1. Research Proposal:
What strategies do women use to cope with military sexual trauma in the hyper- hegemonic
masculinity context of the U.S. military total institution?
Anne Geoghegan
Sociology 365
6 May 2014

2. Introduction:
The issue of gender inequality has been a problem in the United States since its founding,
but more recently this issue has received the media’s, the President’s, and the public’s
attention. Although the United States was built on the idea that all people are created equal,
history has proven that men receive more privileges than women do in society. However,
gender inequality has greatly improved in the last few decades. Since World War II, women
have been entering the job force and more recently, women have been integrated into job fields
that previously had only been held by men. While this progress is noteworthy and significant, it
also brings concerns for the women who hold positions in male- dominated workplaces, as it
has been found that, “sexual harassment is more prevalent in male- dominated occupations”
(Firehouse, Miller & Harris, 2012). One of the most male- dominated workplaces in the United
States is the military. It has been found that sexual assault, sexual harassment, and sexism are
common occurrences in the United States military and it has only been in recent history that
these occurrences have come to light. This is an important issue as, “women soldiers comprise
a growing segment of the armed forces. By the 1996 Gulf War, women comprised 11% of
active duty personnel. Approximately 10% of troops stationed in Iraq and Afghanistan during
the current conflicts are female (Booth, Mengeling, Torner & Sadler, 2011). However, it has
been found that, “21.7% of women and 3.3% of men reported unwanted sexual contact since
joining the military by someone in the military” (Burns, Grindlay, Holt, Manski & Grossman,
2014). Sexual assault in the military is an important issue for study as it can negatively affect
both the physical and mental health of its victims. It is also concerning because there is
estimated to be an even higher number of women and men who have been sexually assaulted,
but do not report it.
Background:
Military sexual trauma can refer to any type of sexual assault or sexual harassment
experienced during someone’s military service (Burns et al., 2014). Unsolicited sexual verbal
comments, sexual gestures, physical contact of a sexual nature, and intimidating behavior of a
sexual nature are all considered sexual harassment (Booth et al., 2011). Booth et al. note that,
“sexism includes generalized sexual or sexist comments or behaviors that insult, degrade or
embarrass based on gender” (2011). Rape can be defined as any sexual act that ensued
without a woman’s consent either by coercion or against the woman’s wishes, and includes

3. attempted or completed sexual penetration of the vagina, mouth, or rectum (Booth et al., 2011).
It has been found that all of these behaviors have occurred in the military. While doing a
qualitative study on servicewomen who had been deployed overseas between 2002 and 2011,
Burns et al. found that 32% of the participants experienced military sexual trauma during
deployment and 27% personally knew women who were victims of military sexual trauma while
they were deployed (2014). One study found that women that experienced sexual assault while
in the military were significantly younger (Hankin, Skinner, Sullivan, Miller, Frayne, & Tripp,
1999).
There are many different reasons for why sexual assault is a prevalent problem in the United
States military. Burns et al. found that deployment dynamics such as, “the long duration of
deployment, deprivation of sexual activity, high stress levels, high prevalence of risk behaviors
such as alcohol use, and changes in perceptions of ‘normal’ behavior that may occur during
war” (2014) can lead to military sexual trauma. They also found that the culture of the military,
the lack of consequences for perpetrators, and the blaming of women to be reasons for the high
prevalence of sexual assault (Burns et al., 2014). Firehouse et al. cited male dominance and
the authoritarian culture of the military for reasons why sexual assault occurs. They also found
that, “assault reports are very rare when no environmental harassment is claimed and much
more prevalent when environmental harassment is reported.” (Firehouse et al., 2012).
Historically the military has been a male- dominated profession. Hannagan & Arrow argue that
by women intruding into this profession, men feel threatened and feel the need to sexually
assault or harass women to assert their power over them (2011). Zurbriggen found that the
military socializes its soldiers using traditional masculine values which include, “status and
achievement; toughness and aggression; restricted emotionality; and power, dominance, and
control” (2010). She argues that these values allow sexual assault to be normalized in the
military (Zurbriggen, 2010). Zurbriggen also argues that, “the presence of culturally endorsed
and legitimate use of violence leads to an increased acceptance of violence in other domains”
(2010).
Even though military sexual trauma is widespread, Burns et al. found that a majority of
servicewomen in their study do not report military sexual trauma during deployment (2014).
This is due to the strong value placed on cohesiveness. It has been found that disclosing
negative information about a fellow soldier is disapproved (Firehouse et al., 2012). Burns et al.
found that some women did not report MST due to possible negative reactions from fellow
soldiers, concerns about confidentiality, embarrassment, and fear of being stigmatized (2014).
Campbell & Raja found that victims do not report MST due to the possibility that they may

4. experience secondary victimization while reporting the trauma (2005). Secondary victimization
can be defined as, “the victim- blaming attitudes, behaviors, and practices engaged in by
community service providers, which results in additional trauma for sexual assault survivors”
(Campbell & Raja, 2005). Victims have felt distressed and upset while reporting sexual assault.
For example, Campbell & Raja found that the “questioning of victims about their prior sexual
histories, asking them how they were dressed, or encouraging them not to prosecute are
actions police officers or prosecutors may consider routine and necessary, but they are often
upsetting to victims” (2005). In an empirical study on servicewomen’s experience with sexual
assault, Campbell & Raja found that, “82% of the women who were sexually assaulted during
active duty were often victimized by a military peer or supervisor” (2005) and, “in 70% of the
sexual assault incidents that occurred during military service, victims were told by military
officials that the assault was not serious enough to pursue” (Campbell & Raja 2005). Hierarchy
is an important element in the military. Servicemen and women are socialized not to go against
this power structure. Hannagan & Arrow’s study found that, “40% of women veterans who had
been raped said that they did not report the assault because the perpetrator was a ranking
officer in the chain of command” (2011). The military structure is a ladder and it socializes its
servicemen and women to want to climb that ladder. Women may not report assault in fear of
career downfall (Bell, Turchik, & Karpenko, 2014).
Victims of military sexual trauma have been found to have negative mental and physical
health. Campbell & Raja found that there was a positive relationship between women who
experience secondary victimization and post- traumatic stress disorder (2005). PTSD is found
in a person who has been exposed to a traumatic event to which he or she responded with fear
or helplessness. This person could have trouble sleeping, traumatic re- experiences of the
event, intense psychological distress, or experience avoidance of the trauma where they are
unable to recall certain aspects of the event (Worthen, 2011). In a study of women in a VA
treatment facility, Worthen found that, “veterans with a history of military sexual assault were
nine times more likely to be diagnosed with PTSD compared with those without such history”
(2011). In a 17 item self- report Posttraumatic Symptom Scale, 36% of the respondents
answered that rape bothers them the most. Only 1-2% answered that combat related trauma
bothers them the most (Booth et al., 2011).
It has been found that there are several counseling services for military personal during
deployment, but there were a lack of counseling services that dealt with sexual assault cases.
Women often do not report cases of sexual assault due to stigma or shame. This has been
found to lead to further stress, which can lead to negative mental health effects (Burns et al.,

5. 2014). While doing an empirical study on servicewomen after deployment, Hankin et al. found
that, “50% of those who reported experiencing sexual assault during military service screened
positive for symptoms of depression” (1999). Worthen found that the veterans who screened
positively for military sexual trauma have significantly increased odds of anxiety and depressive
disorders. This effect is greater than the effect of multiple deployments in the military or long
deployments (Worthen, 2011).
Substance abuse is widespread problem in the United States, particularly for victims of
military sexual trauma. In an empirical study on women veterans, it was found that substance
abuse disorder was found in 43.4% of women who had experienced rape (Booth et al., 2011).
Research Question:
What strategies do women use to cope with military sexual trauma in the hyper- hegemonic
masculinity context of the U.S. military total institution?
Significance:
Women make up between 11 to 15% of the United States military. These women are
serving overseas away from family and friends in order to protect the rights and freedoms of
American citizens. They are putting their own lives on the line so that their fellow citizens can
remain free. However, they are being sexually abused and sexually harassed. There is a
substantial amount of women who have reported their experience of military sexual trauma, and
many more are silently suffering. Only a small percentage of women even report their
experience of MST, and many of these cases are not even processed. It has been found that
MST can negatively affect both the mental and physical health of its victims. A great number of
research studies have been done on the military; however, there is a lack of qualitative
research. I propose doing a qualitative research study on women serving in the military while
they are deployed. It has been found that a majority of women who experience MST experience
it during deployment. However, much of the research done on women in the military is done
after they have returned home. This is why I feel that it is important for this research to take
place on a deployment site. Qualitative research is necessary to learn the coping strategies that
women use to cope with the military sexual trauma that goes on during deployment. I also feel
that qualitative research could help form social policies around creating a solution to the
problem of sexual assault in the military. I would propose doing in- depth interviews on women

6. serving overseas that are currently deployed, in order to gain more knowledge on the issue of
MST and how women deal with it.
Goffman:
Erving Goffman, a sociologist, working from 1950 until 1980 is an important theorist who
would be beneficial for analyzing the lived experience of women coping with military sexual
trauma in the hyper- hegemonic masculinity context of the U.S. military total institution. In
everyday life certain behaviors are considered normal while other behaviors are considered
abnormal and therefore stigmatized. The military is founded on values and these values are
turned into norms. Soldiers are expected to follow these norms. They must assert power and
control, remain unemotional and unattached, and stay strong. These virtues are associated
with what the greater society deems as masculine characteristics. The military is a place where
masculinity thrives and typical feminine characteristics are considered unacceptable. Feminine
traits such as gentleness, empathy, and sensitivity are stigmatized in the military. Therefore in
order for a female to survive in the military they must pass. Goffman’s idea of passing, “is a
concerted and well- organized effort to appear normal” (Allan, 2013). Women in the military are
constantly in danger of being stigmatized, especially if they experience sexual assault. The
culture of the military places extreme value on its soldiers being strong. If a woman is sexually
assaulted, they can appear weak and therefore become devalued in the military. If a woman
shares her feelings after being sexually assaulted, she can be seen as being too emotional and
therefore unfit for the military, as the military socializes its soldiers to remain unattached and
unemotional.
In every social situation, Goffman found that certain roles are normal and expected (Allan,
2013). He considers these roles, “as bundles of activities that are effectively laced together into
a situated activity system” (Allan, 2013). A good soldier follows his or her role according to the
values of the military. In the context of the hyper- hegemonic masculinity of the military, men
role embrace. Allan notes that, “in role embracement, we adhere to all that the role demands.
We effectively become one with the role; the role becomes our self. We see and judge our self
mainly through this role. We tend to embrace a role when we are new to a situation or when we
feel ourselves to be institutional representatives” (2013). Women in the military, however must
use Goffman’s concept of role distancing. In order to be successful in the military system,
women must use a front in order to cover up their traditional feminine characteristics. Both

7. women and men must keep their true emotions, gentleness, and empathy on the backstage in
order to be considered a good soldier.
Goffman’s theories would be helpful in answering the research question, “what strategies do
women use to cope with military sexual trauma in the hyper- hegemonic masculinity context of
the U.S. military total institution?” His ideas of stigmatization, role- distancing, and role-
embracing would be beneficial in learning how women cope with military sexual trauma during
deployment and understanding why MST is so prevalent.
Smith:
Dorothy Smith, a feminist sociologist would be helpful in analyzing how women cope with
military sexual trauma while being deployed. Smith was critical of theory and suggested that
method was more important, as the social world is, “always ongoing” (Allan, 2013). Her work is
considered standpoint theory and Smith was interested in, “what happens on the ground of in
the lived experiences of women” (Allan, 2013). This is why Smith would be beneficial in
analyzing the lived experience of women who experience military sexual trauma while they are
deployed. In order to better understand how these women negotiate the hyper hegemonic
masculine military culture, a researcher needs to look at the actual lived experience of the
women who are currently deployed. A majority of the sexual assault that occurs against women
is done while women are actually deployed. However, a majority of the research that is being
done on these occurrences is done after soldiers have returned home, sometimes even years
later. In order to gain a better sense of the strategies that these women use, it would be
beneficial to speak with these women while they are currently experiencing the military culture.
Smith was critical of texts that use elements that exist outside of the actual experience. Smith
believed that text written from the standpoint of the actual experience, “and contained specific
references to people, places, times, and events” (Allan, 2013) is more helpful in understanding
the true standpoint of those being oppressed.
Smith also argues that members of an oppressed group, like women who experience MST,
may have a better understanding of how the system works because they are truly living it. By
speaking with women who have experienced the military and sexual assault, social policy
around sexual assault in the military could be created. Women who experience MST may have
the best solutions to the problem, as they are the ones who actually lived the experience. Smith
believed that in order to, “bring about any real social change, it is imperative to begin and
continue in the situated perspectives of the people in whom we are interested” (Allan, 2013).

8. Smith was apart of the women’s movement. Women met together and discussed their
owned lived experiences and possible solutions for change. It was here Smith found that real
progress could happen. Smith believed that women internalize patriarchy as something that is
just apart of society and something that cannot be changed. Many women do not challenge the
relations of ruling, as they just believe that this is the way in which the world works. Women,
especially in the military, have internalized the idea that men are better than women because
the military socializes them to do so. Qualitative research that found out information on how
women internalized patriarchy in the military would be beneficial in understanding why military
sexual trauma occurs so often. It would also help in finding out why so many women remain
silent after experiencing sexual assault. Focus groups that met to discuss women’s experience
with MST could mirror the types of focus groups that Smith was apart of. These focus groups
changed feminism, and they could potentially change the problem of sexual assault in the
military.
Butler:
Judith Butler, a feminist sociologist, developed theories that would be helpful in
understanding how women negotiate military sexual trauma in the hyper- hegemonic
masculinity context of the U.S. military. Her concept of performity, which is, “a word, phrase, or
action that brings something into existence” (Allan, 2013) would be applicable when analyzing
the lived experience of women soldiers. Society expects certain behaviors that an individual
must live up to. In the military, very specific behaviors are expected and a soldier must meet
these behaviors in order to have success in the military. The masculine culture of the military
has been developed over time and it is guided by traditional masculine characteristics. Allan
notes that, “when performances and expectations are repeated over time, the individual
becomes attached” (2013) and individuals must keep performing and reiterating these behaviors
in order to have success in the military. Perfomity has ontological power, “it creates the reality
in which we live” (Allan, 2013). In the institution of the military, masculinity is hegemonic and
the military socializes its soldiers into adapting these masculine values. After time, these
masculine values become normalized. They are performed over and over again. In order to
gain respect and climb the hierarchy ladder in the military, women must take on these
masculine traits. They must fit their bodies into a male model of soldiering. Butler’s theory
would help to understand how women who are currently deployed go about negotiating this.

9. In civilian life, women are expected to dress and act in a traditional feminine way. However,
in the military, they are supposed to act in a traditional masculine manner. Butler’s ideas would
help to understand how women go about doing this.
Spatial Analysis:
Space is an important aspect of sociology as space can affect the social structure. A spatial
analysis is important in this type of research study. It has been found that a majority of the
sexual assault cases take place while women are deployed. However, a majority of the
research done on this topic has been done years after deployment. In order to have a better
gage on the military sexual trauma that women face, I propose doing research while women are
currently deployed. On deployment, women are constantly surrounded by the hyper-
hegemonic masculinity culture of the military. In order to better understand the strategies that
women use to cope with this type of culture, research must be done during deployment. The
military is a total institution in which its soldiers are isolated from the rest of society and
controlled by a long ladder of superiors. In order to see what comes out of a total institution like
this, research done during deployment is necessary. The military is a unique workplace, as it is
a total institution. This is spatially different than most workplaces in the United States. Military
personal do not return home to family and friends at night while they are deployed. They are
constantly surrounded by other military personal and constantly regulated. Research on women
would be beneficial in understanding how women who have experienced MST cope with living
in a small area, possibly near the perpetrator.
Social Policy Implications:
Military sexual trauma is a huge problem that needs a solution. More and more women are
joining the United States military. Therefore, social policy needs to be in place to solve the
problem of MST. I propose a research study that would involve speaking with women while
they are deployed. I believe that by speaking with women currently in active duty, we can
identify the reasons why sexual assault occurs in the military. I believe that because the women
are currently experiencing MST and know other women who have had experience with it, they
could potentially give solutions to the problem. They have actually lived the experience of
dealing with the hyper- hegemonic masculinity in the military and, therefore; would know the
best solutions to the problem. I propose focus groups of women that would involve discussions

10. around the military culture and the problem of sexual assault. It is in these focus groups that
social policy could be created. In the mean time, counseling services need to become more
available and thee people running these services need to be trained on how to deal with sexual
assault victims in the military. Many of the women who have used these counseling services
feel that they being second victimized when they speak with these counselors. In order for
these women to feel safe, these counselors need to learn how to deal with MST cases properly.
A research study found that there is a climate of harassment in the military. As previously
stated in this proposal, when there is an environment of harassment, sexual assault is more
likely to occur. If the environment of harassment was outlawed in the military, there could
potentially be fewer sexual assault cases. I also believe that more of these sexual assault
cases need to be processed and the men that facilitate these crimes need to be punished.
Women need to be made to feel that they can bring charges against their perpetrators. The
military culture needs to be changed in order for any real progress to occur. As more women
join, they need to feel as though they are welcomed. They need to feel safe. I believe that even
more suggestions for social policy could be made by directly speaking with women who have
experienced the military culture.

11. References
Allan, K. (2013). Contemporary social & sociological theory: Visualizing social worlds. Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Bell, M. E., Turchik, J. A., & Karpenko, J. A. (2014). Impact of gender on reactions to military
sexual assault and harassment. Health & Social Work, 39(1), 25-33.
Booth, B. M., Mengeling, M., Torner, J., & Sadler, A. G. (2011). Rape, sex partnership, and
substance use consequences in women veterans. Journal Of Traumatic Stress, 24(3),
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