The document summarizes a meeting between Environmental Reference Materials, Inc. and the U.S. Department of Energy to discuss geoengineering options to prevent climate change. It describes a presentation made by Alvia Gaskill proposing a "Global Albedo Enhancement Project" that would cover up to 4.5 million square miles of deserts in reflective material to increase their albedo and offset the effects of greenhouse gas emissions. Climate modeling suggests this could delay the impacts of climate change until emissions are controlled. The estimated maximum cost to cover 4 million square miles of desert over 60 years is $1-2 trillion. Experts at the meeting questioned the proposal and noted more research is needed but did not rule out further
This document provides an overview of debridement, which is defined as removing necrotic material, eschar, devitalized tissue, infected tissue, hyperkeratosis, slough, pus, hematomas, foreign bodies, debris, bone fragments or any other type of bioburden from a wound to promote healing. Debridement is a central part of wound management and can be applied to all wound types. Indications for debridement include the diagnosis of different tissue types covering the wound bed, state of the wound edges and periwound skin. The document discusses various debridement methods including mechanical, autolytic, enzymatic, larval therapy, direct and indirect technologies, and surgical deb
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.
The document discusses local anesthesia techniques used in dentistry. It begins with the history of local anesthesia, describing how early indigenous populations discovered numbing effects of coca leaves and how cocaine was later used as the first local anesthetic. It then defines local anesthesia and describes the ideal properties, classification, composition, mechanisms of action, and pharmacokinetics of local anesthetic drugs. The remainder of the document details the equipment used to administer local anesthesia such as syringes, needles, and cartridges, as well as various anesthesia techniques including infiltration, conduction block, and nerve block anesthesia.
The Apprentice Doctor® - How to Stitch up Wounds Suturing eBook Course teaches students (prospective Healthcare Professionals) the basic principles of suturing and wound care using precise illustrations, detailed instructions, photographs etc.
The student should on completion of this course have a good understanding of:
1. The basic principles of wound care
2. Knot tying techniques (as related to knots used in surgery)
3. Surgical instruments used in suturing
4. Suture materials
5. The various suturing techniques used by medical professionals
6. Correcting minor discrepancies while suturing
7. Removing sutures
Developed by a surgeon with more than 20 years of experience.
An 18 piece suture Kit with multimedia CD-ROM is avaialble ensuring that students gain both theoretical knowledge as well as practical skills!
The document discusses the context around climate change and potential solutions. It notes that scientists agree carbon emissions are causing global warming, which is having widespread environmental and economic impacts. If unchecked, climate change could result in global GDP losses of 7.22% by 2100 due to issues like extreme weather events. Nations have come together through agreements like the Paris Accords to pursue solutions to limit global warming.
The document discusses initiatives to address climate change and promote sustainable development. It notes that while awareness of issues like global warming and greenhouse gas emissions has increased globally since the 1970s, energy consumption and CO2 emissions continue to rise. It outlines several international agreements and actions by countries/groups to limit emissions, but notes that public awareness remains limited and economic concerns often take priority. As a case study, it then details India's various national policies and sector-specific initiatives to balance development and environmental protection, including in the oil refining industry.
This document provides an overview of debridement, which is defined as removing necrotic material, eschar, devitalized tissue, infected tissue, hyperkeratosis, slough, pus, hematomas, foreign bodies, debris, bone fragments or any other type of bioburden from a wound to promote healing. Debridement is a central part of wound management and can be applied to all wound types. Indications for debridement include the diagnosis of different tissue types covering the wound bed, state of the wound edges and periwound skin. The document discusses various debridement methods including mechanical, autolytic, enzymatic, larval therapy, direct and indirect technologies, and surgical deb
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.
The document discusses local anesthesia techniques used in dentistry. It begins with the history of local anesthesia, describing how early indigenous populations discovered numbing effects of coca leaves and how cocaine was later used as the first local anesthetic. It then defines local anesthesia and describes the ideal properties, classification, composition, mechanisms of action, and pharmacokinetics of local anesthetic drugs. The remainder of the document details the equipment used to administer local anesthesia such as syringes, needles, and cartridges, as well as various anesthesia techniques including infiltration, conduction block, and nerve block anesthesia.
The Apprentice Doctor® - How to Stitch up Wounds Suturing eBook Course teaches students (prospective Healthcare Professionals) the basic principles of suturing and wound care using precise illustrations, detailed instructions, photographs etc.
The student should on completion of this course have a good understanding of:
1. The basic principles of wound care
2. Knot tying techniques (as related to knots used in surgery)
3. Surgical instruments used in suturing
4. Suture materials
5. The various suturing techniques used by medical professionals
6. Correcting minor discrepancies while suturing
7. Removing sutures
Developed by a surgeon with more than 20 years of experience.
An 18 piece suture Kit with multimedia CD-ROM is avaialble ensuring that students gain both theoretical knowledge as well as practical skills!
The document discusses the context around climate change and potential solutions. It notes that scientists agree carbon emissions are causing global warming, which is having widespread environmental and economic impacts. If unchecked, climate change could result in global GDP losses of 7.22% by 2100 due to issues like extreme weather events. Nations have come together through agreements like the Paris Accords to pursue solutions to limit global warming.
The document discusses initiatives to address climate change and promote sustainable development. It notes that while awareness of issues like global warming and greenhouse gas emissions has increased globally since the 1970s, energy consumption and CO2 emissions continue to rise. It outlines several international agreements and actions by countries/groups to limit emissions, but notes that public awareness remains limited and economic concerns often take priority. As a case study, it then details India's various national policies and sector-specific initiatives to balance development and environmental protection, including in the oil refining industry.
This document contains comments submitted to the Harvard Workshop on Solar Radiation Management regarding stratospheric aerosols. It discusses several key issues: the distraction problem of SRM disincentivizing emissions reductions; defining an emergency that would warrant using SRM; assessing actual risks versus perceived risks of stratospheric aerosols based on the Mt. Pinatubo eruption; the unrealistic assumption that SRM requires a perpetual program; and evaluating realistic delivery systems for a stratospheric aerosol program using military jets or stratospheric balloons.
The document discusses climate change impacts on UK agriculture. It notes that agriculture accounts for 7% of UK greenhouse gas emissions, primarily from methane and nitrous oxide. The Rural Climate Change Forum advises the government on reducing agricultural emissions through practices like improved fertilizer use and manure management. Climate change will impact UK agriculture through increased risks from pests, diseases and heat stress on livestock. Farmers need to both mitigate emissions and adapt to changes in climate and weather patterns.
Geo-engineering involves deliberate large-scale modification of Earth's environment to address climate change through two main approaches: temperature management by blocking sunlight, and carbon management by removing carbon from the atmosphere. Some proposed geo-engineering techniques include injecting sulfate aerosols into the stratosphere to reflect sunlight similarly to large volcanic eruptions, lofting seawater to increase cloud cover, launching reflective disks into space, and depositing captured carbon dioxide underground. While geo-engineering could potentially provide quick cooling effects, it raises issues regarding unintended consequences, global governance, and does not address the root causes of increasing carbon dioxide levels.
There are many potential solutions that are needed to address global warming by reducing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 80% by mid-century. Some key solutions mentioned include boosting energy efficiency, greening transportation through more fuel-efficient vehicles and alternative fuels, increasing renewable energy sources like solar and wind, phasing out fossil fuel electricity generation especially coal, managing forests and agriculture, exploring nuclear power, developing new low-carbon technologies, and ensuring financial assistance for developing countries to transition to low-carbon development. Adaptation measures will also be needed to address the impacts of climate change that are already occurring.
The document summarizes key points from the IPCC's Sixth Assessment Report and highlights of the upcoming COP26 climate conference. It discusses the urgent need to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius to avoid the worst impacts of climate change. The IPCC report finds that human influence has unequivocally warmed the planet and that impacts are intensifying. Immediate, rapid and large-scale reductions in greenhouse gas emissions are needed this decade to curb climate change risks. The COP26 conference aims to secure global commitments to achieve net zero emissions by 2050 and keep 1.5 degrees within reach.
Required Resources
Required Text
1. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet
a. Chapter 3: Dollars and the Environmental Sense: Economics of Environmental Issues
b. Chapter 21: Air Pollution
Multimedia
1. Annenberg Learner. (n.d.). Carbon lab [Interactive lab]. In The Habitable Planet. Retrieved from http://learner.org/courses/envsci/interactives/carbon/
2. dennettracerocks3d. (2013, June 12). Carbon tax and cap and trade [Video clip]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RmRNCEur1ks
· Transcript
Recommended Resource
Article
1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2012). Cap and trade. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/captrade/
CrITICAl THINkING IssUe
Should Carbon dioxide Be Regulated Along with other Major Air Pollutants?
The six common pollutants, sometimes called the criteria pol- lutants, are ozone, particulate matter, lead, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide. These pollutants have a long history with the EPA, and major efforts have been made to reduce them in the lower atmosphere over the United States. This effort has been largely successful—all of them have been significantly reduced since 1990.
In 2009, the EPA suggested that we add carbon dioxide to this list. Two years earlier, the U.S. Supreme Court had or- dered the EPA to make a scientific review of carbon dioxide as an air pollutant that could possibly endanger public health and welfare. Following that review, the EPA announced that greenhouse gases pose a threat to public health and welfare. This proclamation makes it possible that greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide, will be regulated by the Clean Air Act, which regulates most other serious air pollutants.
The EPA’s conclusion that greenhouse gases harm or en- danger public health and welfare is based primarily on the role these gases play in climate change. The analysis states that the impacts include, but are not limited to, increased drought that will impact agricultural productivity; more intense rainfall, leading to a greater flood hazard; and increased frequency of heat waves that affect human health. The EPA’s proposal pro- gram to regulate carbon dioxide as an air pollutant has been upheld by court decisions
The next step in adding carbon dioxide and other green- house gasses, such as methane, to the list of pollutants regulated by the EPA was a series of public hearings and feedback from a variety of people and agencies. Some people oppose listing carbon dioxide as an air pollutant because, first of all, it is a nutrient and stimulates plant growth; and, second, it does not
directly affect human health in most cases (the exception being carbon dioxide emitted by volcanic eruption and other volcanic activity, which can be extremely toxic).
The EPA in late September of 2013 announced the initial steps to reduce carbon pollution under President Obama’s Cli- mate Action Plan. The objective will be standards for new coal burning power plants. Conversations are st ...
This document is a critical review of landowners' perceptions of wind turbines in Ireland. It begins with an introduction discussing the need for renewable energy due to climate change. It then provides background on wind energy development in Ireland. The document aims to understand landowners' views of wind farms through a survey. It finds that while landowners see environmental and economic benefits, there are also concerns around placement, noise, and property values. The conclusion calls for better siting of turbines and open communication with local communities.
This document discusses the history of estimating climate sensitivity and provides an updated estimate based on improved paleoclimate data. It finds that Charney's equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS), which considers only fast feedbacks, is likely 1.2°C ± 0.3°C per W/m2, equivalent to 4.8°C ± 1.2°C for doubled CO2. When also including slow feedbacks like ice sheets over the full Cenozoic era, the analysis supports this ECS estimate. Current human greenhouse gas amounts would cause around 10°C of warming, reduced to 8°C by current human-made aerosols. Rapid reductions in emissions could prevent most of this potential warming but temperatures
Running Head GLOBAL WARMING 1GLOBAL WARMING .docxcowinhelen
Running Head: GLOBAL WARMING 1
GLOBAL WARMING 8
Global Societal Problem
Student’s Name
Course Title
Insructor’s Name
Date of Submission
Introduction
Global warming is a problem that is affecting everybody all over the world. Its affects are felt in all parts of the world. It is a term that has been used to describe the gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere as well as its oceans. Global warming is permanently changing the Earth’s climate and if nothing is done to prevent it then the planet Earth with someday become inhabitable. Surprisingly, there are people who do not think that global warming is real because they have not witnessed its effect but various scientists agree that its effects are real. In order to control or prevent further occurrence of global warming, its main cause which is carbon dioxide should be reduced to the minimum in the atmosphere.
Background Information
Global warming occurs when carbon dioxide or CO2 and other trace gases like methane, chlorofluorocarbons, nitrous oxide and other pollutants collect in the atmosphere and absorb solar radiation that reflects back after bouncing off the surface of the earth. The gases form a “blanket-like” layer that prevents solar radiation from escaping into space (McMillan, 2016). The gases have the capacity to last for years or even centuries in the atmosphere trapping the solar radiation heat hence making the planet earth hotter than it should be. The greatest cause of global warming is carbon dioxide that is usually released when fossil fuels are burnt such as coal, emission from exhaust pipes of motor vehicles, and excessive cutting of trees.
Before the industrial revolution that paved way to large scale use of coal, carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere were as a result of natural factors such as volcanic eruption and variation in the solar energy (aip.gov). However, the contribution of the natural factors to global warming was very minimal compared to anthropogenic factors later on. The large scale contribution of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases may have begun when a British ironmonger Thomas Newcomen invented the first and widely used steam engine that led to Industrial Revolution and wide scale use of coal (bbc.com). Coal burning is one of the major contributors of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
In 1824, French scientist explained that if the planet Earth did not have an atmosphere then its temperatures would be much lower. In 1861, John Tyndall a physicist indicated that water vapor and certain gases create the greenhouse effect (bbc.com). In 1896, Svante Arrhenius, a Swedish scientist was the first to claim that the burning of fossil fuel may result in enhanced global warming. He proposed that there was a relationship between atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration and temper ...
The document discusses the impacts of climate change and strategies to address it. It notes that climate change is a global problem requiring international cooperation. The main greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change are identified. The document then discusses climate change scenarios and models, and the uncertainty inherent in projecting future climate conditions. It defines adaptation and mitigation strategies. Finally, specific actions that individuals and communities can take to reduce emissions and adapt to climate impacts are proposed. These include promoting cleaner fuels, reducing noise and air pollution, improving transportation systems, boosting energy efficiency, and changing behaviors.
The document discusses climate change and the greenhouse effect. It notes that climate change is real and caused by human emissions of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels. Computer models consistently predict a 1-4 degree Celsius increase in global temperatures over the next 50-100 years if emissions continue. This level of warming would have catastrophic impacts and require dramatic changes to our energy systems. While models agree on warming, they show more uncertainty and variation in other climate impacts. Continued greenhouse gas emissions will cause further climate change, sea level rise, and impacts, with the magnitude depending on total emissions.
The document summarizes MIT's greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions inventory and goals to reduce emissions. It discusses that MIT measures direct Scope 1 emissions, indirect Scope 2 emissions from purchased electricity/steam, and some Scope 3 emissions. Emissions are categorized as Buildings, Fugitive Gases, and Campus Vehicles. The inventory includes most MIT buildings and properties but excludes some off-campus facilities. The document outlines the challenges in achieving MIT's goal of reducing emissions 32% below 2014 levels by 2030.
The document summarizes MIT's greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions inventory and climate action plan. It discusses that MIT measures its direct and indirect GHG emissions according to the GHG Protocol's three scopes. Scope 1 includes direct emissions, Scope 2 includes indirect emissions from purchased electricity, and Scope 3 includes other indirect emissions. For public reporting, MIT categorizes its emissions into Buildings, Fugitive Gases, and Campus Vehicles. The inventory includes on-campus buildings but excludes several off-campus research facilities. The document also outlines the challenges of keeping global temperature increases below 2 degrees Celsius.
Anthropogenic Contributions to the Atmospheric CO2 Levels and Annual Share of...Premier Publishers
Green house gases are derived from both natural systems and human activities. The emitted gases retained in the atmosphere represent the main cause of global climate change. Rising anthropogenic CO2 emissions are anticipated to drive change to ecosystems. This rise in emissions was largely driven by affluence (consumption per capita) and population growth, aided by changes in production structure of industries, consumption baskets of households and shifts in the consumption vs. investment balance. Anthropogenic CO2 emissions are known to alter hydrological cycles, disrupt marine ecosystems and species lifecycles, and cause global habitat loss. To achieve significant emission savings, there is a need to address the issue of affluence. One of the major initiatives is to actively intervene in non-sustainable lifestyles to achieve emission reductions. The findings of this review are vital for a comprehensive and integrated approach for mitigating climate change and to reduce the impacts of CO2 emissions.
The document discusses global warming and potential solutions. It begins with an abstract describing how climate change is caused by human activities like depletion of natural resources. It then provides an introduction on the causes and impacts of climate change. Potential solutions are then brainstormed like using bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), driving hybrid vehicles, using renewable energy, replacing plastic with paper bags, and planting trees. The best three solutions selected are BECCS, hybrid vehicles, and renewable energy.
Effect of Global Warming on Soil Organic CarbonAmruta Raut
Global warming is causing soils to release carbon into the atmosphere, exacerbating climate change. Soil organic carbon (SOC) is an important carbon pool that is sensitive to climate factors like temperature and precipitation. As temperatures rise due to global warming, it increases microbial decomposition of SOC, releasing more carbon dioxide. However, implementing strategies to sequester carbon in soils, like cover cropping, adding amendments, and reducing tillage, could help mitigate climate change by storing carbon long-term in SOC pools. Careful management of SOC is vital for protecting this important carbon sink and regulating greenhouse gas levels.
This document discusses the political challenges of solar geoengineering. It notes that the goals of the Paris Agreement to limit warming to 1.5-2°C may be difficult to achieve based on current emission reduction commitments. While solar geoengineering could potentially help reduce climate risks, there are concerns it could undermine emissions cuts, have unpredictable impacts if halted, and lead to conflicts over responsibility for weather events and democratic decision-making around its use. Independent assessment and consideration of alternatives would be needed to avoid interests prolonging fossil fuel use or decisions being captive to certain groups.
Presentation global warming 1 by.. mary ann pupa navarroMary Ann Pupa
The document discusses various aspects of global warming and climate change including:
1) It provides definitions of global warming and climate change, noting that global warming refers to rising global temperatures while climate change includes broader changes like rainfall patterns and storms.
2) Weather balloon data shows Antarctica is warming faster than other parts of the world, with temperatures rising 0.9-1.3 degrees Fahrenheit per decade over the last 30 years.
3) Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide are trapping heat in the lower atmosphere and causing global average temperatures to rise.
Circular Carbon Economy (CCE): A Way to Invest CO2 and Protect the Environmentssuser7bc3591
This document discusses the circular carbon economy (CCE) as a way to reduce carbon dioxide emissions through capture, storage, and utilization of CO2. It provides background on rising CO2 levels and their environmental impacts. The CCE aims to close the carbon cycle by preventing linear CO2 emissions and instead recycling carbon for further use. The document also reviews technologies for carbon capture and storage as well as utilization of CO2 in various applications. It argues that a global effort is needed to support development and adoption of emission-reducing technologies.
The document discusses several key points:
1) There have been few ecosystem-scale experiments investigating the combined effects of increased CO2 and rising temperatures on ecosystems, though these interactions are important to understand for predicting future impacts.
2) Factorial experiments examining multiple factors can be difficult to design and interpret, but are still important for testing models and accounting for potential surprises from interactions.
3) Available data on forest responses to climate change come from limited experimental approaches like soil warming or small tree plots, rather than whole-ecosystem experiments, making it difficult to fully understand interactions between CO2 and temperature at ecosystem scales.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
More Related Content
Similar to Summary_of_Meeting_with_DOE_to_Discuss_Geoengineering_Options
This document contains comments submitted to the Harvard Workshop on Solar Radiation Management regarding stratospheric aerosols. It discusses several key issues: the distraction problem of SRM disincentivizing emissions reductions; defining an emergency that would warrant using SRM; assessing actual risks versus perceived risks of stratospheric aerosols based on the Mt. Pinatubo eruption; the unrealistic assumption that SRM requires a perpetual program; and evaluating realistic delivery systems for a stratospheric aerosol program using military jets or stratospheric balloons.
The document discusses climate change impacts on UK agriculture. It notes that agriculture accounts for 7% of UK greenhouse gas emissions, primarily from methane and nitrous oxide. The Rural Climate Change Forum advises the government on reducing agricultural emissions through practices like improved fertilizer use and manure management. Climate change will impact UK agriculture through increased risks from pests, diseases and heat stress on livestock. Farmers need to both mitigate emissions and adapt to changes in climate and weather patterns.
Geo-engineering involves deliberate large-scale modification of Earth's environment to address climate change through two main approaches: temperature management by blocking sunlight, and carbon management by removing carbon from the atmosphere. Some proposed geo-engineering techniques include injecting sulfate aerosols into the stratosphere to reflect sunlight similarly to large volcanic eruptions, lofting seawater to increase cloud cover, launching reflective disks into space, and depositing captured carbon dioxide underground. While geo-engineering could potentially provide quick cooling effects, it raises issues regarding unintended consequences, global governance, and does not address the root causes of increasing carbon dioxide levels.
There are many potential solutions that are needed to address global warming by reducing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 80% by mid-century. Some key solutions mentioned include boosting energy efficiency, greening transportation through more fuel-efficient vehicles and alternative fuels, increasing renewable energy sources like solar and wind, phasing out fossil fuel electricity generation especially coal, managing forests and agriculture, exploring nuclear power, developing new low-carbon technologies, and ensuring financial assistance for developing countries to transition to low-carbon development. Adaptation measures will also be needed to address the impacts of climate change that are already occurring.
The document summarizes key points from the IPCC's Sixth Assessment Report and highlights of the upcoming COP26 climate conference. It discusses the urgent need to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius to avoid the worst impacts of climate change. The IPCC report finds that human influence has unequivocally warmed the planet and that impacts are intensifying. Immediate, rapid and large-scale reductions in greenhouse gas emissions are needed this decade to curb climate change risks. The COP26 conference aims to secure global commitments to achieve net zero emissions by 2050 and keep 1.5 degrees within reach.
Required Resources
Required Text
1. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet
a. Chapter 3: Dollars and the Environmental Sense: Economics of Environmental Issues
b. Chapter 21: Air Pollution
Multimedia
1. Annenberg Learner. (n.d.). Carbon lab [Interactive lab]. In The Habitable Planet. Retrieved from http://learner.org/courses/envsci/interactives/carbon/
2. dennettracerocks3d. (2013, June 12). Carbon tax and cap and trade [Video clip]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RmRNCEur1ks
· Transcript
Recommended Resource
Article
1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2012). Cap and trade. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/captrade/
CrITICAl THINkING IssUe
Should Carbon dioxide Be Regulated Along with other Major Air Pollutants?
The six common pollutants, sometimes called the criteria pol- lutants, are ozone, particulate matter, lead, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide. These pollutants have a long history with the EPA, and major efforts have been made to reduce them in the lower atmosphere over the United States. This effort has been largely successful—all of them have been significantly reduced since 1990.
In 2009, the EPA suggested that we add carbon dioxide to this list. Two years earlier, the U.S. Supreme Court had or- dered the EPA to make a scientific review of carbon dioxide as an air pollutant that could possibly endanger public health and welfare. Following that review, the EPA announced that greenhouse gases pose a threat to public health and welfare. This proclamation makes it possible that greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide, will be regulated by the Clean Air Act, which regulates most other serious air pollutants.
The EPA’s conclusion that greenhouse gases harm or en- danger public health and welfare is based primarily on the role these gases play in climate change. The analysis states that the impacts include, but are not limited to, increased drought that will impact agricultural productivity; more intense rainfall, leading to a greater flood hazard; and increased frequency of heat waves that affect human health. The EPA’s proposal pro- gram to regulate carbon dioxide as an air pollutant has been upheld by court decisions
The next step in adding carbon dioxide and other green- house gasses, such as methane, to the list of pollutants regulated by the EPA was a series of public hearings and feedback from a variety of people and agencies. Some people oppose listing carbon dioxide as an air pollutant because, first of all, it is a nutrient and stimulates plant growth; and, second, it does not
directly affect human health in most cases (the exception being carbon dioxide emitted by volcanic eruption and other volcanic activity, which can be extremely toxic).
The EPA in late September of 2013 announced the initial steps to reduce carbon pollution under President Obama’s Cli- mate Action Plan. The objective will be standards for new coal burning power plants. Conversations are st ...
This document is a critical review of landowners' perceptions of wind turbines in Ireland. It begins with an introduction discussing the need for renewable energy due to climate change. It then provides background on wind energy development in Ireland. The document aims to understand landowners' views of wind farms through a survey. It finds that while landowners see environmental and economic benefits, there are also concerns around placement, noise, and property values. The conclusion calls for better siting of turbines and open communication with local communities.
This document discusses the history of estimating climate sensitivity and provides an updated estimate based on improved paleoclimate data. It finds that Charney's equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS), which considers only fast feedbacks, is likely 1.2°C ± 0.3°C per W/m2, equivalent to 4.8°C ± 1.2°C for doubled CO2. When also including slow feedbacks like ice sheets over the full Cenozoic era, the analysis supports this ECS estimate. Current human greenhouse gas amounts would cause around 10°C of warming, reduced to 8°C by current human-made aerosols. Rapid reductions in emissions could prevent most of this potential warming but temperatures
Running Head GLOBAL WARMING 1GLOBAL WARMING .docxcowinhelen
Running Head: GLOBAL WARMING 1
GLOBAL WARMING 8
Global Societal Problem
Student’s Name
Course Title
Insructor’s Name
Date of Submission
Introduction
Global warming is a problem that is affecting everybody all over the world. Its affects are felt in all parts of the world. It is a term that has been used to describe the gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere as well as its oceans. Global warming is permanently changing the Earth’s climate and if nothing is done to prevent it then the planet Earth with someday become inhabitable. Surprisingly, there are people who do not think that global warming is real because they have not witnessed its effect but various scientists agree that its effects are real. In order to control or prevent further occurrence of global warming, its main cause which is carbon dioxide should be reduced to the minimum in the atmosphere.
Background Information
Global warming occurs when carbon dioxide or CO2 and other trace gases like methane, chlorofluorocarbons, nitrous oxide and other pollutants collect in the atmosphere and absorb solar radiation that reflects back after bouncing off the surface of the earth. The gases form a “blanket-like” layer that prevents solar radiation from escaping into space (McMillan, 2016). The gases have the capacity to last for years or even centuries in the atmosphere trapping the solar radiation heat hence making the planet earth hotter than it should be. The greatest cause of global warming is carbon dioxide that is usually released when fossil fuels are burnt such as coal, emission from exhaust pipes of motor vehicles, and excessive cutting of trees.
Before the industrial revolution that paved way to large scale use of coal, carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere were as a result of natural factors such as volcanic eruption and variation in the solar energy (aip.gov). However, the contribution of the natural factors to global warming was very minimal compared to anthropogenic factors later on. The large scale contribution of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases may have begun when a British ironmonger Thomas Newcomen invented the first and widely used steam engine that led to Industrial Revolution and wide scale use of coal (bbc.com). Coal burning is one of the major contributors of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
In 1824, French scientist explained that if the planet Earth did not have an atmosphere then its temperatures would be much lower. In 1861, John Tyndall a physicist indicated that water vapor and certain gases create the greenhouse effect (bbc.com). In 1896, Svante Arrhenius, a Swedish scientist was the first to claim that the burning of fossil fuel may result in enhanced global warming. He proposed that there was a relationship between atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration and temper ...
The document discusses the impacts of climate change and strategies to address it. It notes that climate change is a global problem requiring international cooperation. The main greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change are identified. The document then discusses climate change scenarios and models, and the uncertainty inherent in projecting future climate conditions. It defines adaptation and mitigation strategies. Finally, specific actions that individuals and communities can take to reduce emissions and adapt to climate impacts are proposed. These include promoting cleaner fuels, reducing noise and air pollution, improving transportation systems, boosting energy efficiency, and changing behaviors.
The document discusses climate change and the greenhouse effect. It notes that climate change is real and caused by human emissions of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels. Computer models consistently predict a 1-4 degree Celsius increase in global temperatures over the next 50-100 years if emissions continue. This level of warming would have catastrophic impacts and require dramatic changes to our energy systems. While models agree on warming, they show more uncertainty and variation in other climate impacts. Continued greenhouse gas emissions will cause further climate change, sea level rise, and impacts, with the magnitude depending on total emissions.
The document summarizes MIT's greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions inventory and goals to reduce emissions. It discusses that MIT measures direct Scope 1 emissions, indirect Scope 2 emissions from purchased electricity/steam, and some Scope 3 emissions. Emissions are categorized as Buildings, Fugitive Gases, and Campus Vehicles. The inventory includes most MIT buildings and properties but excludes some off-campus facilities. The document outlines the challenges in achieving MIT's goal of reducing emissions 32% below 2014 levels by 2030.
The document summarizes MIT's greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions inventory and climate action plan. It discusses that MIT measures its direct and indirect GHG emissions according to the GHG Protocol's three scopes. Scope 1 includes direct emissions, Scope 2 includes indirect emissions from purchased electricity, and Scope 3 includes other indirect emissions. For public reporting, MIT categorizes its emissions into Buildings, Fugitive Gases, and Campus Vehicles. The inventory includes on-campus buildings but excludes several off-campus research facilities. The document also outlines the challenges of keeping global temperature increases below 2 degrees Celsius.
Anthropogenic Contributions to the Atmospheric CO2 Levels and Annual Share of...Premier Publishers
Green house gases are derived from both natural systems and human activities. The emitted gases retained in the atmosphere represent the main cause of global climate change. Rising anthropogenic CO2 emissions are anticipated to drive change to ecosystems. This rise in emissions was largely driven by affluence (consumption per capita) and population growth, aided by changes in production structure of industries, consumption baskets of households and shifts in the consumption vs. investment balance. Anthropogenic CO2 emissions are known to alter hydrological cycles, disrupt marine ecosystems and species lifecycles, and cause global habitat loss. To achieve significant emission savings, there is a need to address the issue of affluence. One of the major initiatives is to actively intervene in non-sustainable lifestyles to achieve emission reductions. The findings of this review are vital for a comprehensive and integrated approach for mitigating climate change and to reduce the impacts of CO2 emissions.
The document discusses global warming and potential solutions. It begins with an abstract describing how climate change is caused by human activities like depletion of natural resources. It then provides an introduction on the causes and impacts of climate change. Potential solutions are then brainstormed like using bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), driving hybrid vehicles, using renewable energy, replacing plastic with paper bags, and planting trees. The best three solutions selected are BECCS, hybrid vehicles, and renewable energy.
Effect of Global Warming on Soil Organic CarbonAmruta Raut
Global warming is causing soils to release carbon into the atmosphere, exacerbating climate change. Soil organic carbon (SOC) is an important carbon pool that is sensitive to climate factors like temperature and precipitation. As temperatures rise due to global warming, it increases microbial decomposition of SOC, releasing more carbon dioxide. However, implementing strategies to sequester carbon in soils, like cover cropping, adding amendments, and reducing tillage, could help mitigate climate change by storing carbon long-term in SOC pools. Careful management of SOC is vital for protecting this important carbon sink and regulating greenhouse gas levels.
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1. Summary of Meeting with U.S. DOE to
Discuss Geoengineering Options to Prevent
Abrupt and Long-Term Climate Change
Prepared by:
Alvia Gaskill, President
Environmental Reference Materials, Inc.
Research Triangle Park, N.C.
agaskill@nc.rr.com
888-645-7645
June 29, 2004
2. Summary of Meeting with U.S. DOE to
Discuss Geoengineering Options to Prevent
Abrupt and Long-Term Climate Change
Introduction
A meeting was held at the U.S. Department of Energy Headquarters in
Washington, D.C. on June 16, 2004 to discuss several geoengineering
options to prevent abrupt and long-term climate change and to request
funding for climate modeling research in some of these areas. The meeting
between Environmental Reference Materials, Inc. of Research Triangle Park,
N.C. and the U.S. Climate Change Technology Program was arranged
through the offices of Sen. Elizabeth Dole, N.C. and Representative Richard
Burr, N.C.
This report summarizes the discussions held at that meeting and subsequent
comments submitted by the attendees and others.
In attendance were the Director of the U.S. Climate Change Technology
Program, Mr. David Conover, Mr. Alvia Gaskill from Environmental
Reference Materials, Inc., Dr. Ken Caldeira from Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory’s (LLNL) Climate and Carbon Cycle Modeling Group
and Dr. Michael MacCracken, the former Director of the Office of the U.S.
Global Change Research Program and now a participating guest scientist at
LLNL.
MacCracken noted that he and Dr. Caldeira’s participation in the meeting
should not be taken as an indication of support of the various geoengineering
options presented. Rather, they were there to listen and question and
possibly provide an objective analysis of these options should they go
beyond the concept stage.
Caldeira said that he also does not support any specific scheme, but does
support investigation, evaluation and attempts to improve technologies and
approaches that have a prima facie chance of competing in some future
marketplace and regulatory environment.
3. The meeting began at 9:30 a.m. Caldeira and MacCracken discussed with
Conover some of the background for thinking about geoengineering as an
approach as they waited for Gaskill to complete his research on how long it
takes to get to DOE HQ on the Metro Blue Line from Springfield where he
had parked his car. It turns out it takes a very long time. It was mentioned
that a Dr. Khan from DOE was preparing a report on geoengineering
options. He is welcome to reference our work.
Gaskill then arrived and presented a PowerPoint slide show on the topic of
Practical Geoengineering Options to Prevent Abrupt and Long-Term
Climate Change. A CD version of the slides covering long-term climate
change was provided along with an emailed version. An emailed version
only was provided of the discussion of abrupt climate change.
Long-Term Climate Change Mitigation
Gaskill reviewed the physics behind the long-term climate change problem.
[An error in slide 5 giving the solar radiation wavelength range has been
corrected. The correct range is 0.3 to 2.5 micrometers]. Shortwave solar
radiation is absorbed by the Earth (atmosphere, surface) and the Earth in turn
re-emits this radiation as longwave infrared radiation (IR) that is absorbed
by trace gases in the atmosphere, e.g. water vapor and carbon dioxide known
as greenhouse gases (GHGs) that in turn re-emit IR back to the surface
where it is absorbed and re-emitted again.
The addition of man-made GHGs to the atmosphere from fossil fuel use and
food production is increasing the amount of infrared radiation in the
atmosphere, enhancing the natural greenhouse effect, causing a global
warming and leading to significant global climate change. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change believes that unless GHG levels
in the atmosphere can be stabilized by 2050, there will be irreversible
climate change with droughts, floods, famines, deadly heat waves, loss of
millions of species, significant sea level rise and other consequences.
For this reason, governments have decided to reduce GHG emissions
through treaties and legislation and by supporting technological innovation.
Gaskill said his group had concluded that neither approach was going to be
successful in stabilizing GHG levels by 2050. He cited the failure of the
Kyoto Protocol to go into effect and the lack of progress by European Union
(EU) nations and Japan in meeting their assigned targets. He said most view
4. the U.S. Clear Skies program as a business as usual (BAU) hybrid, with
most of the projected emissions reduction heavily back-loaded. He also said
pending legislation in the U.S. Congress, although well intentioned, is years
away from enactment and that the U.S. would eventually rejoin the
international treaty process.
He gave three reasons why technology changes would not occur in time to
solve the long-term global climate change problem. The first was that
emissions are spread across too many sources (transportation, power
generation, heating, food production, landfills, pipeline leaks, deforestation,
non-transportation halocarbons) to expect changes to be made easily and
rapidly. [An error in slide 17 showing the apportionment of GHG emissions
contribution to global warming by sector has also been corrected. Food
production, landfills and pipeline leaks contribution is 25%, not 20%. The
percentages refer to the radiative forcing caused by the emissions, not the
raw emissions in GtC].
The second reason is that replacement technologies are either immature or
non-existent. Gaskill cited the 2004 National Academy of Engineering
report that said hydrogen/fuel cell use would not be significant before 2030.
In general, Gaskill said that replacement technologies are 20-40 years away
from the beginnings of widespread use. He also cited the long capital
lifetimes of vehicles, power stations and heating systems as contributing to
the lag time in deployment of replacement technologies until well past 2050.
Gaskill concluded that for all of these reasons, GHG emissions couldn’t be
reduced in time to prevent a global climate catastrophe. He said that what
was needed was more time, a way to delay the anticipated warming as long
as possible. He proposed geoengineering or deliberate modification of the
Earth’s climate as a delaying tactic. He described various geoengineering
schemes that have been proposed, noting most of them are presented as
alternatives to reducing emissions, not as delaying tactics.
He said most of these cannot be made practical by 2050 or do not work at
all. He noted the proposal to add iron to iron-deficient areas of the oceans to
stimulate phytoplankton growth and remove carbon dioxide from the air. He
said the latest research had determined that silicate was also a limiting
nutrient and that the quantities required for human intervention could not be
produced. Significant transport of dead phytoplankton biomass to the ocean
5. bottom will also take hundreds of years, ruling out the use of this strategy in
meeting the 2050 target date, irrespective of which nutrient is limiting.
Gaskill then described some of the options that involve reducing solar
radiation, the energy source that powers the greenhouse effect. Proposals
have been made to reflect sunlight from outside the atmosphere with
thousands of square miles of mirrors or just inside the atmosphere with
balloons, sulfate aerosols or aluminum oxide particles. If enough sunlight
were reflected back into space, the heating from GHG emissions would be
offset. The mirror strategy is not feasible and there are concerns the
balloons won’t stay aloft long enough or stay spread out. Particle injection
with sulfate aerosols may damage the ozone layer, while the residence time
of aluminum oxide may not be long enough.
Gaskill said this leaves increasing the reflectivity or albedo of the surface of
the Earth as the only practical alternative, even though only half the solar
radiation that arrives at the top of the atmosphere reaches the surface. Both
the downwelling solar and upwelling infrared radiation is measured in
watts/meter2
, a measure of the amount of energy impacting a surface area
per unit time or flux. He showed some recent data from a NOAA surface
radiation-monitoring site in NV to demonstrate the variation in these fluxes
throughout the day. He said GHG emissions since 1700 have added about 2
watts/m2
to the IR flux in the atmosphere, about a 1% increase in total
radiative forcing and that another 3-5 may be added in the 21st
century.
He described several small-scale attempts to lower air temperatures by
increasing surface reflectivity related to agriculture and the urban heat island
effect. White and aluminized plastic mulches have been used to lower air
and soil temperatures around vegetable plants and orchard trees by reflecting
sunlight, allowing for better growth during hot weather and increasing the
amount and uniformity of sunlight received by the plants. The use in
orchards is said to provide for more uniform coloration of fruit. Whitening
of shingles and pavements to reduce IR levels in urban areas has also been
used.
Gaskill described several proposals to manipulate the global climate by
increasing the surface reflectivity of the oceans with white floating plastic
islands, white spheres or white foam and of land plants by spray coating
them white. These were judged infeasible and/or too expensive.
6. He said the ideal candidates for surface albedo enhancement are the world’s
deserts, citing their advantages of being largely uninhabited, sparsely
vegetated, flat and stable with a high solar flux and low humidity (meaning
less absorption of solar and IR by water vapor) and generally useless and
noting their primary disadvantage of having the highest reflectivity of all
surface areas except the ice caps.
He said that of the 7.5 million square miles of deserts, 75% are gravel plains,
dry lakebeds and mountains with the Sahara, Arabian, Australian and Gobi
accounting for 75% of all desert land. He showed examples of some of the
flat, featureless terrain of the Sahara from Morocco to Egypt.
He said that as much as 4.5 million square miles of desert may be suitable
for covering with a reflective surface for the purpose of offsetting global
warming. On the scale required to do so, this would be a Global Albdeo
Enhancement Project (GAEP). Gaskill listed the assumptions on which the
feasibility of this was based. The additional radiative forcing he projects
from 2010-2070 of 2.75 watts/m2
would be the primary target for reduction.
This level is reasonable based on emissions forecasts. By 2070, GHG
emissions BEGIN to be controlled globally. All additional radiation
reflected at the surface is returned to space.
A calculation was presented of net reflected solar radiation from a typical
desert vs. one covered with a reflective material. Increasing the surface
reflectivity or albedo from 36% to 80% resulted in an additional 136
watts/m2
reflected. This reflected flux was used to calculate the land area
coverage required to offset the radiative forcing from various scenarios. All
forcing from 1750-2070 would require 7.9 million square miles, more than
all available desert land; the forcing from 1750-2000, 3.6 million; the U.S.
Kyoto target for 2012 290,000; all U.S. electric power generation from
1750-2070 390,000 and all U.S. forcing from 1750-2000, 2 million.
Of greatest relevance was that 4 million square miles would be required to
offset all of the forcing from 2010-2070, almost all of the desert land likely
suitable. These numbers point out that the GAEP is not an alternative to
emissions reduction, but a delaying tactic until the emissions can be brought
under control.
Gaskill noted that averaged over 60 years, the annual coverage would be
around 67,000 square miles or about the size of Missouri. However, the
7. coverage in earlier years could be much less since the GHG emissions are
expected to increase non-linearly over time. He also noted that 80,000
square miles is planted in wheat annually in the U.S. Thus, the scale of this
project is comparable to what is practiced today in modern agriculture.
Gaskill then discussed how the GAEP might be implemented. He said that
both global and regional (mesoscale) climate modeling should be done first
to detect possible impacts such as changes in temperature, wind flow
patterns, precipitation and hydrology. The models could be designed to
avoid distortions likely from natural variability. One of these would be that
from changing the conditions incrementally as would be the case with the
reflective cover. Instead, an instantaneous application of say 60 years of
coverage allowed to reach equilibrium, would help define the conditions of
importance in applying the cover incrementally. Both Drs. MacCracken and
Caldeira helped explain this.
Examples of global climate modeling performed by LLNL were reviewed in
which the radiative forcing resulting from a doubling of atmospheric CO2
(280 to 560 ppm or 355 to 710 ppm) levels was completely offset by
reducing incoming solar radiation by 1.7% from outside the atmosphere. In
these models, there were no temperature increases or decreases observed in
the troposphere either globally, regionally, or seasonally, indicating the
reduction of solar luminosity compensated for the effects of increased CO2.
Gaskill said modeling like this should be done to predict the impact of the
GAEP since an uneven reduction in solar radiation absorbed at the surface,
like that expected from the GAEP, would be expected to produce uneven
heating globally, regionally and seasonally.
Examples of regional modeling performed by Dr. Haider Taha of Altostatus,
Inc. were also presented in which impacts of surface albedo enhancement on
regional meteorology and tropospheric ozone were studied. The resolution
of the regional modeling was 4 km2
, while that for the global modeling was
around 40,000 square miles, illustrating the need for the mesoscale modeling
in predicting impacts over smaller areas.
Gaskill described the characteristics of an ideal surface cover: inexpensive to
produce, install, maintain; highly reflective, reflecting >80% of incident
sunlight; puncture and tear resistant; stable for years in a field environment;
recyclable as cover material and available today or within 5 years. Based on
these criteria, he said white polyethylene film is the best choice. The
8. whiteness is due to titanium dioxide pigment. Plastic film used in the field
contains additives such as antioxidants, thermal stabilizers and UV inhibitors
designed to prolong its life. Such films are often embossed to resist wind
fatigue and cracking. However, they are not completely opaque at typical
thicknesses (1-6 mil) and may only reflect 60% of sunlight.
For the GAEP cover, he said a composite film consisting of white plastic on
the top and aluminized plastic on the bottom may be most effective in
reflecting sunlight. The aluminized plastic can reflect as much as 90% of
incident sunlight, but only emits 25% of the IR it absorbs, while the white
plastic reflects 60% of the sunlight and emits 90% of the IR it absorbs.
Combined, they could yield an overall reflectivity of sunlight of 80% and an
emissivity of IR of 90%, the best of both worlds.
He showed an example of the use of aluminized surface cover in orchards
(slide 96), noting there is still much to be learned about the ideal plastic film
for this application.
He said installation would require removal of material that could puncture
the plastic and might require grading of the surface. Installation equipment
could be patterned after the large installers used for geomembranes. The
cover could be kept in place with commercially available mechanical
anchors that resemble giant thumbtacks as indicated in slides 98 and 99.
Accurate monitoring of surface albedo would be required for input data for
models, to calculate “thermal credits” for emissions trading or in meeting
emission reduction targets and to ensure albedo is above its target value.
Other radiometric and meteorological parameters would also be determined.
Monitoring would be accomplished through a combination of ground
stations, unmanned aerial vehicles and satellites.
The cover would be replaced every 3 years and cleaned as necessary using
robotic vacuum cleaners to remove dust that would darken the surface.
Gaskill said their research found that conventional robotic vacuum cleaners
spread fine particles of soil over the surface that could not be removed by
vacuuming. Developing vacuum systems that can limit particle adherence to
the surface by electrostatic or other means or covering land from which the
dust originates are both topics that should be pursued.
9. Gaskill presented an estimate of the cost of the GAEP, based on the
maximum possible coverage of 4 million square miles done equally over 60
years. The following assumptions were made. The plastic is a 3-layer 4-mil
polyethylene film costing 1.7-cents/square foot (SF), which can be recycled
3 times at 50% the cost of the original. If aluminized composites are used,
they will be more difficult to recycle and may cost more. The cost of
installation was 12% the cost of the plastic and the combined cost of
monitoring and maintenance were 14%. Maintenance costs were based on
24/7 vacuum operations. [Cost assumptions slide 105 revised to reflect these
changes].
The land to be used was provided free in return for jobs and debt forgiveness
where applicable. No allowance was made for inflation or increase in resin
prices due to crude oil price rises. The cover was installed over a 60-year
period and kept in place 150 years.
These assumptions resulted in a cost at the end of 150 years of $75 trillion or
$500 billion/year or $19 million/square mile. If the cover project is
concluded before the 150-year period, but after 60 years, the costs will be
progressively lower the sooner it ends.
Noteworthy is the fact that the cost of the plastic film is almost 80% of the
total cost of the project and bringing it down an important step. This must
be weighed against the performance that is also of paramount importance.
Gaskill said the project could be paid for by the purchase of thermal credits
relatable to GHG emissions under a successor treaty to Kyoto. The cost per
tonne (metric ton) of carbon emissions equivalent whose radiative forcing is
offset by the cover is based on a future scenario in which an average of 19.5
GtC/year are emitted from 2010-2070 or 1170 GtC. This results in an
average cost per tonne of $64. Looking at this from the perspective of some
future exchange traded commodity, the GAEP offsets approximately
300,000 tonnes of carbon per square mile or around 0.01 tonnes (24 lbs)/SF.
Thus, a SF of coverage should trade for around $0.69. Valued equally over
the 60 year period, then, each year that square foot is worth $0.01.
Gaskill presented a pro forma schedule in which the modeling is completed
by the end of 2004 and cover development and increasingly larger field trials
occur from 2005-2012, culminating in full-scale implementation starting
around 2012. Caldeira said that the global modeling could be completed in
10. one month, but analyses of the data might take an additional 4 months, so at
least the global modeling could fit this schedule. Dr. Taha from Altostratus,
Inc. says that the mesoscale modeling will take much longer to complete,
around one year per region chosen due to the time needed for the computers
to produce results.
Gaskill addressed several other issues. He said that GHG emissions from
the production, transportation, installation and recycling of the plastic film
would result in emissions of 1.8% of total present day GHG emissions,
dropping proportionally as global emissions rise. Thus, although these
emissions are not insignificant, the cover would offset around 100X the
emissions its production and deployment would produce. Capture and
sequestration of the GAEP emissions would reduce this even further.
Alteration of desert dust storms might affect the Amazon and N. Atlantic,
which depend on Saharan dust transported by upper level winds across the
Atlantic for iron in both the Amazon and N. Atlantic and for phosphorous in
the Amazon. Nearly 50% of the iron needed by phytoplankton in the N.
Atlantic is supplied by Saharan dust, while almost all the phosphorous
needed to support the bromeliad ecology of the Amazon comes from this
source. The potential impact of altering these nutrient flows must be studied
by climate modeling.
The geopolitical consequences of a GAEP must be considered as the land
involved includes politically unstable and volatile nations, oil producing
nations and large emitters like China. There is also a 1977 UN treaty
prohibiting hostile use of weather/climate modification.
Gaskill recommended an international treaty indemnifying all involved with
the project from lawsuits resulting from alleged or actual damage to the
climate or economy of a country or region due to the GAEP.
Urban Heat Island Mitigation
Gaskill also addressed the potential application of large-scale surface albedo
enhancement to the urban heat island problem. This is caused by the
absorption and re-emission of solar radiation by the low reflectivity surfaces
of building roofs and pavement in urban areas. The low reflectivity plus the
lack of trees to carry off heat as transpired water results in higher daytime
11. and nighttime temperatures, higher air conditioning costs and greater
tropospheric ozone formation.
Gaskill reviewed some of the work conducted by Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory (LBNL) and the California Energy Commission (CEC)
that have been studying ways to reduce the urban heat island effect for more
than 20 years. Their proposals have included whitening of roofs and
pavements and the planting of trees. The “whitening” includes the total
solar spectrum so some “dark” surfaces can be made “whiter” relative to the
total solar spectrum.
LBNL estimates that raising the albedo of the greater Los Angeles area by
7.5% (approximately 4000 square miles) by whitening 1000 square miles of
roofs and pavement and planting 11 million trees will reduce the air
temperature by 5°F. They estimate this would save almost $500 million
annually in electricity and smog costs. Applied nationally to urban areas,
nearly $5 billion could be saved.
The CEC takes this a step further and says that raising the albedo of the 100
largest cities on Earth could offset GHG emissions by 2.5% as well as save
money from the other benefits noted in the Los Angeles example. This
would also serve to lessen the impact of future global warming driven heat
waves. It should be noted that although the 100 largest cities include many
candidates that might fit a Los Angeles model with lots of paved surfaces
and dark rooftops, this list also includes many third world cities like Lagos,
Nigeria (7), Karachi, Pakistan (13), Dhaka, Bangladesh (15) and Jakarta,
Indonesia (21) that have populations of around 10 million, but probably little
in the way of paved streets and roofs amenable to whitening.
Gaskill suggested that the GAEP might be applied to the urban heat island
problem by albedo enhancement of areas outside some of these cities by
covering land with white plastic. The cooler air produced by this would mix
with the hotter air from the city, cooling it. He gave examples of Las Vegas,
NV and Phoenix, AZ. The areas mentioned in slide 145 of 5-20 square
miles may be too low to be effective.
A more realistic estimate is calculated as follows. Start with the goal of
raising the albedo of one fourth the urban area as in the Los Angeles case.
Applied to Phoenix, which has an area of around 700 square miles, the land
to have its albedo raised by 7.5% would be 175 square miles. However, the
12. albedo in this case is raised by 60% (from 20% to 80%) not 7.5% and no
trees are planted, since the albedo increase is outside the city and would not
help as much. This would increase the albedo by nearly 4 times and should
reduce the land area required to around 45 square miles. At around
$500,000/square mile, averaged over 3 years, the plastic cover costs around
$8 million per year and should provide savings comparable to roof and
pavement whitening. This can also be done much sooner than the whitening
of urban surfaces and large scale tree planting, which may take decades to
complete. Covering a 45 square mile area around Phoenix could probably
be completed in one year.
Proposed Research on Long-Term Climate Change and Urban Heat
Island Mitigation
Gaskill recommended that global and mesoscale (regional) modeling of the
impact of the GAEP be performed by LLNL and Altostratus, Inc. possibly
using conditions in previous LLNL published studies for comparison. The
impact of incremental vs. instantaneous coverage would be studied.
Similarly, global and mesoscale modeling by LBNL and Altostratus of the
application of the GAEP to land surrounding urban heat islands could be
studied for the 100 largest cities and for selected urban areas in the U.S. for
which the GAEP may be applicable, comparing this with the albedo
enhancement of pavement and roof tops.
At this point, Mr. Conover had to leave to attend another meeting, indicating
he would email the presentations to others in DOE. Gaskill, MacCracken
and Caldeira remained and discussed issues related to hurricane mitigation
and abrupt climate change.
In written comments submitted later, Drs. MacCracken and Caldeira
recommended that an evaluation be conducted of various engineering
approaches to solving the problem of global climate change including the
GAEP and such no regrets alternatives as massive introduction of
photovoltaic (PV) arrays. Gaskill estimates that replacement of all 21st
century electricity, transportation and heating needs with energy from PV
arrays would require coverage of around 200,000 square miles, about 5% of
the area of the maximum GAEP coverage.
Caldeira said that a lot of careful analysis should be done before we embark
on any course that could significantly alter climate on a large scale. The
13. main question he had about the GAEP was one of scale, noting that a square
meter can be sheeted over with plastic with little harm; a square kilometer,
perhaps; hundreds of thousands of square kilometers and there is some
concern about impacts and feasibility.
Gaskill noted that massive heat island mitigation as proposed by LBNL and
the CEC would involve altering the surface reflectivity of around 100,000
square miles, also a very large area, albeit spread out across the globe. The
GAEP could also cover a large area spread out across the globe. Although
most of the attention of this plan has focused on the Sahara, there are other
deserts and the modeling may show that we can get away with covering a
great deal of surface area by proper spacing of the coverage before any
regional climate impacts are felt.
Caldeira said that we need to take albedo changes into consideration in
thinking about human impacts on climate. “This is perhaps most clear in the
attempts to ameliorate urban heat islands. From a research point of view, the
question of how surface changes in one area might affect climate in a distant
area is interesting. How would increasing reflectivity in the Sahara affect
climate in New York or Mumbai (Bombay)? Would they see a cooling?
Would they see changes in the hydrological cycle or winds? What are the
distal consequences of tropical deforestation?”
Caldeira then noted, “It is becoming clearer that, because of albedo effects, it
would not make sense to (deliberately) expand boreal forests to increase
carbon storage. If albedo would need to be taken into account for crediting
carbon storage in forests, this has the potential to complicate proposed
carbon trading schemes and could possibly lead to economic value for
albedo changes.”
Gaskill noted that this could also lead to economic costs for planting trees!
Countries would be penalized for having too much forestland vs. a baseline.
Irrespective of any tree planting schemes, it is likely that the boreal forest
will expand into the tundra anyway as the Arctic warms in this century.
Caldeira said that since albedo changes can be measured from space, they
would be easy to quantify and verify. He suggested that in the future, people
might pay an albedo tax if they install a black asphalt driveway and get
credit for installing a reflective one. This isn’t the case now, but recent
14. California building regulations do give credits to pay for white roofs and
require new ones to be highly reflective.
Dr. Akbari from LBNL submitted written comments on proposed Urban
Heat Island Mitigation research. He provided further details of how the
increases in surface albedo for the Los Angeles basin were calculated. They
estimated that if the albedo of roofs were increased by 30% and pavements
by 15%, then the albedo for all such surfaces in the Los Angeles basin
(totaling 1000 square miles) would be increased by 22.5% and the albedo of
the entire basin (4000 square miles) by 5.6%, not 7.5% as indicated in the
text of this report.
Applying such a strategy aggressively, by changing the albedo of roofs by
60% (applying white roofs and keeping them clean) and pavements by 25%,
then the average albedo of these surfaces is increased by 42.5% and that of
the entire basin by 10.6%.
For Phoenix, he estimates that half of the surface areas are amenable to
having their albedo increased or around 350 square miles. Using the first
Los Angeles example, the albedo of 350 square miles could be increased by
22.5%. It’s not clear if the massive tree planting included in the assumptions
for Los Angeles would apply to Phoenix or could be applied, given the
scarcity of water. It is also unclear what the effect on air temperatures a
22.5% whitening of 350 square miles of urban Phoenix would have vs. that
of a 60% whitening of a 45 square mile area just outside Phoenix. Clearly,
these are calculations that require a detailed analysis.
Akbari says that increasing the albedo inside the city should be the first
priority, since it saves energy, reduces GHG emissions and improves air
quality. After taking care of the largest 100 heat islands around the globe
(assumed to be 100 largest cities by population), if we were going to
increase the albedo of the desert adjacent to Phoenix (as an experiment to
see how it could be done for the Sahara), we should also design its
implementation such that it would reduce the ambient air temperature in
Phoenix.
Dr. Taha from Altostratus noted that each city has be considered separately,
pointing out that although Los Angeles and Houston are about the same size
geographically, only 5 million trees would be required to achieve the same
degree of cooling there as 11 million in Los Angeles.
15. Cape Verde Hurricane Mitigation by Surface Albedo Enhancement
Gaskill gave a brief presentation of how the number of Cape Verde
hurricanes could be reduced by applying the GAEP to selected areas of the
Sahara desert.
He said that although tropical storms and hurricanes can form in a variety of
ways, tropical waves are the most common. They begin as disturbed areas
of wind flow or cloud clusters. One area from which such disturbed air
masses originate is the southwestern Sahara desert. When these disturbed
air masses enter the Atlantic Ocean, they can progress to form tropical
waves, tropical depressions, tropical storms and then hurricanes. These
storms are then sometimes referred to as Cape Verde hurricanes, since they
pass near the Cape Verde Islands.
Because tropical waves that form Cape Verde hurricanes may have several
weeks to develop as they cross the Atlantic, they have the greatest potential
to grow into Category 5 storms, the most dangerous and destructive. The
Cape Verde storms are nearly 85% of the most intense Atlantic hurricanes.
A relevant example is Hurricane Andrew in 1992.
Gaskill said there is limited evidence that future warming in this region of
the Sahara will lead to increased water vapor levels and more tropical waves.
By raising the albedo of the southwestern Sahara, the evaporation rate for
precipitation in this region may be decreased, lowering the water vapor level
in the atmosphere and decreasing or at least not increasing the number of
tropical waves produced. The surface coverage may also change the
direction of wind flow in the area and prevent the formation of tropical
waves altogether, removing an annual threat to the Caribbean and mainland
U.S.
For these reasons, Gaskill said climate modeling of this specific application
of the GAEP should be performed.
Catastrophic Methane Hydrate Release Mitigation
This topic falls under the category of abrupt climate change as will be clear
shortly. Methane hydrates or clathrates are combinations of water and
methane in the form of an ice-like matrix. The methane is the result of the
action of methanogenic bacteria on sediment over thousands of years. The
16. methane is kept in an ice form where appropriate combinations of
temperature and pressure exist.
Methane hydrates are widespread in sea sediments hundreds of meters below
the sea floor along the outer continental margins and are also found in Arctic
permafrost. Some deposits are close to the ocean floor and at water depths
as shallow as 150 m, although at low latitudes they are generally only found
below 500 m. The deposits can be 300-600 m thick and cover large
horizontal areas. A nearby deposit nearly 500 km in length is found along
the Blake Ridge off the coast of N.C. at depths of 2000-4000 m.
The total quantity of methane hydrates in the ocean sediment is estimated to
be around 10,000 GtC. The methane hydrates in sediment considered part of
U.S. territory alone could supply U.S. natural gas needs for 1000 years.
Because of this enormous quantity, methane hydrates are being investigated
as an energy source to replace petroleum and conventional sources of natural
gas, although an extraction technology for ocean sediments does not
presently exist.
There is some evidence that massive releases of methane from ocean
sediment hydrate deposits may have been indirectly responsible for ending
some of the ice ages. Were such releases to occur today because of warming
of the oceans or as a result of seismic events, the result could be a sudden
rise in atmospheric temperature, triggering feedback mechanisms that might
lead to rapid melting of polar ice.
In the slides, the example of a 1 GtC release was used. That represents
0.01% of the total methane hydrates in the ocean. The quantity degassed to
the atmosphere 15,000 years ago, at the end of the last ice age is now
believed to be around 4 GtC as methane or 0.04%. The average temperature
of the Earth increased from 30°F to 60°F within a few decades. The
radiative forcing from the methane alone would have been insufficient to
cause more than a 3°F increase. It is thought that feedback effects from
additional methane released from melting permafrost, carbon dioxide and
water vapor contributed to the rest of the warming. But the initial methane
hydrate release from the ocean may have been the catalyst.
All of the conditions that may have led to the methane hydrate release
15,000 years ago do not exist today. Sea levels were much lower and thus,
the pressure on the sediments was less. However, there is some evidence
17. that ocean currents that impinge on ocean sediments are getting warmer,
especially in the Arctic. Global warming is thus a possible triggering
mechanism for massive methane hydrate release in today’s climate.
What causes release of methane hydrates is still poorly understood. Warm
waters may destabilize the hydrate zone. Hydrates on the surface of the
ocean floor on a ridge may then degass. The sediment may then become
unstable and slide down the ridge, exposing other layers of methane hydrate,
accelerating the release. As an example, the Storegga slump off the coast of
Norway 8000 years ago could have released between 1 and 4 GtC as
methane.
Alternatively, an undersea earthquake today, say off the Blake Ridge or the
coast of Japan or California might loosen and cause some of the sediment to
slide down the ridge or slump, exposing the hydrate layer to the warmer
water. That in turn could cause a chain reaction of events, leading to the
release of massive quantities of methane.
Another possibility is drilling and other activities related to exploration and
recovery of methane hydrates as an energy resource. The hydrates tend to
occur in the pores of sediment and help to bind it together. Attempting to
remove the hydrates may cause the sediment to collapse and release the
hydrates. So, it may not take thousands of years to warm the ocean and the
sediments enough to cause massive releases, only lots of drilling rigs.
Returning to the 4 GtC release scenario, assume such a release occurs over a
one-year period sometime in the next 50 years as result of slope failure.
According to the Report of the Methane Hydrate Advisory Committee,
“Catastrophic slope failure appears to be necessary to release a sufficiently
large quantity of methane rapidly enough to be transported to the atmosphere
without significant oxidation or dissolution.”
In this event, methane will enter the atmosphere as methane gas. It will have
a residence time of several decades and a global warming potential of 62
times that of carbon dioxide over a 20-year period.
This would be the equivalent of 248 GtC as carbon dioxide or 31 times the
annual man-made GHG emissions of today. Put another way, this would
have the impact of nearly 30 years worth of GHG warming all at once. The
result would almost certainly be a rapid rise in the average air temperature,
18. perhaps as much as 3°F immediately. This might be tolerable if that’s as far
as things go. But, just like 15,000 years ago, if the feedback mechanisms
kick in, we can expect rapid melting of Greenland and Antarctic ice and an
overall temperature increase of 30°F.
For point of reference, the average temperature of the Earth (atmosphere,
land and top layer of the ocean) in 2004 is around 60°F. The methane
hydrate release projected here would raise the temperature to around 90°F or
more. Such high temperatures would undoubtedly destabilize all of the
other methane hydrates in the ocean and arctic permafrost, some 10,000 GtC
or 620,000 GtC equivalent as carbon dioxide. This would have the impact
of 78,000 years worth of GHG warming over a few decades. The
temperatures reached and sustained would most likely cause a rapid die off
in ocean phytoplankton and other sea life as well as most land plants and
animals, including humans. The result would be a mass extinction and mark
a major transition point in the Earth’s geological history.
Although a 1000 or 10,000 GtC methane release in one year or over several
decades is very unlikely, a 4 GtC release is entirely plausible. Even if the
feedback mechanisms that were operative 15,000 years ago became partly
active, the outcome could be just as disastrous as the scenario outlined
above.
Gaskill said that if any massive releases of methane from methane hydrates
were to occur, attempts should be made to ignite and burn the methane gas at
the ocean’s surface. By converting the methane to carbon dioxide, the threat
of abrupt climate change is reduced by a factor of 62, to less than one-years
worth of GHG emissions. Even if the mitigation effort is only partly
successful, say 75% is converted to carbon dioxide, the remaining methane,
equivalent to an 8-year pulse of all present day GHG emissions in a single
year might still spell trouble, but it would be far preferable to the nightmare
scenarios outlined above.
Combustion could be accomplished by aerial release and ignition of
distillate fuel over the area where the methane is entering the atmosphere.
There are several potential problems with this approach. The area to be
covered may be too large to effectively treat in this way. Advection may
also make continuous burning difficult. Dr. MacCracken pointed out that
the methane level in the air at the surface might be too low to ignite. This
would, of course depend on how fast the gas is being released.
19. Regardless, the potential for massive methane release from sediments
represents such a significant threat that emergency mitigation plans like the
one suggested here need to be prepared. The Methane Hydrate Research and
Development Act of 2000, Public Law 106-193 does not address such
catastrophic scenarios and we are unaware of anyone working on such plans.
Thermohaline Circulation Collapse Mitigation
This is the subject of the movie now in theatres, “The Day After
Tomorrow,” and a recent Pentagon commissioned study, that explored the
ramifications of this from a geopolitical and economic perspective. We
decided to include this topic after reading this report and seeing its proposed
mitigation strategy.
The basis for the concern is the oceanic thermohaline circulation (THC)
system that brings warm salty water northward from the equator to the
Arctic, where its heat is released in the form of moist air. This air moderates
the climate of Europe and Eastern North America, making them warmer and
wetter than would otherwise be the case.
The North Atlantic portion of this system ceased functioning for 100-1000
years twice in the last 15,000 years, apparently due to an influx of fresh
water from melting glaciers and/or increased rainfall and discharge of river
water. The result was much colder and in some cases, drier weather for N.
America and Europe, bringing a return of the ice sheets southward. Icebergs
were found as far south as Portugal.
A similar shutdown could occur in this century if enough melt water and
rainwater enters the N. Atlantic. There is some evidence of a drop in the
salinity of the N. Atlantic near the upper end of the THC occurring since the
1940’s. The results of such a shutdown in this century, which might occur
over a 10-100 year period (and not over a couple of days as portrayed in the
movie) would, according to the Pentagon study, cause economic hardship
and political instability as resources such as water and food are constrained
by unfavorable climatic conditions.
The authors suggested injection of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) into the air to
counteract the cooling of the Atlantic basin. Gaskill said HFC injection
would not necessarily restore the salinity of the N. Atlantic to restart the
THC and might instead, prolong the event by increasing melting of Antarctic
20. ice, since the Southern Hemisphere would be expected to get much warmer
in this scenario. He said a better approach would involve forcing the event
to a more rapid conclusion by initiating a more rapid cooling of the areas
contributing the fresh water.
This would be accomplished by injection of aluminum oxide particles into
the troposphere or stratosphere over Greenland, the Eastern Arctic Sea and
related areas that are the source of the fresh water flowing into the N.
Atlantic. By doing so, the air temperatures in this region will be lowered
enough due to reflection of sunlight to refreeze the freshwater sources
flowing into the N. Atlantic and speed the recovery of the THC.
MacCracken said that tropospheric injection would be ineffective due to
short residence times. Gaskill said that the presence of a persistent stagnant
air mass over the region would help in maintaining the particle cover. He
said other materials such as sulfate aerosol or soil could also be used. He
said the delivery system could involve aircraft, but a more efficient method
would use naval rocket shells (5-inch) fired from destroyers.
As unlikely as this scenario is, in spite of the movie and the Pentagon study,
the potential for it to happen in this century cannot be fully discounted and
thus, possible mitigation strategies should be investigated.
Alteration of Hurricane Steering Currents
The final topic discussed did not involve either the GAEP or abrupt climate
change, but alteration of the path of hurricanes. This would involve a spin
off of some of the technology developed to mitigate THC shutdown.
Gaskill said that past efforts to control or destroy hurricanes have failed due
to the complexity and size of these storms. Project Storm Fury, which ran
from the 60’s through the mid 80’s tried to cause the eye wall to rain itself
out by cloud seeding. Positive results seen then are now believed to have
been simply the natural variability in eyes that come and go during a storm’s
lifetime, which is measured from a few days to a few weeks.
Other proposals made, but never acted on, have included modifying sea-
level temperature with chemical films and altering steering currents to
change a hurricane’s course and cause it to miss landfall. Steering currents
21. are the upper and mid level winds caused by other weather systems such as
high-pressure and low-pressure areas that the hurricane passes by.
One researcher has proposed injecting soot into the air over an area of 600 x
60 miles in the path of a hurricane. This black cloud would absorb and
reflect sunlight, cooling the air beneath it and possibly drying it out. When
the hurricane passes through this dry air, it may lose some strength as a
result of the dry air or change its course.
Gaskill proposed exploring a similar strategy, by creating a man-made low-
pressure area to the north or south of the storm center by injection of
particulate matter in the atmosphere. The particulate matter would reflect
sunlight, cooling the air, causing it to sink and creating a dry trough. The
storm would then tend to move towards the trough and away from land.
Similarly, if the wind can be made to blow in opposite directions at different
levels of the atmosphere by particulate injection, wind shear may be created
that would tear the storm apart.
Although these ideas are highly speculative, Gaskill said they are worth
investigating since we are now in a cycle of increased hurricane activity in
the Atlantic basin.
With that, the meeting ended at 12:30 pm.
Summary of Research Areas That Should be Funded
1. Global and mesoscale (regional) modeling of the impact of the GAEP by
LLNL and Altostratus, Inc., possibly using conditions in previous LLNL
published studies for comparison. The impact of incremental vs.
instantaneous coverage would be studied. Similarly, global and mesoscale
modeling by LBNL and Altostratus of the application of the GAEP to land
surrounding urban heat islands for the 100 largest cities and for selected
urban areas in the U.S. for which the GAEP may be applicable, comparing
this with the albedo enhancement of pavement and roof tops.
2. Modeling of the effect of changing the albedo of the southwestern Sahara
on the formation of Cape Verde hurricanes.
22. 3. Development and evaluations of emergency mitigation plans to address
massive methane release from sediments.
4. Development and evaluations of mitigation plans in event of partial or
complete shutdown of North Atlantic arm of the oceanic thermohaline
circulation system with emphasis on examination of atmospheric particulate
injection to speed its recovery.
5. Investigation of plans to alter hurricane steering currents and create wind
shear to destroy hurricanes using atmospheric particulate injection.
For Further Reading on the Topics Discussed at This Meeting
Long-Term Climate Change Mitigation
1. Global Warming Mitigation by Reduction of Outgoing Longwave
Radiation Through Large-Scale Surface Albedo Enhancement of Deserts
Using White Plastic Polyethylene Film – The Global Albdeo Enhancement
Project (GAEP): Research Plan, August 20, 2003 and Response to
Comments, January 28, 2004, A. Gaskill and C.E. Reese,
agaskill@nc.rr.com.
2. What is the Kyoto Protocol? Reuters AlertNet, May 21, 2004,
www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L21502437.htm.
3. 10 in EU Falling Behind on Cutting Emissions, The International Herald
Tribune, May 7, 2003,
www.ieta.org/Library_Links/IETAEnvNews/May7_EU.htm. Accessed June
2, 2004.
4. Japan Says It Won’t Meet Kyoto Targets Reducing Greenhouse Gases
Without Policy Changes, K. Hall, www.enn.com/news/2004-05-
18/s_23982.asp. May 18, 2004.
5. Brussels Warns EU in Danger of Missing Kyoto Targets, EU-Business,
www.eubusiness.com/affp/031202104619/giteakoi, December 2, 2003.
6. Most EU States on Track to Miss Kyoto, Reuters NewsAlert, December 2,
2003, www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L02185680.htm.
23. 7. Domestic Measures Taken or Planned So Far Are Insufficient to Meet EU
Climate Emissions Targets, Projections Show, News Release, Copenhagen,
December 12, 2003, http://org.eea.eu.int/documents/newsreleases/ghg-en.
Accessed June 23, 2004.
8. Greenhouse Gas Emission Trends and Projections in Europe, European
Environment Agency, Environmental Issue Report No. 36, December 5,
2003,
http://reports.eea.eu.int/environmental_issue_report_2003_36/en/tab_abstrac
t_RLR. accessed June 23, 2004.
9. U.S. Climate Change Strategy: a New Approach, The White House, 2002,
http://web.mit.edu/globalchange/www/US.Nat%27l_Goal.pdf, accessed June
24, 2004.
10. U.S. Climate Change Plan Does Not Alter UK’s Commitment to Kyoto,
Rt. Hon. Margaret Becket, UK Secretary of State for Environment, Food and
Rural Affairs, February 19, 2002,
www.defra.gov.uk.corporate/ministers/statements/mb020219.htm, accessed
June 10, 2004.
11. Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) on U.S. Congressional Actions on
Climate Change,
www.firstenvironment.com/html/congressionalclimatechange/html, accessed
April 20, 2004.
12. U.S. Climate Change Technology Program-Technology Options for the
Near and Long Term, U.S. Climate Change Technology Program, November
2003, www.climatetechnology.gov, accessed May 12, 2004.
13. Questions About a Hydrogen Economy, M.L. Wald, Scientific
American, May 2004, pp. 66-73.
14. The Hydrogen Economy: Opportunities, Costs, Barriers and R & D
Needs, National Academy of Engineering (NAE) 2004,
www.books.nap.edu/books, accessed June 10, 2004.
15. Capital Cycles and the Timing of Climate Change Policy, R.J. Lempert,
et al., Pew Center on Global Climate Change, October 2002,
www.pewclimate.org.
24. 16. Adding Iron to Oceans Not Effective-Study, Press Release: University of
Otago, NZ, March 19, 2004, www.scoop.co.nz.
17. Ecosystem Controls on Carbon Export: Southern Ocean Case Studies, T.
Trull, Antarctic Cooperative Research Centre,
hht://ipac.whoi.edu/archives/trull.html, accessed June 24, 1004.
18. Brit’Nup Info and Installation Movies, Adcock Manufacturing Corp.,
www.adcockmfg.com, accessed June 11, 2004.
19. Greenhouse Gas Estimates for Selected Industry Sectors, National
Center for Manufacturing Sciences, Environmental Roadmapping Initiative,
March 27, 2003, www.ecm.ncms.org/ERI/index.html, accessed March 24,
2004.
20. Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of
Environmental Modification Techniques, 1108 U.N.T.S., entered into force
October 5, 1978,
www.1.umn.edu/humanrts/peace/docs/conenvironmodification.html,
accessed, February 18, 2004.
Urban Heat Island Mitigation
1. Top 100 Cities of the World- ranked by population,
www.graphicmaps.com/citypops.htm, accessed June 22, 2004.
Cape Verde Hurricane Mitigation by Surface Albedo Enhancement
1. Tropical Cyclones Form in Global Basin, USA Today Weather, October
27, 2003,
www.usatoday.com/weather/hurricane/tropical_cyclone_basins.htm,
accessed April 29, 2004.
2. Why Hurricanes Hit in Summer, Early Fall, USA Today Weather, June
16, 1999, www.usatoday.com/weather/whur5.htm, accessed April 29, 2004.
3. Preliminary Report Hurricane Andrew, Ed Rappaport, National Hurricane
Center, August 16-28, 1992, updated December 1999,
www.mcguinnessonline.com/andrew/report.htm, accessed April 29, 2004.
25. 4. FAQ: Hurricanes and Global Warming, USA Today Weather, October 27,
2003, www.usatoday.com/weather/resources/askjack/wfaq/hurw.htm,
accessed April 29, 2004.
5. Storm Fury Attempted to Weaken Hurricanes, J. Williams, USA Today
Hurricane Information, April 13, 2000,
www.usatoday.com/weather/huricanescience/wstormfury.htm, accessed
April 29, 2004.
Catastrophic Methane Hydrate Release Mitigation
1. All About Hydrates: Occurrences of Natural Methane Hydrates, U.S.
DOE, http://www.netl.doe.gov/scng/hydrates/about-hydrates.htm, June 9,
2004, accessed June 16, 2004.
2. Clathrates: Little Known Components of the Global Carbon Cycle,
http://ethomas.web.wesleyan.edu.ees123/clathrate.htm, accessed June 16,
2004.
3. Methane Fever, S. Simpson, Scientific American, February 2000, pp. 24-
27.
4. Flammable Ice, E. Suess et al., Scientific American, November 1999, pp.
76-83.
5. Natural Gas Hydrates-Vast Resource, Uncertain Future, T. Collett, USGS
Fact Sheet FS-021-01, March 2001, http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs021-01/fs021-
01.pdf.
6. 2003 Report of the Methane Hydrate Advisory Committee, December
2002, DOE Methane Hydrate Library,
http://www.netl.doe.gov/scng/hydrate/databank/databank_pubs.htm,
accessed June 27, 2004.
7. All About Hydrates: Blake Ridge, U.S. DOE,
http://www.netl.doe.gov/scng/hydrates/about-hydrates/blakeridge.htm, June
9, 2004, accessed June 27, 2004.
26. 8. Where Are They Found, Gas Hydrates Research, Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory, September 12, 2001,
http://eed.llnl.gov/gas_hydrates/where.html, accessed June 27, 2004.
9. S.330 and H.R. 1753, The Methane Hydrate Research and Development
Act of 1999, Hearing, Subcommittee on Energy and Environment, U.S.
House of Representatives, May 12, 1999,
http://www.house.gov/science/ee_charter_051299/ee_charter_051299.htm,
accessed June 27, 2004.
10. RS20050: Methane Hydrates: Energy Prospect or Natural Hazard, J.E.
Mielke, CRS Reports, February 14, 2000,
http”//www.ncseonline.org/MLE/CRSreports/energy/eng-46cfm, accessed
June 27, 2004.
Thermohaline Circulation Collapse Mitigation
1. Abrupt Climate Change: Inevitable Surprises, National Research Council,
National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 2002, www.nap.edu.
2. An Abrupt Climate Change Scenario and Its Implications for United
States National Security, P. Schwartz and D. Randall, Global Business
Network, October 2003, www.gbn.org.
3. Abrupt Climate Change, Common Misconceptions About Abrupt Climate
Change, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Ocean and Climate Change
Institute, www.whoi.edu/institute/occi/current
topics/abruptclimate_15misconceptions.html, accessed May 31, 2004.
4. Abrupt Climate Change, W. Curry, Testimony to the Senate Committee
on Commerce, Science and Transportation, May 6, 2002, Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution, Ocean and Climate Change Institute
www.whoi.edu/institute/occi/current
topics/abruptclimate_curry_testim.html, accessed May 31, 2004.
5. Abrupt Climate Change, Abrupt Climate Change: Should We Be
Worried? R.B. Gagosian, January 27, 2003, Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution, Ocean and Climate Change Institute,
www.whoi.edu/institute/occi/current topics/climatechange_wef.html,
accessed May 31, 2004.
27. 6. Abrupt Climate Change-What’s After the Day After Tomorrow, Woods
Hole Oceanographic Institution, Ocean and Climate Change Institute,
www.whoi.edu/institute/occi/currenttopics/abruptclimate_dayafter.html,
accessed May 31, 2004.
7. Abrupt Climate Change-New Study Reports Large-Scale Salinity Changes
in the Oceans, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Ocean and Climate
Change Institute, December 17, 2003,
www.whoi.edu/institute/occi/currenttopics/abruptclimate_rcurry_pr.html,
accessed May 31, 2004.
8. Abrupt Climate Change, A River Runs Through It, M. Carlowicz, Woods
Hole Oceanographic Institution, Ocean and Climate Change Institute,
Winter 2003,
www.whoi.edu/institute/occi/currenttopics/abruptclimate_currents1on02_riv
erruns.html, accessed May 31, 2004.
9. Abrupt Climate Change-Are We On the Brink of a New Little Ice Age, T.
Joyce and L. Keigwin, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Ocean and
Climate Change Institute,
www.whoi.edu/institute/occi/currenttopics/abruptclimate_joyce_keigwin.ht
ml, accessed May 31, 2004.
10. Rate of Ocean Circulation Directly Linked to Abrupt Climate Change in
North Atlantic Region, Media Relations- WHOI News Release, Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution, Ocean and Climate Change Institute, April 21,
2004 www.whoi.edu/media/2004_mcmanus_abruptclimate.html, accessed
May 31, 2004.
11. Ice Age to Warming and Back? P.N. Spotts, The Christian Science
Monitor, www.csmonitor.com/20040318/p13s01-sten.html, March 18, 2004,
accessed May 31, 2004.
12. NCAR News Release- Tipsheet: Climate Change,
www.ucar.edu/communications/newsreleases/2004/climate.html, May 24,
2004, accessed May 31, 2004.
28. Alteration of Hurricane Steering Currents
1. Scientists Flirt with Weather Management, P.N. Spotts, Christian Science
Monitor, January 2, 2003, www.modbee.com/24hour/healthscience/v-
dateticker2/story/698388p-5168943c.html, accessed August 5, 2003.
2. Wind Shear Weakens Hurricanes, USA Today Weather, July 9, 2003,
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