explicit explanation, creative responses to practical difficulties or constraints
can only be assumed from the discussed NTNU case studies. The very nature of TYIN
utilising local builders and vernacular construction in conjunction with their Norwegian
design sensibilities alludes towards such a thing. ‘Behind the Lines’ tracing TYIN’s
growth in the completion of consecutive built works while completing their education.
Mistakes and uncertainty were reduced as the continuity of their experience enabled
their knowledge to be used in consecutive projects and now having finished their
education of the right environment from which to take in working life.
The discussed contextual learning entails the subjective and objective complexity of an
entire environment, understood to encompass inherent qualities beyond complete
comprehension. Due to this inevitable ambiguity, an assumption is made that
implementation within architectural curriculum will need to be undertaken with an
acceptance of a certain level of uncertainty. Educators of regulated and explicitly
developed course structures, may find difficulty approving learning outcomes, or lack
there of, including the likes of implicit qualities and un-accountable relations as outlined
within gestalt and post-structuralist discourse. These concerns surrounding matters of
assessment and maintenance on levels of quality are however perceived through the
lens of traditional educational practice where experiential teaching practitioners are less
concerned with such outcomes or results, but focused on a more process-oriented
education. The following and final section will discuss these matters of education as a
process, qualities of inquiry with a greater focus not on the ‘what’, but ‘how’ something
is learned.

43
4.5 - Architectural Education and Assessment
Present discourse surrounding architectural education outline a commonly found divide
between theory and practice with difficulties expressed in providing education to an
individual within the ever-increasing roles, technologies and expectations within
Architectural practice.
Alexander Tzonis, within ‘A framework for architectural education’, gives a brief historic
overview of such a divide. One of the earliest responses was the development of the
‘Ecole Politechnique’ of which began to teach theory and subsequent practical
exercises of its application to reintegrate the two matters. However following the ever
increasing expectations of practice and expanding convoluted theory, this method was
found to be insufficient. Tzonis outlines a ‘universally accepted’ belief that the following
and continuing experiments within architectural education at countering this - including
the likes of ‘assigning real life problems, bringing the studios physically next to the sites
and utilising real life practitioners within studios’ – were largely unsuccessful.(Tzonis
2014)
Tzonis suggests a potentially altered framework of education in reference to a
successful precedent in that of the academic hospital. The academic hospital was
developed to counter the growing divide between theory and the reality of medicinal
practice leading teaching and learning at the ‘bed-side of the patient’. Like Architecture,
such education lends itself to a multidisciplinary practice and ever expanding body of
knowledge. Such a comparison is made between methods including initial analysis of a
problem, identifying possible solutions grounded on theory while taking evidence from
previous cases or precedents. Tzonis argues that the gap between theory and practice
may be closed in a similar way by “working on real life cases and real life design
commissions” where “real patients and not patient dummies are treated”. As such
students learn following “masters”, where projects and process are critically assessed
along with trialled and unprecedented experiments. From such a point of view,

44
reference can be made to learning no longer occurring in the vacuum or the isolated
environment found in many university studios, but through the necessity to find creative
solutions to real problems, situated in real environments.(Tzonis 2014)
This example is believed to share qualities with the discussed pragmatic experiential
qualities as defined by Dewey, situational learning, multidisciplinary education and
“pragmatic creativity”. As such through the previous analysis, it is argued that this
example finds reference in the current educational environment at NTNU.
A link can be drawn between the aforementioned design build studios and self-directed
projects again referencing Dewey’s concepts of ‘interaction’ and ‘continuity’. Thought
there is an awareness that from such brief analysis it may be easy to generalise about
certain observations or matters on personal growth, however it is argued that through
an efficiently structured curriculum, including such studios throughout Architectural
education and the continuity of ones experiences of appropriate interaction, students
would be greater equipped to undertake such self directed projects in the later stages
of their education. It is believed that the development of students to such a position
seems an appropriate segue between Architectural education and practice.
Such a transition between education and practice can be assessed with reference to
discourse of the zone of proximal development, being the zone between which a
student is able to operate with and without assistance. Zone of Proximal Development
is a theory developed by Lev Vygotsky in response to an established educational focus
on knowledge-based tests from which student’s aptitude was measured. It was
through the ZPD that more process oriented education investigation was conducted.
The discussed case studies lend insight into students operating at different levels of
their education within a zone of proximal development in relation to Architectural
education.
Though the design build studios have been discussed with reference to multidisciplinary
potential, they were limited in several areas. The site, funding and sourcing of materials

45
had already been undertaken prior to course commencement and as such, the
students were not involved with economic matters and liaison between the client,
municipality or relevant consultants.
A specific case study outlined in the ‘NTNU Live
Studio Handbook’ is the ‘Tagpuro Waiting Shed’..
It is seen in this example a progression along a
supposed Zone of Proximal Developed as the
project is stated as a self programmed course
however was delivered with greater assistance
from the University. This was done by developing a
framework for a course that would permit the
students the flexibility of establishing a project,
including the establishment of a client and brief,
while in the field in the Philippines.
Figure 20: (Not Authors Image) ‘Tagpuro
Waiting Shed’ - NTNU Live Studio Handbook
The student’s role therefore initially included client liaison and contextual analysis in the
preparation of a design brief alongside a client. This then turned into ‘live project’ being
designed and built with input from the client and a mentor from NTNU
Following on from this example TYIN’s ‘Live Projects’ were conducted at the other end
of this supposed zone of proximal development from that of the design build workshops
where significantly less input from the mentor provided by the University. Establishing at
which stage and to what extent students interact with the real world with such real
world projects would be an issue to be determined. The practical output at NTNU has
continued for the past 12 years and as such the collation of data and experience, as
shown in the ‘Live Projects Handbook’ and the embodied experience of the faculty
ensures a greater awareness of certain consistencies throughout real world projects.

46
5.0 - Conclusion
5.1 - Aims and Objectives
Research Aim 1
To investigate the potential of situated learning, within real world projects, and it’s
contribution to the multidisciplinary education required in Architecture.
Satisfaction of Objective 1
The two attended workshops permitted insight into how a group of students
undertaking different roles can share knowledge through their interaction within a
community of practice. The amount of roles offered in the workshop were unable to be
directly attended to by all students but it was through the social interaction within this a
model of education that such indirect learning could occur. It is found that such a
myriad of educational approaches can contribute to multidisciplinary and shared
learning experiences. A wider range of students and tutors with different levels of
experience would contribute to a greater exchange of varied knowledge.
Research Aim 2
To investigate the role of experiential learning in integrating theory and practice within
practice based models of architectural education.
Utilising John Dewey’s concepts of integration and continuity, it was found that within
the practice based education at NTNU, alternate models of education than that of
studio based theorising, may perhaps equip students with more relevant tools with
which to take into working life.

47
Through pragmatic creativity, it was found that the projects gave students the
opportunity to acquire appropriate contextual knowledge upon which they could
develop.
Research Aim 3
To investigate alternate models of architectural assessment not based solely on results
but upon more process oriented educational outcomes.
As stated within the ranging case studies at NTNU, the levels of which a student
interacts with real world projects may be a determining factor in how a student is
prepared for real world practice. The discussed case studies offer different methods in
which programs can be operated to introduce students to architectural practice.
5.2 – Research Question
Can architecture students be better equipped during their education through alternate
models of contextual real world projects?
It is deemed that these alternate models of architectural education are successful in the
current environment at NTNU. However discussion of such contextual matters of
architectural education necessitates an awareness of the particular context of which it is
taking place. How these models may be successful within other educational institutions,
conducting different individuals, would need to be considered alongside other ranging
personal, societal, economic, and cultural factors.

48
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Schrag, C. O. (1969). Experience and Being: Prolegomena to a Future Ontology,
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Ashley Menegon DISSERTATION

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