American University Honors Thesis - Allie Stauss, Class of 2014
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The Effect of Community-Based Agricultural Schemes on Nutrition:
The Case of Ngaramtoni, Tanzania
Original Research and Data Analysis Conducted by:
Allie Stauss, Class of 2014
ABSTRACT: The object of this paper is to assess and evaluate the
effectiveness of a community-based agricultural program, underpinned by
bio-intensive agricultural theory, on the nutrition of the children at the
Jane Olevolos Orphan Center located in Ngaramtoni, Tanzania. The
program was conducted by Allie Stauss and her colleagues at the Global
Service Corps over the course of four months and consisted of fostering
knowledge and understanding about basic nutritional concepts and garden
construction and maintenance; the physical construction of gardens in
which strategic vegetables were cultivated and harvested; and the
provision of egg-laying hens in order to improve the nutrition of the
children who eat at the center. Data was collected through the
administration of pre- and post-surveys tabulating how the children felt, as
well as measuring their weights before and after the commencement of the
program. The data indicates that the children feel happier, more
energized, and healthier after the introduction of these new foods into their
diets. This program has been extended to other orphan centers in
Tanzania and the research can be used to compare different agricultural
approaches in the world to improve nutrition, such as Havana, Cuba and
Washington, DC.
Advised by Professor Elizabeth Fox, School of International Service
University Honors Capstone Project
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I. INTRODUCTION
A balanced diet is necessary for physical, mental, and emotional health. Especially for young
children, who develop cognitively and physically at a rapid rate, proper nutrition is instrumental
in empowering youth to reach their full potential. As defined by the World Health Organization,
a balanced diet is the regular consumption of protein, carbohydrates, fat, vitamins, minerals, and
water.1
However, although this number has dropped by about 17% since 1990, 842 million
people worldwide remain hungry and malnourished, the majority of whom reside in developing
countries. Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest prevalence of malnutrition as compared to other
world regions at 24.8%, the large majority being children. According to the United Nations
World Food Program, 23 million children in Africa attend school hungry each day, devastatingly
harming their propensity to learn and retain information.2
Although many large-scale food relief
programs have been implemented by large agencies such as USAID, the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, and the World Food Program, particularly in the contexts of natural disasters and
famines, malnutrition remains a pervasive issue. There is certainly room for innovative,
community-based solutions to function alongside the larger, more trickle-down initiatives.
Unfortunately, due to limited education, lack of resources, poverty, and cultural norms,
malnutrition runs rampant in Tanzania. According to the World Health Organization’s most
recent data, approximately 5.6% of children in Tanzania are underweight and 12.2% are stunted
in growth.3
There are two major types of malnutrition: the first denotes a lack of food while the
second is derived from a lack of certain nutrients necessary for good health. Although there is a
significant amount of malnourished individuals who simply do not eat enough food, the second
type of malnutrition is the most common among Tanzanians. In many cases, Tanzanians
consume high amounts of carbohydrates and starches while neglecting foods that are rich in key
vitamins. This phenomenon is particularly characteristic of the Maasai culture. Traditionally,
the Maasai revere food derived from animals – such as meat, milk, and eggs – and regard
vegetables as food reserved expressly for animals or extremely impoverished individuals. By
excluding fruits and vegetables from their diets, however, they severely lack vitamins that are
necessary for a healthy immune system, digestive system, and nervous system. Furthermore,
since livestock is such a crucial component to the Maasai lifestyle and produce is relatively
unimportant, the Maasai people focus their vocational energy on raising cattle and goats rather
than on agricultural endeavors. Thus, in addition to a cultural aversion to fruits and vegetables,
the Maasai have neither the skill set nor the motivation to cultivate them. To remedy this
problem, a two-prong solution addressing both skill development and shifts in cultural norms
would need to be implemented.
II. BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Ngaramtoni, a village located about fifteen kilometers west of Arusha, is comprised
predominantly of Maasai people. Consequently, produce cultivation is a low priority, driving the
prices of these commodities to levels that are unaffordable in most cases. Jane Olevolos, a
1
“Global Health Observatory Data Repository: Tanzania.” World Health Organization, 2011.
http://apps.who.int/ghodata/?vid=20700&theme=country
2
“Hunger Statistics.” World Food Programme. 2014. http://www.wfp.org/hunger/stats
3
“Global Health Observatory Data Repository: Tanzania.” World Health Organization, 2011.
http://apps.who.int/ghodata/?vid=20700&theme=country
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Kenyan-born woman who has devoted her life to caring for underprivileged children, faces this
problem daily when trying to provide nutritious, balanced meals for the children at her orphan
center. The Jane Olevolos Orphan Center serves the children of the community in multiple
capacities. It is a home for 25 children, a nursery school for 50 children, a primary school for
120 children, and a safe place for after-school and weekend activities for a vast array of other
children. In one manner or another, the center serves approximately 200 children, many of
whom eat meals there regularly. The compound consists of one building for the children’s
bedrooms, the kitchen, and administrative tasks; one building with classrooms for the nursery
and primary school students; and small areas where the children can play.
Jane is a deeply religious woman with a large heart. She accepts children with welcoming arms
regardless of their need or circumstances. Although this is beneficial to the community, it poses
a large financial problem in terms of distributing wholesome meals to all of the children. While
interning with a non-governmental organization focusing on sustainable agricultural solutions –
the Global Service Corps (GSC) – I was invited to assist Jane in relocating to a new facility in
Ngaramtoni. While helping with the move, I became privy to the dietary regimen that the
children maintained: a small bowl of rice and a single, small piece of meat. I was disturbed by
this disregard for nutrition. This, of course, was no fault of Jane’s but simply the result of a
restrictive system under which she was forced to operate with very few resources and limited
access to funding. I decided to become involved by fashioning a program through which the
children could efficiently, sustainably, and autonomously obtain a properly balanced diet,
without relying upon grant proposals, global economic crises, or spikes in food prices.
The mission of the Global Service Corps is to promote agricultural practices among remote rural
communities that are sustainable, inexpensive, and high-yielding, while also utilizing less
material and water resources. As a comprehensive approach, this type of agriculture is known as
bio-intensive agriculture (BIA) and it comprises theories of best practices, garden management
and maintenance, pest control, and most successful garden designs. The specific garden designs,
many of which will be discussed further in the paper, are explained and illustrated in Appendix
A.
Objective: I aim to improve the nutrition of the children who are beneficiaries of the Jane
Olevolos Orphan Center and to equip them with the necessary knowledge, skills, and materials to
maintain a balanced diet through the implementation of a bio-intensive agricultural program.
III. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
A. Goals, Learner Outcomes, and Strategic Objectives
The intention for this project was to foster within the children knowledge about garden
maintenance and nutrition, the ability to cultivate vegetables, and the motivation to produce
vegetables and take ownership of their own nutrition. In a broad sense, my strategic objectives
were crafted as follows:
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1. To introduce carrots, Chinese cabbage, spinach, radishes, and night shade into the regular
diets of 100% of the children at the Jane Olevolos Orphan Center within three months of
planting the vegetables;
2. To educate students selected by Jane over the course of ten cumulative hours about
nutrition and garden maintenance;
3. To implement sustainable agricultural technologies promoted by BIA theory to ensure
that the vegetables produced are free of toxins and pesticides;
4. To ensure the ratio of children to egg-producing chickens was 2:1 within three months of
purchasing the chickens, thereby providing each child with approximately 6 grams of
protein every three days;4
and
5. To provide a system for self-selected children at Jane’s orphan center to maintain records
and acquire full responsibility over all of the agricultural endeavors at the center by
December 15, 2012.
B. Contextualization of the Problem within the Community
Although this program only focuses on one site in Ngaramtoni, it will have an impact on the
nutrition of children throughout the village. The children who attend the orphan center for
classes Monday through Friday are from various households throughout Ngaramtoni.
For example, I visited a home that supports five of the children who attend Jane’s primary
school. Apparently, the mother of this family had passed away a few years prior and it was up to
the grandmother to care for the children. During an interview with the grandmother, she admitted
that obtaining enough food was challenging in itself, without having to worry about the
nutritional quality of the meals. One of the children who lives at the home does not attend school
because he assists his grandmother in maintaining the household. It can safely be assumed that
without Jane’s school, this would be the case for the other five children as well. The food offered
at Jane’s orphanage lifted a significant financial strain from this home, and it is likely that this is
the case for many homes throughout Ngaramtoni.
Twenty-five children, who Jane has legally adopted, live with her at her orphanage. These 25
children, however, are only a small fraction of the target population. As previously mentioned,
Jane feeds an additional 150 children breakfast and lunch Monday through Friday. Many of these
children come from homes, as illustrated in the example above, where they do not have access to
nutritional foods. There are 50 nursery school students (aged 3-5) and 100 primary school
students (aged 6-12) who frequent Jane’s center for two meals each day of the week. There are
also 25 secondary school students who attend Jane’s center and are fed Saturday and
Sunday. Therefore, it is the 25 children living with Jane as well as the 150 other children
attending her school that are our target population, the beneficiaries of the Jane Olevolos Orphan
Center.
4
"Nutrition Facts." Nutrition Data. Self, 2012. http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/dairy-and-egg-products/111/2
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C. Extent and Nature of the Problem
Malnutrition is a major problem in Tanzania. To be considered “healthy” according to the
nutritional standards defined by the World Health Organization, complete proteins, all essential
vitamins and minerals, carbohydrates, and unsaturated fats must be consumed
regularly.5
Specifically, children should intake large quantities of vitamin A, vitamin C, and
calcium to boost growth and immunity. Unfortunately, at the Jane Olevolos Orphan Center, the
children frequently lack several of these essential vitamins and minerals while over-consuming
carbohydrates. Due to this dearth in necessary nutrients, the children are more susceptible to
contracting malaria, tuberculosis, and other air- and water-borne illnesses because their immune
systems are not adequately fortified.6
There are several factors driving the nutritional issues in Ngaramtoni, as well as the rest of
Tanzania. It would be very easy to blame the problem on poverty alone; however, it would also
be wildly inaccurate. While poverty certainly plays a role, it is not the end-all be-
all. Specifically in Ngaramtoni, the majority of the time, it is too dry to plant crops and irrigate
naturally. Therefore, agriculture requires the additional input of water, a resource that must be
purchased. So, to encourage and convince people in this community to adopt agricultural
practices, there must be options to create gardens that use significantly less water than a normal
garden. Another major driver of the problem is lack of education. According to the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, basic knowledge questionnaires have been
administered in a random sample of Maasai communities, revealing very discouraging
results.7
If people do not know what constitutes proper nutrition, they are less likely to maintain
a balanced diet. Finally, cultural preferences and biases also heavily influence diet. In
predominantly Maasai areas, fruit and vegetables are consumed minimally because they prefer to
eat meat and milk to become “strong” and “masculine.”8
Thus, more often than not, the Maasai
will choose commodities produced from livestock instead of produce.
Factors Contributing to the Problem
The major problem addressed in this project is that the children who live at and regularly attend
the Jane Olevolos Orphanage do not receive sufficient nutrition in their daily diets. There are
four major factors that contribute to this issue:
1. The common misconception that protein sources and vegetables can be
substituted with increased intake of carbohydrates. This false perception validates
and supports diets that lack diverse and necessary nutrients.
2. General lack of funding of Jane’s center and impoverished circumstances of the
parents of the children who attend her day school.
5
“Dietary Recommendations / Nutritional Requirements.” World Health Organization. 2011.
http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/nutrecomm/en/index.html
6
"The Link Between Nutrition and Disease." RESULTS Education. April 2011.
http://www.results.org.uk/sites/default/files/Background%20Sheet%202%20-%20April%202011.pdf
7
“Nutrition Education and Consumer Awareness.” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. May 2012.
http://www.fao.org/ag/humannutrition/nutritioneducation/en/
8
"Global Health Case Study - Maasai." McGill University. September 2011. http://www.mcgill.ca/cine/resources/data/maasai
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3. Unavailability and inaccessibility of natural resources to the community at large.
In the context of scarce land, arable soil, and water, it is very difficult to plant
nutritious crops, which can be more fragile than hearty crops such as corn, rice,
and beans.
4. Over-reliance of the parents of the beneficiary children upon the center. As a
result of this dependency, these families fail to channel energy into providing
food, nutritious or otherwise, for their children, thereby reinforcing the cycle of
dependency.
D. Project Design Proposal
To achieve my broad goal of enhancing the nutrition of the children who eat meals at Jane’s
center regularly, I created a substantive, strategic plan, as well as evaluative measures in order to
quantify the magnitude of success that the project entertained. In accordance with the strategic
objectives listed above, my project design involved an integrated, three-prong approach
incorporating theory, practical demonstration, and charitable donation.
Firstly, I developed a curriculum addressing the disciplines of nutrition, sanitation and general
public health awareness, and theory of garden construction and maintenance conforming to the
bio-intensive agricultural school of thought. Tailoring the content to two different student
cohorts – the primary and secondary schoolchildren – the curriculum encouraged the children to
engage in learning through several media including games, group activities, role-playing,
dialogue, and traditional lectures.
Although understanding the theory underpinning the project is crucially important, the greatest
emphasis was placed upon the learning that took place through practical demonstration and
construction of agricultural structures. The plan called for the construction of a compost pile,
three sack gardens, several nursery beds, a key-hole garden, and a double-dug bed. The intention
was to assume a very hands-on, dominant role initially, slowly relinquishing ownership to the
most devoted and engaged children, and finally fulfilling a simple supervisory role until my
departure when ownership would be transferred entirely to the children themselves. Even during
the demonstrations in which I undertook a more dominant role, I required the children to actively
watch and ask questions in order to capacitate them to potentially replicate them in the future.
Finally, the last component, though much smaller in emphasis, was still an integral part of the
program. I organized a fundraising campaign through the sale of bracelets made by the resident
orphans to communities throughout the United States and applied the proceeds to purchase 100
chicks from a local farmer for the purpose of egg and meat production for the children.
Although this large, up-front input cost is not conducive to a traditionally sustainable program,
eggs will perpetually be laid, both for consumption and for maturation into hens.
To determine the effect of these initiatives on the overall nutritional status of the children, I
defined the independent variables by the number of buckets of produce harvested and the number
of eggs collected; the dependent variables were given by the children’s weight and scores on
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surveys administered to assess feelings of healthiness and well-being. This study was conducted
using a pre-post design without a control group. Furthermore, the participants in the study were
self-selected. Surveys were given and weights were measured prior to beginning the project in
order to determine a benchmark against which future results could be compared. These
measurements were taken every week thereafter until my departure to track progress over time.
Unfortunately, this design is slightly flawed because there was no control group against which I
could compare data; furthermore, since the subjects of the study were self-selected, particularly
those who attended the classroom sessions and took on greater responsibility in maintaining the
gardens, the data may be slightly skewed.
In terms of the variables, some very obvious flaws are also present. Firstly, the independent
variables only measure the amount of food cultivated; they do not account for variance in
nutritional value of different crops nor do they measure the way in which the food is prepared
and distributed. Therefore, any loss in nutrients due to cooking malfunctions or waste are not
considered. The dependent variable indicators are also imperfect in that they cannot fully
encapsulate nutritional impact. Weight, although indicative of amount of food digested on
average, cannot convey the types of nutrients consumed. The surveys, though explicitly
explained and translated by native Tanzanians, are quite subjective. However, by surveying a
sample group of 114 children, I expect the results of these surveys to standardize to a certain
degree. In English, the survey read as follows:
While these variables are far from perfect, I am confident that their usage will bring to light
correlational connections that are worth looking into and learning from for future studies.
E. Resources and Management
The project relies on three levels of personnel. The first level is Global Service Corps
representatives. This level of personnel is responsible for planning the project, coordinating with
Jane about visits, transportation, supplying materials that are not available naturally, and
properly teaching the tenets of BIA. The second level is Jane herself. Although the project
emphasizes the children asserting ownership over the gardens and mastering BIA techniques
independently, Jane plays an instrumental role in the project. She is responsible for organizing
children for lectures, coordinating with GSC representatives about visits, and distributing
vegetables and eggs post-production. The third level is the primary and secondary schoolchildren
who live with Jane. These children take on increasing responsibilities as the project advances.
For the first few weeks, they were responsible for learning about BIA and nutrition through
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being the worst and 5 being the best),
please respond to the following questions:
1. How happy do you feel today? 1 2 3 4 5
2. How tired do you feel today? 1 2 3 4 5
3. How does your stomach feel today? 1 2 3 4 5
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lectures and demonstrations. The children then assumed an active role in maintaining the gardens
with GSC representatives. Then the children were given specific tasks to accomplish, replacing
GSC representatives. These responsibilities ranged from watering garden beds to transplanting
seedlings. After December 15, 2012, the children gained complete control over the gardens on
the site, including creating and maintaining garden beds, choosing what to plant in each garden
bed, transplanting seedlings, watering garden beds, constructing new garden beds, controlling
pests, and harvesting plants.
There are two types of resources used for the project: those easily found in the compound of
surrounding community and those which had to be additionally supplemented through external
financing. These materials included farming equipment such as hoes, shovels, and buckets;
building materials such as bricks and sacks for keyhole and sack gardens; seeds for planting; and
chickens. Natural materials are materials that can be found naturally at little or no cost near the
site. These materials consist of soil, manure, water, green plant material, brown plant material,
sticks, wood ash, and mulch. For the most part, GSC representatives supply the additional
materials while Jane and the children supply the natural materials. Apart from the cost of the
materials listed above, the only other cost associated with the agricultural portion of the project is
transportation of GSC representatives to and from the site.
Limited vs. Unlimited Funding
The program was designed to be cheap and sustainable. Most of the materials requiring purchase
are cheap initial input costs, with the exception of seeds. Regardless, the project has different
levels of potential based upon funding.
A project that is implemented with little to no funding would result in fewer gardens produced,
chickens purchased, and visits from project implementers. Clearly, with fewer gardens and
chickens, the nutritional impact of the project would diminish. More importantly, if visits to the
site were decreased, the involvement and interest of the children would decrease significantly. It
is expected that with limited visits, the program would not have become fully sustainable by the
time the GSC representatives left.
On the other hand, a project that is implemented with large amounts of funding has great
potential to increase the nutritional levels of the resident and school-attending children at the
Jane Olevolos Orphanage, in addition to a large proportion of the Ngaramtoni community.
Heavily funded projects may also result in an increase of the orphanage’s funds to be allocated
elsewhere or through profit-making schemes. For example, if a greater number of gardens are
constructed, higher yields will be harvested. If a certain threshold of food is produced, Jane may
have a surplus which she can sell to people in the community, turning a small profit and
simultaneously boosting the nutritional diversity of the wider community. Theoretically, as a
program gains more success, it also attracts more attention, particularly from donors and
individuals interested in extending the program, stimulating a ripple effect throughout the area.
Ideally, the children who were trained initially in the principles of BIA would then perpetuate
this knowledge and teach others how to design their own garden systems.
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This theoretical understanding of monetary impact on the success and extent of a project was
what prompted me to fundraise. As an individual with limited time, resources, and connections,
it was impractical for me to apply for grants. Rather, I chose to create a website describing my
project, promoting the sale of handmade bracelets to American patrons. I partnered with an
elementary school in Oneonta, New York, and together we sought to raise as much money as
possible to purchase chicks and input costs for the agricultural portion of the project. This way,
the project would not be limited to the very finite amount of personal money that I had at my
disposal.
F. Potential Risk Factors
Evident in any charitable project, there were certain risks that were attached to this project. Some
of these risks have already presented themselves while others will certainly surface later in the
life of the project. These risks are both environmental and behavioral.
My goal of increasing the nutritional quality of the beneficiaries of the Jane Olevolos Orphan
Center in a sustainable manner is very much dependent upon the actual beliefs and attitudes of
the children about our project. My last visit to the orphanage was on December 15, 2012; after
this time, the program theoretically became fully sustainable. This means that the children at the
orphanage along with Jane and her staff are entirely responsible for the continued maintenance of
the gardens and produce yields. Potentially, the children could lack the knowledge, motivation,
or materials to continue producing vegetables. A large risk of any charitable work is that the
work done will reinforce the dependency cycle.9
The dependency cycle is an interaction between
a benefactor and a beneficiary where the beneficiary becomes reliant upon the charity it receives,
thereby reducing its own agency and autonomy. If this program fails to adequately equip the
beneficiaries of Jane’s orphanage to be self-reliant, then it will not be sustainable and will
contribute to the dependency cycle.
In all agricultural projects, there are various environmental risks. Tanzania, like many equatorial
countries, can be subject to drought. Although Ngaramtoni is not in an especially dry region, the
region’s rainy seasons do vary drastically, making it very difficult to plant effectively. Although
we experienced a successful short rains season during the planting season in which I
implemented this project, drought is a problem that it may face in future seasons. Another
environmental factor is the prevalence of pests: a constant threat to any farming project. The
underpinning method of farming – bio-intensive agriculture – embodied by the project provides
cheap and free methods of controlling the presence of pests in gardens. Regardless, if I didn’t
teach these methods well enough or they are not practiced by those put in charge of continuing
the project, then pests will definitely reduce yields, reducing the nutritional impact of the project.
The last risk can occur after the vegetables have been harvested through improper distribution or
preparation. If Jane distributes the vegetables unequally, such as saving vegetables for guests or
only giving them to kids at certain ages, then the success of the project will be endangered.
Moreover, poor preparation of the vegetables, such as overcooking or improperly washing them,
could significantly decrease the nutritional benefits of the program.
9
Vincent Ferraro, "Dependency Theory: An Introduction." The Development Economics Reader, ed. Giorgio Secondi (London:
Routledge, 2008), pp. 58-64
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IV. IMPLEMENTATION
In any intensive research project, a predetermined series of steps must be followed in order to
properly collect data and accurately measure success. The following section provides the
specific details concerning the processes that were rolled out throughout the project’s
implementation.
A. Needs Assessment
On September 22, 2012, I first began working with the Jane Olevolos Orphan Center. Although
it was only intended to be a visit to meet the kids and to assist Jane in relocating to a new facility,
this became my initial needs assessment. While moving Jane and her 25 resident children into
the new location, I saw firsthand that basic meals at the center were inadequate to sustain healthy
growth and development of the children, as mentioned in the background section.
On September 29, I designed and implemented a proper needs assessment. This assessment
consisted of two components. First, I interviewed Jane about the number of children she feeds,
how often she feeds them, what a basic meal consists of, how she obtained different foods, and
her general thoughts about the nutrition that the kids received. Jane informed me that she is
responsible for feeding up to 175 children (25 of whom live with her). When asked about her
access to vegetables, she responded that while beans, corn, and rice were easy to buy or plant in
large quantities, vegetables were not. Due to the high number of dependent children and a
constrained budget, her duty was simply to buy and grow as much food as possible at as little
cost as possible, effectively excluding vegetables from the kids’ daily diets. I then conducted a
site evaluation examining her arable land, availability of diverse natural resources, and correlated
access to these resources in the surrounding area. Upon the conclusion of the needs assessment,
it was determined that there were sufficient resources and space on the property to implement a
program of bio-intensive agriculture.
Benchmark Assessments
In order to track the progress associated with this program, it was important to obtain data
describing the children’s nutritional situation before implementing the project. I printed surveys
for each of the students that were at the center on September 29, 2012 and distributed them,
while my Tanzanian colleague explained the instructions to them in Swahili. We asked them not
to speak to one another and to fill out the surveys independently and privately, writing their
names at the top of their respective surveys. I then collected them and compiled their responses
into an excel spreadsheet. Obtaining the information about their weights was a bit more
involved, in that there were two scales at our disposal to weigh each of the children. This
process consumed about three hours, but we recorded each child’s weight and made a separate
excel spreadsheet.
On this initial day, we collected data from 114 children. On the happiness indicator, the median
score was 3 and the average score was 2.94. On the tiredness indicator, the median score was 2
and the average score was 2.52. On the stomach wellness indicator, the median score was 3 and
the average score was 3.25. The distribution is illustrated in Figure 1. We also obtained the
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data about their weights, which is represented in Figure 2. Although the weight distribution is
largely concentrated between 45-59 pounds, the variation is explained most accurately by the
range of ages of children who were weighed.
These initial measurements were crucial to determine so that all future data collected could be
compared against these data values, enabling analysis of post-program changes and progress.
0
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80
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Happiness
Indicator
Tiredness
Indicator
Stomach
Wellness
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(lbs.)
Figure
1.
Benchmark
Survey
Data
Figure
2.
Benchmark
Weight
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Survey
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Number
of
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Number
of
Children
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B. Account of the Activities Implemented
Over the course of three months, with the assistance of several of my colleagues at GSC, I
implemented each component of my plan. This operation was conducted through weekly visits
to the site. The following section outlines each visit’s tasks and accomplishments.
September 29, Needs Assessment: The needs assessment was carried out one week after my first
visit to the orphan center on my suspicion that the children were not receiving adequate nutrition
in their diets. In addition to collecting the initial benchmark data of the children who were at the
center that day, I interviewed Jane Olevolos, determining how much money she had at her
disposal and the prices of different foodstuffs; observed the lunch meal preparation, distribution,
and consumption; and surveyed the land in order to determine which types of BIA-conforming
gardens would work best within the limited confines of the center. After conducting this
inspection, I determined that, according to Jane’s comments and my own observations, the
children were deficient in Vitamins A, C, and E, as well as iron and potassium.
October 1, Garden Construction Seminar: Two days after conducting the needs assessment, I
taught the theoretical underpinnings of the bio-intensive agriculture school of thought for
constructing different types of gardens. This session was designed for children ages 12-18 who
would develop a greater understanding of the underlying reasons to construct each garden in
distinct, water-conserving manners. The subsequent afternoon session involved step-by-step
instructions outlining how to create sack gardens and plant nurseries. For this segment of the
seminar, all of the children were invited to participate.
October 2, Two Sack Gardens and One Plant Nursery Made: Following the interactive lecture
series on sack gardens and plant nurseries, I purchased the sacks for the sack gardens and
demonstrated how to create these two types of gardens in appropriate locations within the center
compound. During this demonstration, I did most of the work, explaining the steps as I carried
them out.
October 3, One Sack Garden and One Plant Nursery Made: The next day, we constructed
another sack garden and another plant nursery. This time, however, I continued to walk through
the steps with the children, but some of the more adventurous children actually performed the
designated steps.
October 7, Garden Construction Seminar: The next project I hoped to undertake was to build a
keyhole garden, one of the most labor-intensive endeavors promoted by BIA. I invited all of the
children at the center that day to participate, and after having instructed the procedures necessary
to construct this garden, we engaged in a rapid-fire trivia game. This boosted interest and
excitement about the garden that we would create the subsequent day. I also explained how to
build a productive compost pile using materials found naturally within the center or for free in
the nearby community, such as manure, dry leaves, wood ash, and more.
October 8, One Keyhole Made: As I explained in the instructive session, keyhole gardens require
a great amount of time and effort. Early in the morning, with the help of some of my colleagues
at GSC, I purchased 100 stone bricks (which would become the perimeter structure of the
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garden) and transported them to the center. Along with many of the children who had attended
the session the previous day, my colleagues and I spent the whole day constructing the keyhole
garden. Most of the time, the children and the GSC staff shared tasks and responsibilities
equally. The garden was built flawlessly.
October 9, One Compost Pile Made: Compost is one of the most important elements of a
successful garden, especially when applied to large gardens prior to sowing the seeds.
Unfortunately, it takes approximately six to eight weeks to full decompose, so this pile could not
be used for the first round of garden creation. However, this project was particularly fun to
undertake with the children because each child could have control over systematically adding
one component to the pile, fostering the sentiment of community collaboration.
October 11, Nutrition Seminar: I spent a great
deal of time preparing two different age-
appropriate sessions – one for the primary
students and one for the secondary students – on
the topic of nutrition and the requirements for a
balanced diet. I designed several games,
activities requiring critical thinking, and role
playing simulations in order to inculcate the
necessity for all components of the food pyramid
to be incorporated into daily consumption. I
consulted with the secondary school students to
determine which vegetables to plant in the
gardens we created in the previous weeks, and we came to the conclusion that we should plant
carrots, Chinese cabbage, spinach, and night shade.
October 12, Three Sack Gardens, One Keyhole, and Two Plant Nurseries Sown: I demonstrated
the technique to ensure proper plant spacing and distributed seeds to each of the children who
expressed interest in planting seeds in the gardens. We planted spinach in the sack gardens,
carrots and Chinese cabbage – complementary plants – in the keyhole garden, and night shade in
the plant nurseries. I delegated the task of watering the gardens to three of the older children.
October 14, Two Plant Nurseries Made and Sown: A few days later, I solicited the help of
several more children to create two more plant nurseries elsewhere within the compound and
sow them with nightshade and Chinese cabbage. For the most part, I simply supervised and
served as an instructive resource rather than actually performing any substantive work. This was
an attempt to begin the process of transferring ownership from Global Service Corps and myself
to the children themselves.
October 27, One Plant Nursery of Nightshade Transplanted: About two weeks after sowing the
first gardens, small sprouts began to spring up. We prepared a nearby field owned by Jane in
which we could transplant the nightshade we had originally planted within the nursery beds.
Although this component of the program does not strictly conform to urban agriculture, it is still
important to include. In most cities, given a certain level of access to transportation, it is
possible to either buy or use a small plot of land for produce cultivation. With the help of fifteen
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children ages 10-18, three beds were created, measuring roughly 15x20 feet each, for the purpose
of transplanting the nightshade seedlings. I demonstrated the proper techniques to delicately
uproot the seedlings and to replant them into the new, heartier beds. By the end of the day, the
kids took full ownership of replanting the seedlings.
November 3, Follow Up-Visit, Compost Pile Turned: I returned to the center one week later to
monitor the progress of the beds of nightshade that had been transplanted. Unfortunately, I
discovered that the three children who were tasked to water the gardens had not understood that
it was also their responsibility to water the beds of transplants. Therefore, all of the seedlings
had dried out and died. While disappointing, this mistake served as a reminder that, for now,
explicit instructions and delegation of tasks were necessary to successfully maintain the gardens.
During this same visit, I enlisted the help of several of the younger students to turn the compost
pile, in order to transfer the material from the outside of the pile into the center so that the pile
would decompose uniformly. The material looked very healthy.
November 4, Two Nurseries Transplanted: The seedlings cultivated in the most recently
constructed nursery beds were ready to be transplanted during this visit, so I asked the children
who had participated in transplanting the last time to continue with this process. I designated the
task of watering these beds to two different children, ages 12 and 13, so that responsibility was
not concentrated entirely within the first group of three students to water the plants. The children
enthusiastically and skillfully transplanted the nightshade.
November 10, First Harvest Cultivated: Having sown the sack gardens and the keyhole garden
about one month previously, the first harvest of spinach and Chinese cabbage were ready to be
prepared! I solicited the help of six eager young students to help me pick the greens and place
them into four-gallon buckets. This harvest produced approximately four buckets of spinach and
four buckets of Chinese cabbage. We then sowed more seeds where necessary to begin a second
harvest. The center’s cook prepared the greens and served it to the children with rice and
chicken for dinner. Only two buckets were used for that night’s meal, so the rest was preserved
in the center’s refrigerator and was served
throughout the week at various meals.
November 17, Second Harvest Cultivated:
One week later, the first harvest of carrots and
nightshade that had been transplanted was
collected. We sowed more seeds as necessary
to continue the ongoing process of production.
Two four-gallon buckets of carrots were
collected and seven buckets were filled with
nightshade. Once again, these vegetables
were served for the next two weeks at various
meals for all different groups of students.
November 18, Compost Collected, Double-Dug Bed Created: The following day, with the help
of several of the older boys, I engaged in a practical demonstration of creating a double-dug bed
in one of the few arable, open spaces left within the compound. Double-dug beds require that
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the earth be lifted and turned twice in order to aerate the soil adequately. The compost that we
created was used in the creation of the bed as well to provide the soil with as many nutrients as
possible. This was a very labor-intensive project, but the boys who were involved felt very
proud of their accomplishment, stimulating a vested interest to maintain the garden.
November 19, Double-Dug Bed Sown, Chicks Purchased: I solicited the help of several primary
school students to plant more spinach and radishes (complementary plants), using proper spacing
techniques, in the double-dug bed. I also examined the rest of the gardens throughout the
compound and found that they were being well-maintained and watered. The same afternoon,
two of the older resident children and I went to
town to purchase 100 four month-old chicks using
the money I had fundraised through the bracelet
selling campaign. Most of the chicks would
become hens, but we also bought a few male
chicks.
November 20, New Compost Pile Created: Several
of the primary schoolchildren assisted me in
creating another compost pile where the first one
had resided prior to using it for the double-dug bed.
This process was almost entirely conducted by the
children, who, after a few reminders about the order in which they should combine materials,
began to chant the order of the materials in a choral manner.
November 24, First Post-Survey and Weight Measurements Administered: After two weeks of
the children having vegetables introduced into their diets on a regular basis, two of my
colleagues and GSC and I administered the same survey we had used as a pre-survey. We also
weighed each of the children. I intentionally provided these surveys on the same day of the week
as the pre-surveys in order to test the same children who had been used in the benchmark
analysis. I compiled all of the data, which is demonstrated graphically in the following section.
November 27, Third Harvest Cultivated: The supply of carrots and nightshade that had been
harvested on November 17 was finally depleted on November 26, so the next harvest of spinach
and Chinese cabbage grown in the sack gardens and keyhole garden were collected and new
seeds were sown as necessary. Three buckets of spinach and four buckets of Chinese cabbage
were harvested, prepared, served, and stored in the same fashion as the first round of vegetable
production. The lag time between the spinach and Chinese cabbage versus the carrots and
nightshade seemed to ensure that new vegetables were served every week to the children.
December 1, Second Post-Survey and Weight Measurements Administered, First Eggs Collected:
Being the third time that the children had undergone this process, it went very efficiently.
During the post-survey, I reminded them to take their responses seriously in order to achieve the
most accurate, unbiased information possible. The data were tabulated and are represented
graphically below. We also collected the first few eggs that were laid; there were only six in
total.
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December 8, Third Post-Survey and Weight Measurements Administered, Fourth Harvest
Cultivated: The third post-survey and weight measuring process went as smoothly as it had one
week prior. I also discovered that another 28 eggs had been laid throughout the week, providing
a very consistent and self-sustaining protein source for the children. Many of the primary
schoolchildren, under my loose supervision, harvested spinach from the double-dug bed and
nightshade from the garden beds that had been
transplanted, sowing more seeds as necessary.
They collected five buckets of spinach and four
buckets of nightshade, which was once against
prepared, served, and stored by the center’s cook.
December 12, Fifth Harvest Cultivated, Compost
Pile Turned: Carefully and independently, many
of the children harvested the carrots from the
keyhole garden and the radishes from the double-
dug bed, filling three buckets and four buckets,
respectively. The cook cut them all up and set
aside half of these root vegetables to be dried and
stored for seasons that would be less productive. The children who had previously been involved
in creating and turning the compost pile also independently turned the pile to ensure that it would
decompose uniformly. Furthermore, I discovered that another 22 eggs had been laid since my
last visit.
December 15, Final Post-Survey and Weight Measurements Administered: This was my last day
at Jane’s orphan center. My colleagues and I tabulated the final weight measurements and
results from the final post-survey, shown in the graph in the next section. I also held one last
seminar with the secondary schoolchildren and resident orphans to discuss next steps with them,
as I would be leaving Tanzania the following day. I developed a check list with their input,
indicating all of the tasks that had to be completed regularly, including watering, sowing,
harvesting, and storing the vegetables, as well as continuing the compost and integrate the
decomposed compost into the soil of the existing gardens. I had each of them volunteer to be
responsible for the tasks that they were most interested in, wrote their names on a list, and gave
the list to Jane in order to maintain accountability.
V. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
A. Data Analysis
As outlined in the design proposal, the children’s nutritional well-being is a function of the
amount of produce cultivated and eggs collected, as measured by the questions outlined in the
surveys and the children’s changes in weight. Figure 3 graphically represents the association
between the date on which the data was collected and the average answers on the survey
questions (the left y-axis) and the average weight of the children (the right y-axis). During the
first and second post-surveys, three of the original children were missing; during the third post-
test, four of the original children were missing; and during the final post-test, three of the original
children were missing. Three to four children out of 114 surveyed is not a significant enough
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proportion to dramatically skew the results, especially because these children all fell within one
standard deviation of the mean for each of the data sets that were analyzed.
In examining Figure 3, it is evident that there is some level of correlation between increased
intake of vegetables diverse in vitamins and minerals and physical and mental well-being. Of the
survey questions, the indicator whose average spiked most dramatically was the question
determining the children’s levels of fatigue and sleepiness. Once they began consuming spinach
and nightshade, leafy greens which contain large amounts of potassium,10
a mineral which
increases energy, their energy levels increased by 62% over the course of three months. Eggs,
which were introduced at the end of the study, contain high amounts of vitamin B12 which also
helps to eliminate fatigue.11
The happiness indicator, although less drastic than the tiredness
indicator, also experienced a significant leap. While there is no nutrient that is the panacea for
feelings of unhappiness, there are several vitamins and minerals that have been scientifically
proven to improve mood and to quell anxiety, including magnesium, iron, and vitamin C.12
Spinach and nightshade both contain significant amounts of iron and magnesium, while carrots
and Chinese cabbage are both relatively rich in vitamin C. The indicator measuring feelings of
stomach wellness increased by much less than the other two survey questions. While there is no
conclusive reason for this trend, I hypothesize that this is due to consumption of cabbage, which
10
Coles, Terry. “Kale vs. Spinach: Which is Healthier?” Huffington Post. July 2, 2013.
http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2013/07/02/kale-vs-spinach_n_3534191.html
11
“Vitamin B12 Deficiency.” University of Wisconsin – Madison, Health. December 10, 2012.
http://www.uwhealth.org/health/topic/special/anemia-vitamin-b12-deficiency/hw65706.html
12
Kotz, Deborah. “What to Eat to Feel Happier.” US News. February 3, 2010. http://health.usnews.com/health-news/blogs/on-
women/2010/02/03/what-to-eat-to-feel-happier
52.5
53
53.5
54
54.5
55
55.5
56
56.5
57
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Sept.
29
Nov.
24
Dec.
1
Dec.
8
Dec.
15
Happiness
Indicator
Tiredness
Indicator
Stomach
Wellness
Indicator
Weight
Figure
3.
Post-‐Survey
and
Weight
Data
Average
Survey
Score
Average
Weight
(lbs.)
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stimulates gassiness.13
While this is actually healthy, it can provide discomfort, which would
explain the relatively stagnant responses to the question about their stomach health.
The average weight of the children also increased by about two pounds over the course of three
months. Unfortunately, this indicator is less explanatory than the indicators derived from the
survey. It is very normal for growing children to gain one or two pounds over the course of
months because they are naturally becoming larger. Also, weight can fluctuate significantly
depending upon the amount of water consumed, exercise exerted, and digestive processes that
take place during the day. Therefore, although there is a positive correlation between increased
vegetable consumption and weight, it is unclear whether there is any causal relationship.
B. Evaluation of the Intervention
Monitoring and evaluation is vital for the assessment of the efficacy of any program. Without
proper evaluation, it is impossible to definitively ascertain whether or not an intervention is
actually making a positive impact. Therefore, regular monitoring of the program throughout its
implementation, as well as after the completion of the intervention, is of utmost importance. For
accurate and unbiased surveillance, the person conducting the evaluation would ideally be
uninvolved in the planning and implementation of the intervention. This model provides diverse
perspectives and impartial communication of information. Unfortunately, I did not have the time
or the resources to solicit the help of an uninvolved third party contractor.
There are three major types of evaluation: process, outcome, and impact. Process evaluation
involves assessing the effectiveness of the logistics and mechanics of the intervention. This
equates to monitoring time management, proper use of resources and materials, and overall
efficiency of the intervention. For the purpose of my program, process evaluation included
several processes: recording the amount of unproductive time spent due to communication or
coordination error; comparing the amount of money spent on materials required for the
intervention to the lowest prices available to ensure that the sum of money makes as large an
impact as possible; and utilizing the method of observation to determine if any of the materials
were wasted. During each visit I made to the orphanage, I loosely tracked these measures of
efficiency and adjusted and reinstructed as I saw fit in order to minimize the recurrence of these
errors in the future. Due to the qualitative nature of these kinds of measurements, I subjectively
made changes; for example, when I saw some of the younger children dropping seeds while
sowing the garden, I would give them fewer seeds at a time so that they would more closely pay
attention to their seeds.
The second type of evaluation assesses the specific tasks and activities that the intervention seeks
to perform. In the PRECEDE-PROCEED model of health behavior theories, this concept is
known as outcomes evaluation.14
For my intervention, this involved two methods of evaluation:
observation and record keeping. Firstly, I counted the number of gardens created. To further
assess the sustainability of the program, I compared the ratio of gardens that were created 1)
13
Allen, Suzanne. “Negative Effects of Cabbage.” San Francisco Gate. 2014. http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/negative-effects-
cabbage-2960.html
14
Crosby, R. and S. M. Noar. “What is a Planning Model? An Introduction to PRECEDE-PROCEED.” Journal of Public Health
and Dentistry. Winter 2011; 71 Supplement 1: S7-15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21656942
19.
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exclusively by Global Service Corps representatives, 2) by a combined effort of GSC
representatives and children at the orphan center, and 3) exclusively by children at the orphan
center. In considering all of the types of gardens and projects – three sack, one keyhole, four
plant nursery, four transplant, and one double-dug, as well as two compost piles – the ratio is
1:12:3. Secondly, I reported the number of children who attended the training sessions and the
number of cumulative hours spent training the children in nutrition and garden management. In
this case, 131 children attended at least one of the training sessions and a total of 18 hours was
spent providing classroom instruction. Next, I ascertained the ratio of eggs produced by the
chickens to the number of children eating regular meals at the orphan center. Within the two
weeks that the chickens began producing eggs, there were 56 eggs laid, or about two eggs per
resident orphan. As the chickens begin to lay more eggs, they will become a protein source for
all of the children who regularly eat meals at the center. Finally, I measured the weight of the
vegetables cultivated in a typical harvest and determined the ratio of children to the amount of
vegetables they receive from one harvest. Although none of these methods reveal whether or not
the children’s nutrition has improved, they do show that the intervention is or is not producing
physical results.
The final form of evaluation is known as the impact evaluation. This is the component of an
intervention that potential donors are interested in, as well as the determinant of whether or not
the intervention is creating the change that it was intended to make. Unfortunately, this type of
evaluation can be the most challenging to perform because its indicators are often qualitative in
nature, thereby making it difficult to standardize. For the purposes of this project, the impact
evaluation required the development and administration of a survey before, during, and after the
program. This survey qualitatively assessed a sample of children who regularly eat meals at the
orphan center in regards to how they felt physically and mentally after the commencement of the
program as compared to how they felt previously. While this tool of evaluation presented a wide
margin of error, it was one of the only methods that could measure the impact without extensive
medical and technological equipment and a period of time that extends far beyond four months.
Weight was also used as an indicator; however, as previously explained, it is quite flimsy and
inconclusive in terms of substantively demonstrating changes in nutrition apart from simple
changes in the intake of food.
These evaluations, on all levels, serve to determine which aspects of a study are effective and
efficient, as well as their ineffective counterparts. Throughout the process, adjustments and
improvements can be made to the design of the intervention. If, for example, it is discovered that
a component of the intervention is not being efficiently implemented, that component can be
redesigned to proactively improve the outcome and the impact of the intervention as a whole.
VI. RELEVANCE AND EXTENSION OF THE RESEARCH
A week before I departed from Tanzania, I had the privilege of meeting with a man named
Godsperth who served as the chair of the Orphans Foundation Fund. This organization
essentially monitors all of the registered orphanages in the area to ensure that they comply with
both national and international standards of quality, in addition to serving as a resource for the
centers. Jane had communicated with him about the work I had been doing and he visited the
center to survey the program. After presenting the data and giving him a tour of the gardens, I
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was delighted to learn that he was impressed and interested in potentially replicating the program
I had designed for Jane’s orphanage at other orphan centers throughout the area. As my
departure was imminent, I provided him with all of the documents and written work I had
produced throughout the project, hopefully giving him the necessary knowledge and information
to fuel similar projects at other centers.
This encounter was inspiring because it demonstrated that my small dream could be extended
beyond my initial imaginative scheme. Although I was unable to help with the initiation of the
programs at other centers, I have since been informed that four additional orphan centers
embraced projects based upon the one I started at Jane’s orphanage, three of which are still
thriving and infusing vegetables into the diets of more than 350 children.
Urban agricultural schemes have produced varying degrees of success worldwide. In Havana,
Cuba, the poster child of effective urban agriculture, the government spearheaded the initiative to
acquire full food sovereignty in the 1990s after the Soviet Union was dismantled and halted its
support for Cuba.15
Urban planners provided space for extensive garden spaces and the
government established the Department of Urban Agriculture to be responsible for the support,
safety, and supervision of all agricultural projects throughout the city. By the turn of the century,
Havana’s food production was able to supplement the traditional agricultural commodities
cultivated in rural Cuba, effectively sustaining the city and removing all dependence upon
foreign assistance.
On the other hand, other cities have adopted more piece-meal, ground-up approaches to
introduce urban agriculture. Washington, DC, for example, is the home for many isolated
community garden projects and organizations seeking to address the stark inequalities in food
access to different wards. Organizations such as the Neighborhood Farm Initiative16
and the
Common Good City Farm17
converted unused spaces into community gardens. Both of these
organizations provide training and demonstration sessions for interested community members
and donate the produce grown on site to local food banks and homeless shelters. However, due
to the small-scale, independent nature of these initiatives, it is difficult to measure the impact
they have had on the overall nutrition of the residents of DC. Ultimately, the project I
implemented in Ngaramtoni may eventually create a ripple effect that transforms the culture of
food production in the urban area in which it is enveloped in the way that other agricultural
approaches have altered Havana and Washington, DC.
VII. CONCLUSION
Upon completion of this project, it became clear that all five strategic objectives, set forth prior
to commencing the program, had been met. Five different vegetables, all containing different
vitamins and minerals, were introduced into the diets of every child who eats regularly at Jane’s
center; the children received more than ten cumulative hours of training in nutrition, sanitation,
and garden maintenance; the principles of BIA were utilized to ensure high-quality, safe food;
15
Premat, Adriana. “Havana’s Urban Agriculture.” Yale University. 2012.
http://www.yale.edu/agrarianstudies/colloqpapers/01premat.pdf
16
“Our Mission.” Neighborhood Farm Initiative. 2014. http://neighborhoodfarminitiative.org/our-mission/
17
“About Us.” Common Good City Farm. 2014. http://commongoodcityfarm.org/about
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the ratio of eggs to resident children was more than 2:1 after a few weeks of having the hens; and
by my departure on December 15, the children had all self-assigned tasks which they were
responsible for upholding in order to ensure the longevity of the garden program.
Ultimately, this project was born as a response to my dissatisfaction with the dietary intake of the
children of the Jane Olevolos Orphan Center. There was a relatively simple and cheap solution
to a problem that plagued hundreds of children at Jane’s center, as well as several other
orphanages in the area. I was humbled and honored to have the privilege of working so closely
with some of the brightest, most curious and beautiful young people that I have ever encountered
to make a small difference. Hopefully, as mentioned in the section on extensions stemming from
this research, this model of bio-intensive agriculture will be propagated to other centers in the
Arusha region and beyond to create change in vegetable consumption among impoverished,
underprivileged children. Of course, with any project that is devised and implemented by a
foreigner or outsider (in this case, me), there is risk that it was not translated properly into the
cultural context. The fact that I was the one who implemented this new innovation may have
longer-term implications on the sustainability of the program, potentially due to loss of interest
or inability to remedy technical problems as they arise (such as a malfunction of the gardens’
internal irrigation systems). Thus, while this program was successful in its onset, it is important
to understand that its sustainability is not guaranteed.
VIII. REFERENCES
“About Us.” Common Good City Farm. 2014. http://commongoodcityfarm.org/about
Allen, Suzanne. “Negative Effects of Cabbage.” San Francisco Gate. 2014.
http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/negative-effects-cabbage-2960.html
Coles, Terry. “Kale vs. Spinach: Which is Healthier?” Huffington Post. July 2, 2013.
http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2013/07/02/kale-vs-spinach_n_3534191.html
Crosby, R. and S. M. Noar. “What is a Planning Model? An Introduction to PRECEDE-
PROCEED.” Journal of Public Health and Dentistry. Winter 2011; 71 Supplement 1: S7-
15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21656942
“Dietary Recommendations / Nutritional Requirements.” World Health Organization. 2011.
http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/nutrecomm/en/index.html
“Global Health Case Study - Maasai." McGill University. September 2011.
http://www.mcgill.ca/cine/resources/data/maasai
“Global Health Observatory Data Repository: Tanzania.” World Health Organization, 2011.
http://apps.who.int/ghodata/?vid=20700&theme=country
“Hunger Statistics.” World Food Programme. 2014. http://www.wfp.org/hunger/stats
22.
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Kotz, Deborah. “What to Eat to Feel Happier.” US News. February 3, 2010.
http://health.usnews.com/health-news/blogs/on-women/2010/02/03/what-to-eat-to-feel-
happier
The Link Between Nutrition and Disease." RESULTS Education. April 2011.
http://www.results.org.uk/sites/default/files/Background%20Sheet%202%20-
%20April%202011.pdf
“Nutrition Education and Consumer Awareness.” Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations. May 2012. http://www.fao.org/ag/humannutrition/nutritioneducation/en/
"Nutrition Facts." Nutrition Data. Self, 2012. http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/dairy-and-egg-
products/111/2
“Our Mission.” Neighborhood Farm Initiative. 2014. http://neighborhoodfarminitiative.org/our-
mission/
Premat, Adriana. “Havana’s Urban Agriculture.” Yale University. 2012.
http://www.yale.edu/agrarianstudies/colloqpapers/01premat.pdf
Vincent Ferraro, "Dependency Theory: An Introduction." The Development Economics Reader,
ed. Giorgio Secondi (London: Routledge, 2008), pp. 58-64
“Vitamin B12 Deficiency.” University of Wisconsin – Madison, Health. December 10, 2012.
http://www.uwhealth.org/health/topic/special/anemia-vitamin-b12-
deficiency/hw65706.html
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Appendix A. Gardens Promoted by Bio-Intensive Agriculture
Sack Gardens: Gardens which consist of soil and compost stuffed in
a 3-foot tall burlap sack, with a perforated plastic tube filled with small
rocks running vertically through the center through which the garden is
irrigated. Small holes are cut strategically across the sack in which
seeds are planted and can grow, using far less land space and water
than a typical garden.
Keyhole Gardens: Larger gardens which are bounded
by a one-foot tall perimeter of bricks and two perforated
plastic tubes filled with small rocks running vertically
through strategic locations through which the garden is
irrigated. It is circular in shape with a small cut-out
(which looks like a keyhole) so that the gardener can
reach the tubes through which the garden is watered.
This type of garden uses far less water than a typical
garden.
Plant Nurseries: Small, heavily aerated sections of land
that are composed of equal parts soil and compost, along
with several layers of wood ash to create a very fertile,
conducive environment for growth. These gardens are
small and do not require very large tracts of land and are
intended to foster fragile seedlings until they are sturdy
enough to be transplanted.
Double-Dug Garden Beds: Largest gardens
promoted by BIA which are raised, aerated twice,
and integrated with large amounts of compost to
produce large yields with minimal input of water.
These gardens are not ideal in truly urban contexts
because they require larger amounts of land and
resources.
