1. Student Learning:
Can teacher policy,
such as Fundeb,
provide the best
student
learning outcomes for
countries such as Brazil?
Seeking the Evidence.
Green Mountain College
Progressive Program
Senior Project
Allan Michel Jales Coutinho’16
Senior Project Advisor:
Dr. Robin Currey
2. Index & Abstract
1) A Brief introduction to teacher quality and effective resource allocation......................................3
2) On a side note: What do researchers mean by effective teachers and teacher quality?.................4
3) Index: What evidence do we have to draft teacher policies?.............................................................4
4) Research Index........................................................................................................................................5
5) Index Briefing..........................................................................................................................................8
4) Teacher Policy: What are the mainstream policies for teachers?......................................................9
5) Teacher Policy: Contradictions and Overlaps....................................................................................16
6) Contradiction between teacher policy and evidence.........................................................................17
7) Resource Allocation, Student Learning and Teacher Salaries: The Case of FUNDEB..................18
8) Conclusion...............................................................................................................................................20
9) Bibliography.............................................................................................................................................21
Key Words: Teacher Policy, Student Learning, Cost-Allocation and Effectiveness, Brazil, Fundeb.
SUMMARY: Development players such as UNESCO (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cul-
tural Organization), the World Bank Group and the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co‑operation and
Development) have issued several teacher policy recommendations and provided technical assistance to
Latin America and other continents. This research paper identifies key policy recommendations and analyses
the adequacy of evidenciary support for those recommendations. It contributes to the body of literature on
teacher quality by synthesizing policy recommendations and evaluations and identifying contradictions and
overlaps in those policies. Finally, this paper evaluates if and how one can allocate resources to maximize stu-
dent learning in knowledge economies of countries such as Brazil, which has prioritized monetary incentives
as part of its teacher policy through FUNDEB (Fundo de Manutenção e Desenvolvimento da Educação Bási-
ca). The paper applies the results from the Research Index section to FUNDEB and concludes that the current
application of teacher policy cannot yet provide the best outcomes in terms of student achievement.
1
3. One of the most inspiring aspects of my
education at Green Mountain College has been my
experience with the Progressive Program. I was able
to design my own learning path and receive men-
torship from wonderful professors on campus. My
tenure at Green Mountain and Nagoya University, as
well as my personal experience in public schools in
Brazil, culminated this senior project. I am thankful
for the support of professors Rommy Fuller, Akiy-
oshi Yonezawa, Jennifer Baker, Robin Currey, Sam
Edwards, Kenneth Mulder and William Throop. This
senior project is dedicated to people who believe that
education is key for sustainable development, espe-
cially those individuals who are a part of the teaching
profession.
Allan Michel Jales Coutinho
Green Mountain College 16’
Human Capital
Education Teachers
Student Learning
Education Policy
2
4. Education is perceived as one of the most
important production function inputs for economic
growth and sustainable development (Hanushek). As a
result of this finding, countries have strived to increase
their spending on education as a share of gross
domestic product (Montoya). Although this policy
may allude to improvements in education outcomes,
one has to ponder which educational production
function inputs are likely to yield the best student
learning optimals. Several ways in which governments
can invest on public education exist, including public
servant wages, curriculum reform and infrastructure.
Understanding which one of these input factors have
the strongest relationship to student learning is pivotal
if one aims to invest in effective policies that can truly
make a difference in people’s lives.
In 1966, James Colman conducted the first re-
search in the United States that evaluated how school
inputs are related to student learning (Ladd et al. 157).
Among the school inputs that are credited to have
a direct impact on student learning, teacher quality
has been appointed as one of the most important
input factors that can be influenced by policy making
in both short and long terms (OECD Overview 2).
Although policymakers and researchers are aware that
other exogenous variables, such as family income and
parents’ level of education, have a significant impact
on student learning, they are not able to change these
circumstances so easily through public policy. Because
of this premise, teacher quality, usually measured by
a collection of readily quantifiable teacher character-
istics (e.g. years of experience, degree, qualifications,
standardized test scores, verbal ability and subject
matter knowledge) and not-so-readily quantifiable
characteristics (e.g. motivation and enthusiasm), have
been under ongoing scrutiny by researchers and poli-
cymakers alike.
Because it has been shawn that effective teach-
ers have a significant impact on student learning, a
plethora of educational policies surrounding educa-
tion reform have been grounded on teacher policy.
Policymakers strive to craft policies to prepare teach-
ers to face the challenges of the teacher profession as
well as establish incentives that can attract, retain and
motivate high quality candidates to join the workforce.
In order to do so, a large part of public funds are spent
on personnel, including teachers’ wages and benefits.
The Federal Republic of Brazil provides a clear
example of how educational funds have been focused
on teacher policy. In 1995, Brazil aimed to equalize
funding per student throughout Brazil with a law
named FUNDEF (Fundo de Manutenção e Desen-
volvimento do Ensino Fundamental e de Valorização
do Magistério), currently known as FUNDEB. One of
the peculiarities of this law is that the government is
mandated to reserve 60% of all FUNDEB’s funds for
teachers’ salaries (Vegas et al. 16) and the other 40%
to operating costs (Vegas et al. 16). Over the years,
the percent of GDP on education increased consid-
erably due to this policy even compared to other
OECD countries (Bruns et al. 7). Notwithstanding
this fact, student learning (usually measured through
standardized exams such as PISA - Programme for
International Student Assessment) has not significant-
ly improved compared to its level of investments. The
pivotal question regarding education reform for coun-
tries such as Brazil is whether these policies are able to
translate educational inputs into student achievement.
Policymakers should be interested in enacting policies
that are cost effective in relation to student outcome
and that have been proven to work through empirical
research.
Unfortunately, most of the research on teacher
characteristics and its effects on student learning have
inconclusive, mixed findings, which have confounded
those who try to understand the true dynamic be-
tween teacher quality and student outcomes. Yet, the
World Bank, UNESCO and other international orga-
nizations have endorsed policies in their reports even
when the evidence is lacking and/or contradictory.
The issue becomes even more attenuated when gov-
ernments enact educational policies prioritizing funds
to improve teacher characteristics that might not
necessarily lead to student achievement. For example,
in the case of Brazil, one should critically evaluate
whether the 60% of funds allocated to teacher sala-
ries from FUNDEB provides the optimal allocation.
Perhaps investments in education other than teacher
salary itself, such as infrastructure and better
A Brief Introduction to Teacher Quality
and Effective Resource Allocation
3
5. working environments and incentives could lead to
better student learning outcomes. As the World Bank
points out “several policies over the past decade have
lowered class size and imposed across-the-board in-
creases in teacher salaries with little evidence — either
in Brazil or elsewhere — that they can contribute to
improved results” (Bruns et al. 8).
Policymakers and researchers have not clearly
outlined which readily-defined teacher characteristics
impact student learning the most. This report aims
to make a contribution to the large branch
of literature on teacher policy by
providing a small quality index
that evaluates the impact of cer-
tain teacher characteristics on
student learning.
The teacher characteris-
tics evaluated in the Index were
retrieved from systematic reviews
— such as the National Council on
Teacher Quality (NCTQ) booklet titled
“Increasing the Odds: How Good Poli-
cies Can Yield Better Teachers” — as well
as individual studies conducted by scholars
in several academic organizations.
Understanding that studies are conducted in
different countries — where teachers may or may not
be randomily assigned to students — with different
methodologies and under different cultural, political
and social influences, it is important to scrutinize the
strength of the research findings and evaluate whether
these findings and recommendations should be appli-
cable to policies in other countries and their knowledge
economies.
The index provides pivotal information that fur-
ther illustrates that in the field of education and teacher
quality, there exists a paucity of evidence to support
what could yield the best policy optimal in terms of
student learning. The literature affirms that teachers
matter as the most important school input (Goldhaber
52). They clearly do, but how so?
Research Index: What evidence do we
have to draft teacher policies?
On a Side Note: What do researchers mean
by effective teachers and teacher quality?
Quality cannot be easily defined through one
single variable. Quality is spread across a range of
factors such as personal and phychological qualities,
pedagogical standards, ability to raise student learning,
etc. All reports and research involving teacher policy
advocate for greater teacher quality in schools. But what
is quality after all?
There exist several methods utilized by re-
searchers to evaluate how effective teachers are in the
classroom. These methods include the teach-
er value-added models and the
Stallings Classroom Snapshot
instrument. Qualitatively,
teachers can be evaluated in
the classroom by their stu-
dents and other professionals.
This type of methodology can
provide very insightful informa-
tion about the effectiveness of a
teacher. One-to-one relationships
and emotional support cannot be di-
rectly quantified through exams, but only
through holistic evaluations based on both
qualitative and quantitative methods.
Broadly speaking, this report also adheres to the
mainstream approach, which recognizes that an effec-
tive teacher is the professional who works at educational
settings and who is responsible and capable of helping
students acquire adequate knowledge and skills — usu-
ally measured through quantifiable variables.
Because this report also studies cases in which
researchers utilize mainstream methods, it is important
to notice that people may have reservations about meth-
ods such as value-added models. This research does not
explore the merits for and against mainstream meth-
odologies, but the author acknowledges that exams are
an imperfect proxy for quality and therefore suggests
readers to further explore these fields and evaluate the
strengths and weaknesses of such methods.
Student Learning
PsychologicalQualit
ies
Pedagogical
Sta
ndards
EFFECTIVE
TEACHING
4
6. Research Index
This research index includes five major indicators that are easily quantified as proxy for teachers’ knowl-
edge, experience and performance. For example, it is believed that a teacher’s degree accounts for teacher’s
knowledge and, perhaps, to student achievement. Therefore, one can account teachers’ literacy as an indicator
for their performance in the classroom. If it follows that having a Masters’ degree accounts for performance, then
this can be considered a proxy for performance. The same reasoning applies to all of the other indicators.
Certain indicators were not very represented in the index because learning was not accounted as an
objective. For example, induction could be considered a proxy for performance and correlated with student
achievement especially in the long term. However, most of the studies account teaching satisfaction as an out-
come of induction, measuring how induction helps retain personnel. As a result, it is not possible to include that
in the index and state with precision whether this can positively impact student learning. Additionally, the index
evaluates whether salaries can attract and improve the effectiveness of teachers. This is also a pivotal component
of this research.
The index provides from left to right: 1) the title of the research and if it was retrieved from a meta-anal-
ysis, literature review or individual study, which has not been previously included in literature reviews or me-
ta-analyses (through this approach, one does not account for the same study twice), 2) the name of the author, 3)
the country where the research took place, 4) whether student learning was an objective – in other words, it an-
alyzes if student learning is evaluated as part of the research question, 5) comments regarding methodology and
quality (e.g. having control groups and samples) and 6) weighting, which states if the finding should or should
not be fully considered for policy recommendation according to the methodology utilized by the researcher. The
weighting varies from low, medium and high recommendation.
Content
Knowledge
1) Master’s
degree
Pennucci, Annie. “Teacher
Compensation and Training
Policies: Impacts on Student
Outcomes.” May 2012./
Meta-analyses with 26 high
quality studies
United
States
United
States
United
States
Yes,
not explicitly
measured
Yes,
explicitly
measured
“There is relatively little evidence that teacher degree level, e.g. having a master’s degree, is generally a good predictor of teacher quality.”
- Dan Goldhaber
Index
Teacher
Characteristic
Title of Research/
Author/
Type of Study
Country WeightingCommentsFindings
Learning
is an
objective?
Yes,
measured
through student
testing
No consistent
relationship be-
tween teachers with
graduate degrees and
increased student
outcome, but in-sub-
ject degree has larger
and positive effect
Master’s degree does
not make a differ-
ence, but the type of
the degree (subject
area knowledge) may
have some impact on
student learning
Master’s degree do
not impact learning
Studies selected that
included methods
other than the gold
standard random-
ized assingments
Medium
Medium
Low
No systematic
evaluation
A few statistical
shortcomings, but
strong analysis
Walsh et al. “Increasing the
Odds: How Good Policies
Can Yield Better Teachers.”
National Council on Teach-
er Quality, 2004 / Literature
Review with 5 background
Skandera, Hanna et al.
School Figures: The Data
behind the Debate. Stanford,
CA: Hoover Institution,
Stanford U, 2003./ Litera-
ture Review5
7. 2) Certification
Experience
1) Years in the
Profession
Pennucci, Annie. “Teacher
Compensation and Training
Policies: Impacts on Student
Outcomes.” May 2012./
Meta-analyses with 38 high
quality studies
Pennucci, Annie. “Teacher
Compensation and Training
Policies: Impacts on Student
Outcomes.” May 2012./ Me-
ta-analyses with 12 studies
Darling-Hammond, Linda.
“Teacher Quality and Student
Achievement.” education
policy analysis archives 8.0
(2000)/ Individual Study
Goldhaber, Dan D., and
Dominic J. Brewer. “Evalu-
ating the Effect of Teacher
Degree Level on Educational
Performance” (1996) / Indi-
vidual Study
Rivkin, Steven G., Eric A.
Hanushek, and John F. Kain.
“Teachers, Schools, and
Academic Achievement.”
(2005)/ Individual Study
Walsh et al. “Increasing the
Odds: How Good Policies
Can Yield Better Teachers.”
National Council on Teach-
er Quality, 2004/ Literature
Review with 6 background
papers
Walsh et al. “Increasing the
Odds: How Good Policies Can
Yield Better Teachers. National
Council on Teacher Quality”
2004 / Literature Review with
5 background papers
Goldhaber, Dan et al. “Can
Teacher Quality Be Effec-
tively Assessed? National
Board Certification as a Sig-
nal of Effective Teaching.”/
Individual study
United
States
United
States
United
States
Brazil
United
States
United
States
United
States
United
States
United
States
Yes,
measured
through student
testing
Yes,
measured
through student
testing
Yes,
measured
through student
testing
Yes,
measured
through student
testing
Yes,
measured
through student
testing
Yes,
measured
through student
testing
Yes,
not explicitly
measured
Yes,
not explicitly
measured
Yes,
explicitly
measured
Studies selected
that included
methods other than
the gold standard
randomized assign-
ments
Studies selected
that included
methods other
than the gold stan-
dard randomized
assignments
Few statistical
shortcomings and
no control group.
Few statistical
shortcomings, but
strong statistical
analysis
Studies selected
that included
methods other
than the gold stan-
dard randomized
assignments
Studies selected
that included
methods other
than the gold stan-
dard randomized
assignments
High quality statis-
tics measurements
with methodology
controling for bias-
es, but no control
group.
First few years on the
job, a teacher pro-
gresses considerably
in ability to improve
performance
Traditional certi-
fication can pro-
duce, at best, some
marginal value
Teachers with
NBPTS certification
are more effective
and conduce learning
in reading and math
Having NBPTS cer-
tification is consis-
tently associated with
improvements in
student test scores
Coefficient on teach-
er certification is sta-
tistically insignificant
- except in English
Indicates that cer-
tification in Brazil
are the strongest
correlates of stu-
dent achievement
compared to master’s
degree
Students with teach-
ers with one year of
experience are 3-5%
std better off in math
and reading. Little
gain after 2nd year.
Little evidence and
no particular pattern
to fully endorse
hypothesis that
experience impacts
learning
No systematic
evaluation
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Low
Low
“The evidence that teachers tend to become more productive early in their careers is quite consistent, but this tendency masks the fact that there
is a good deal of hetegoneity in the individual returns to experience”
- Dan Goldhaber
Small proportion of
studies find it to be
statistically significant
in positive direction
Medium
Statistical shortcom-
ings and no system-
atic evaluation
Hanushek, Eric A. “The
Economics of Schooling:
Production and Efficiency
in Public Schools.” (1986)/
Individual Study
6
Index
Teacher
Characteristic
Title of Research/
Author/
Type of Study
Country WeightingCommentsFindings
Learning
is an
objective?
1) Master’s
degree
(Continued)
8. Performance
Proxy Indicators
3) Performance
Pay
Hanushek, Eric A., John F.
Kain, and Steven G. Rivkin.
“Do Higher Salaries Buy
Better Teachers? “ (1999)/
Individual Study
de Ree, Joppe et al. “Double
for Nothing? Experimental
Evidence on the Impact of
an Unconditional Teacher
Salary Increase on Student
Performance in Indonesia.”
(2016)/ Individual research
Menezes-Filho, Naércio, and
Elaine Pazello. “Do Teachers’
Wages Matter for Proficien-
cy? Evidence from a Funding
Reform in Brazil.” (2007)/
Individual study
Hanushek, Eric A. “The
Economics of Schooling:
Production and Efficiency
in Public Schools.” (1986)/
Individual study
United
States
United
States
Indonesia
Brazil
Yes,
explicitly
measured
Yes,
explicitly
measured
Yes,
explicitly
measured
Yes,
explicitly
measured
Salaries have a modest
impact on student
performance
After two years, the
doubling in pay led to
no improvements in
measures of teacher
effort or student learn-
ing outcomes
Wages are uncorrelat-
ed to proficiency to
proficiency. Effect of
teachers’ wage had
a positive effect on
student proficiency
Rising Costs of school
inputs (e.g. teacher
salaries) seem to be
unmatached by per-
formance of students
Statistical short-
comings, but strong
quantitative analysis
Statistical short-
comings, but strong
quantitative analysis
Statistical short-
comings, but strong
quantitative analysis
Randomized
Control Trial with
strong quantitative
methods
Medium
Medium
Medium
High
“The empirical evidence on the link between teacher quality and pay is decidely mixed”
- Eric A. Hanushek
7
United
States
Brazil
Yes,
measured
through student
testing
Yes,
measured
through student
testing
High quality statistics
measurements with
methodology con-
troling for biases, but
no control group.
High quality statistics
measurements with
methodology con-
troling for biases and
control group.
Positive effects for
experience on read-
ing achievement
Professor years of ex-
perience not statisti-
cally significant with
student achievement.
Medium
High
Croninger, Robert G. et al.
“Teacher Qualifications and
Early Learning: Effects of
Certification, Degree, and
Experience on First-Grade
Student Achievement.”
(2007)/ Individial Study
Faria, Ernesto Martins,
and Raquel Guimarães.
Excelência com Equidade
Qualitativo e Quantitativo.
Lemann Foundation (2015)/
Individual Study
Index
Teacher
Characteristic
Title of Research/
Author/
Type of Study
Country WeightingCommentsFindings
Learning
is an
objective?
Experience
1) Years in the
Profession
(Continued)
9. Research Index Briefing
The Research Index suggests that there is a
lot of gray area in educational research. Firstly, it is
specially difficult to conduct high quality research
and control for exogenous variables. Out of all the
research reviewed, only a few had control groups.
Also, researchers utilize different methodologies to
quantify indicators, which can make comparisons
among studies difficult. Secondly, it is worth noting
that most of the educational research conducted takes
place in the United States, a fact pointed out in the
literature (McKenzie et al. 24). Because countries have
completely different political, cultural, and educa-
tional climates, it becomes difficult to state whether
a successful program or policy in the United States
could be applied elsewhere. Although not impossible,
scaling up programs and policies can
add other layers of complexity.
The Research Index also in-
forms the readers that one does
not have a lot of high quality
experiments based on methods
such as Randomized Control Tri-
als. Moreover, the meta-analyses
did not have many background pa-
pers to evaluate the average effect
of certain teacher characteristics
on student learning. Therefore,
according to the author’s per-
spective, some of the findings and
recommendations could not be strongly prescribed
for policy making. This also underscores the need for
more high quality research within the education field.
Unfortunately, issues with methodologies and analysis
such as selectivity bias and causality have been impos-
ing caveats for education research (Hanushek 3).
To this date, the author of this research could
not find a systematic review that addressed questions
related to teacher characteristics and student achieve-
ment. Only meta-analyses seemed to be available as
part of the large branch of literature, in addition to a
plethora of literature reviews, which provides us with
not so many reliable indicators to craft policies. Al-
though helpful, one should strive to have more rigor-
ous evaluations that could clarify these puzzles about
teacher policy. By having more precise information, it
would be easier to collect data and draw better syste-
matic conclusions. This is certainly a future improve-
ment that one should be looking forward to future
education research.
Although the quality of the research in the
literature review and meta analysis had strong back-
ground papers (e.g. Increasing the Odds: How Good
Policies Yield Better Teachers), it was hard — accord-
ing to the judgement of the author — to assign a high
weight due to the number of quality researches avail-
able. Perhaps, a small handful amount of researches
might not provide the strong evidence needed to
craft evidence-based policies. Although five research
papers can provide evidence about a policy question,
one should be skeptical to accept it without reserva-
tions. This was even underscored by
the researchers themselves in these
reviews and meta analysis studies.
Out of all individual research,
only two seemed to have the strong
methodological, analytical and statistical
background expected for a systemat-
ic review to measure the impacts of
the policy on the control group and
counterfactual. Not surprisingly, these
research were published in recent years,
including the research conducted by The
Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab
(J-Pal), titled Double for Nothing? Exper-
imental Evidence on the Impact of an Unconditional
Teacher Salary Increase on Student Performance in
Indonesia.
In a later section, this gray area formed by the
gaps in education research will be contrasted with
the maintream teacher policies. The most important
question for this research, however, concerns the
allocation of school inputs — specifically inputs such
as salaries and monetary incentives. The pressing
question is whether— taking into account the mixed
evidence from the index — one could possibily allo-
cate resources to inputs and incentives that could best
maximize student learning.
Following, this research paper will explore
what kind of maintream policies are there and how
these policies constrast with one another and with the
evidence provided by the Research Index.
Conduct
Rigorous
Research
Evidence
8
10. This document explores three avenues in which teacher policy
can be crafted and improved: policies to recruit, groom and motivate
teachers. In this report, the World Bank recognizes that one achieves
teacher quality by aligning all the policy domains and types of in-
centives. There exists “multiple roads to the goal” (Bruns et al. 47).
Neverthless, it is through a balanced set of policies that countries can
evaluate which course of action can best serve the purpose to increase
teacher quality and student learning.
In the following pages, one can see the summary of all policies
and theories of change embedded in this proposal. Throughout the
report, the organization pointed out policies that have not yet been
grounded in evidence, but highlighted case studies to strengthen the
argument for a policy recommendation.
The tables provide a brief list of proposals to recruit, groom and
motivate teachers.
RECRUIT
1) Raise standard
for entry into
teacher education
a) Close low quality schools
b) Establish national teacher university
c) Create special scholarships for top students
d) Raise accreditation standards forcing closure or adaptation
of tertiary institutions (25)
2) Raise the
quality of teacher
education schools
a) Create pre-service programs that focus on the work teachers
will face in classrooms (27)
3) Raise hiring
standards for new
teachers
a) Create national teacher standards and mandatory certifica-
tion exams
b) Establish pre-employment tests of teacher skills and compe-
tencies
c) Establish alternative certification (28-30)
a) Decrease the amount of teachers and therefore reach effi-
cient pupil-teacher ratios and, consequently, increase salaries
(32)
b) Raise salaries, but only if one raises selectivity of teaching
education programs (24)
4) Raise teacher
selectivity
Policies to Recruit Effective Teachers
Teacher Policy: What are the mainstream
policies for teachers?
Great Teachers: How to Raise Student Learning in Latin America and the Caribbean
9
TABLE 1: WORLD BANK’S TEACHER POLICY RECOMMENDATION TO RECRUIT TEACHERS WITH ITS RESPECTIVE
COURSE OF ACTIONS
11. GROOM
5) Teacher induc-
tion and proba-
tionary periods
that include
comprehensive
assessment of new
teachers
a) Create induction programs in the first years of service (34),
which should include action-research projects, tutoring, obser-
vation in the classroom, mentoring support, and assessments
(34)
6) Teacher eval-
uations that are
grounded on
teacher standards
and measure per-
formance compre-
hensively
a) Create evaluations to improve teachers’ quality and hold
them accountable (35)
b) Systematically de-select lowest performers (36)
c) Identify and reward top performers (36)
Policies to Groom Effective Teachers
7) Teacher pro-
fessional devel-
opment where
the “relevance of
training content,
the intensity and
duration of the
course, and the
quality of the
delivery are key”
(37)
a) Scripted approaches: trainee to prepare teachers in low
capacity environments
b) Content mastery: trainee to fill gaps or further teachers’
expertise
c) Classroom management - trainee on fostering teachers’
classroom effectiveness through “lesson planning, efficient
use of class time, strategies for keeping students engaged, and
more effective teaching techniques” (37)
d) Peer collaboration: improve classroom practice by iden-
tifying the most effective teachers and ensure that teachers
observe their practices, develop curriculum, share student
assessment strategies, etc. (23 and 37-38).
8) Teacher de-
ployment and
management:
manage how
school directors
are selected
(39)
a) Establish “criteria for the training and assessment of prin-
cipals in the areas of leadership, curriculum management,
resource management and organizational management... estab-
lishing a competitive process for principal selection.” (39)
10
TABLE 2: WORLD BANK’S TEACHER POLICY RECOMMENDATION TO GROOM TEACHERS WITH ITS RESPECTIVE
COURSE OF ACTIONS
12. The document states that there are four domains that constitute
the key educational challenges of today: 1) to attract qualified individuals
to the teaching profession, 2) to retain the workforce, 3) to provide skills
and knowledge and 4) motivate personnel (Vegas et al. 2). As a response
to these challenges, policymakers have three options to improve teacher
quality:
1) Teacher training and professional development;
2) Teacher incentives that impact who becomes a teacher and
how long they stay in the field;
3) Incentives that affect the work teachers do in the classroom.
(Vegas et al. 4)
The report is based on ten research papers. It underscores the im-
portance of teachers on student performance compared to other student
learning determinants (Vegas et al. 2-3). The report evaluates which edu-
cational reform in Latin America has had the greatest impact on student
learning through teacher incentives. The lessons from these reforms are
suggested by the World Bank and summarized below.
MOTIVATE
RECRUIT,
GROOM &
MOTIVATE
9) Professional
rewards
a) Well-equipped, congenial working conditions
b) Intrinsic motivation
c) Recognition and Prestige (41)
10) Accountability
Pressure
a) Job Stability: decrease job stability
b) Client Feedback: empower students and parents to monitor
and evaluate teachers.
c) Managerial feedback (42)
11) Financial
Incentives
a) Bonus pay
b) Salary differentials
c) Pensions and benefits (43)
Policies to Motivate Effective Teachers
Improving Teaching and Learning Through Effective Incentives
a) Improve teachers’ salary levels (26)
b) Train and educate teachers through higher levels of training (27)
c) Set up a holistic evaluation system using indicators other than teacher educa-
tion, training level and years of experience (31)
d) Set up performance-based teacher incentives (36)
e) Avoid flaws in the design of incentives by ensuring that all groups of teachers
receive awards fairly, linked at performance (teaching) and through consider-
able amounts (Pg. 39-40). The World Bank highlights that incentives in Latin
America are usually based on variables not related to teaching (e.g. experience,
professional development courses, etc.) (40)
Teacher Policy
11
TABLE 3: WORLD BANK’S TEACHER POLICY RECOMMENDATION TO MOTIVATE TEACHERS WITH ITS RESPECTIVE
COURSE OF ACTIONS
TABLE 4: WORLD BANK’S GENERAL TEACHER POLICY RECOMMENDATION WITH ITS RESPECTIVE COURSE OF
ACTIONS
13. 1) Teacher
Recruitment and
Retention
2) Teacher
Education
(Initial &
Continuing)
FOUNDATION
FOR
TEACHER
POLICY
RECRUIT,
GROOM &
MOTIVATE
Teacher Policy Development Guide
The document explores how evidence-based policies can equip
teachers to become effective in the classroom and attract qualified
personnel to the profession, thus diminishing teacher shortages both at
qualitative and quantitative terms, if they exist. The report does not cite
any report or research to be a part of its research background. All the
researchers drafted the document to be a tool “that could help coun-
tries develop evidence-based national teacher policies” (Teachers for
Education for All 5).
The Teacher Policy Development Guide also acknolwedges that
the teaching profession to be the greatest influence in schools, especial-
ly to disadvantaged students (Teachers for Education for All 13). The
report explores nine key dimensions of policy.
a) Teacher policy should be applicable to “all
teachers, in all regions and at all school levels”
(16)
b) Teacher policy should be “coherent with other
national policies, including children’s rights and related human right policies”
(16)
c) Teacher policy should ensure that salaries are in parity at different levels of
education (e.g primary and secondary) and that reflect “the importance of basic
education” (16)
a) Include “procedures for the licensing or certification of teachers” and ensure
that they possess “necessary knowledge, competences and attributes” (21)
b) Ensure “equity in teacher recruitment through fair ans transparent procedures”
(21)
c) Ensure “equitable recruitment of effective school leaders with the requisite
knowledge, competences and attributes” (21)
a) Initiate Teacher Training:
It should have minimal entry requirements (21)
Curricula should meet local context as well as balance theory and teaching
practice (21)
Curricula should include teaching methods. Teachers should have
access to effective CPD (Continuing Professional Development), which can
be matched with salary and career progression (21)
Teacher Policy
f) Strengthen school-based management and accountability reforms (43), usual-
ly associated with school boards and weaker teachers’ unions (44)
Teacher Policy (Continued)
12
TABLE 5: UNESCO’S TEACHER POLICY RECOMMENDATION WITH NINE
POLICY DOMAINS AND THEIR RESPECTIVE COURSE OF ACTIONS
14. Curricula should include principles of Education for Sustainable
Development (21)
3) Deployment
a) Find ways to “allocate teachers to appropriate posts” and link posts to
career structure (22)
b) Deploy teachers where they are needed the most with financial and
nonfinancial incentives (22)
c) Deploy through transparent processes and ensure that “new teachers re-
ceive training, support and mentoring from more experienced colleagues”
(22)
a) Provide horizontal or vertical career paths, thus allowing teachers to
have good and diversified career options (23). The former is regards to the
possibility of embracing new responsibilities as a teacher and the latter the
possibility of taking other management or leadership roles (23)
a) Develop common standards for quality teaching
b) Develop framework to guide the teaching profession, professional ac-
countability and professional status (25)
a) Praise teachers who evaluate their performance focused on professional
development (25)
b) Evaluate performance through methods other than patronage and
favoritism (25)
c) Encourage teachers to identify if students are achieving learning out-
comes (26)
a) Pay attractive salaries relative to comparable professions to enhance
prestige, foster recruitment initiatives, motivation and retention (24)
b) Provide financial incentives (e.g. allowances, housing, transport costs,
scholarships and grants to continue studies) to teachers who work in hard-
to-staff schools such as “remote[,] rural[,] and disadvantaged areas” (24)
c) Provide non-financial incentives (e.g. smart phones, e-readers or laptops,
housing, etc.) (24)
a) Engage with “dimensions of working conditions” (23):
Hours of work, workload and work-life balance
Class size and PTRs (Pupil Teacher Ratios) focused on
learner-centered approaches
School Infrastructure
Availability and quality of teaching and learning materials
Student behaviour and discipline with effective school governance
school violence
Autonomy and control of teacher profession (23-24)
4) Career
Structure &
Path
5) Teacher
Employment and
Working
Conditions
6) Teacher
Reward and
Remuneration
7) Teacher
Standards
8) Teacher
Accountability
UNESCO’s Teacher Policy (Continued)
13
15. Teachers Matter: Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers
9) School
Governance
a) Develop strategies for the “identification and preparation of school leaders”
(26).
UNESCO’s Teacher Policy (Continued)
The report argues that teacher policy should address both
quality and quantity issues since these are correlated (McKenzie
et al. 18). The OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation
and Development) affirms that policy initiatives are needed in
two levels. The first regards the “teaching profession as a whole
and seeks to improve its status” whereas the second “focuses on
attracting and retaining particular types of teachers” (McKenzie
et al. 10). Also, according to the OECD, teacher policy can be
divided into five main clusters:
1) Preparation and Development of Teachers
2) Career Structure and Incentives
3) Demand for Teachers
4) Structure of the Labor Market
5) School Processes
(McKenzie et al 30)
This report underscores the impact that teachers have
on student learning and states that there is a positive relationship
between measured teacher characteristics and student performance, but to a lesser extent than one may
expect. The table below provides the policy objectives of this report, which was retrieved from the doc-
ument itself and adapted to this research paper.
1) Making
Teaching an
Attractive Career
Choice
2) Developing
Teachers’
knowledge and
skills
a) Improve the image and status of teaching
b) Improve teaching’s salary competitiveness
c) Improve employment conditions
d) Capitalize on an oversupply of teachers
e) Expand the supply pool of potential teachers
f) Make reward mechanisms more flexible
g) Improve entrance conditions for new teachers
h) Re-think the trade-off between the student-teacher ratio and
average teacher salary
a) Develop teacher profiles
b) View teacher development as a continuum
c) Make teacher education more flexible and responsive
d) Accredit teacher education programmes
e) Integrate professional development throughout the career
Teacher Policy
Directed towards the
teaching profession
as a whole
Directed towards
the teaching
profession as a
whole
Targeted to
particular types
of teachers or
schools
14
TABLE 6: OECD’S TEACHER POLICY RECOMMENDATION WITH FIVE POLICY DOMAINS AND THEIR RESPECTIVE
COURSE OF ACTIONS
16. Teacher Policy
Overlap
Teacher Policy
Contradictions
3) Recruiting,
selecting and
employing
teachers
4) Retaining
effective teachers
in schools
5) Developing and
implementing
teacher policy
f) Improve selection in teacher education
g) Improve practical field experiences
h) Certify new teachers
i) Strengthen induction programmes
a) Use more flexible forms of employment
b) Provide schools with more responsibility for personnel
management
c) Meet short-term staff needs
d) Improve information flows and the monitoring of the teacher
labour market
e) Broaden the criteria for teacher selection
f) Make a probationary period mandatory
g) Encourage greater teacher mobility
a) Evaluate and reward effective teaching
b) Providing more opportunities for career variety and
diversification
c) Improve leadership and school climate
d) Improve working conditions
e) Respond to ineffective teachers
f) Provide more support for beginning teachers
g) Provide more flexible working hours and conditions
a) Engage teachers in policy development
and implementation
b) Develop professional learning opportunities
c) Improve knowledge base to support teacher policy
Teacher Policy (Continued)
Directed
towards the
teaching
profession as a
whole
Directed
towards the
teaching
profession as a
whole
Directed
towards the
teaching
profession as a
whole
Targeted to
particular types
of teachers or
schools
Targeted to
particular types
of teachers or
schools
Targeted to
particular types
of teachers or
schools
These four reports provide a list of policy ob-
jectives and theories of change that could theoretically
improve the status of the teaching profession, to
recruit, train and groom effective personnel
and therefore boost student learn-
ing. Again, the premise here is that,
holding other variables equal, the
teacher plays the greatest role to
boost student achievement in
schools.
These policies are
suggested and sometimes recom-
mended as best practices
to government organizations worldwide.
Nevetheless, it seems that the literature does not pro-
vide information regarding possible contradic-
tions or overlaps. In the next section, there
will be a short analysis comparing
the recommendations from these
reports. Following, the poli-
cies and recommendations
will be constrasted with the
evidence provided in the first
section of this paper with the
Research Index.
Finally, the paper will analyse, according
with the information presented, if policies such
as FUNDEB could provide the best optimal allo-
cation toward student learning.
*Retrieved in its entirety from “Teachers Matter: Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers,” pg. 7
15
17. Teacher Policy:
Contradictions & Overlaps
The four reports provide a plethora of policy
recommendations for governments. Not surprisingly,
the two reports published by the World Bank evaluated
for this research did not provide a lot of contradictions
among themselves. Rather, all authors responsible for
the recommendations seemed very concerned on how
to attract, train and groom effective teachers. This may
be due to the fact that the recommendations come
from the same institution, which underscores its level
of consistency. Although not clearly stated as the policy
objective, student learning seems to be the center of
these policies’ priorities followed by budget constraints.
All reports from the World Bank
and OECD highlights the connection
between student achievement and
quality teaching. As the saying
goes: Teachers matter! Second-
ly, the reports also highlight
the need to find effective
solutions that can suit
governments’ revenue.
According to these re-
ports, teacher incentives present
a high constraint on educational
system’s budgets, but these mone-
tary and non-monetary incentives can
affect teacher labor markets greatly.
Despite the fact that the policies overlap (e.g.
promote induction, match salaries, etc.), it is worth-
noting that there are a few execptions to the rule. The
World Bank’s policy analysts recommend that people
should consider incentives for teachers who work at
hard-to-staff schools (e.g. rural areas), but also suggests
that “rural pay differential is not successful at attract-
ing and retaining teachers that are more effective than
average urban teachers” (Vegas et al. 34).
The greatest gaps, however, are noticed between
UNESCO’s and the OECD’s and World Bank’s recom-
mendations. Firstly, one can highlight that the Bank
suggests that it is cost-effective to lay off teachers who
do not seem to be effective during their induction peri-
od (Bruns et al. 34). The bank also states that “schools
need to have the authority and resources to reward
high-performing teachers and to penalize low-perform-
ing teachers” (Bruns et al. 13).
Conversely, UNESCO affirms that “there is little
evidence that shows in education or learning from
performance-related pay” (Teachers for Educa-
tion for All 25). The latter organization invites
readers to not blame teachers for all the
problems in an education system (Teach-
ers for Education for All 25).
Indeed, the greatest gap lies on
how to reward teachers so that they
become more effective in the classroom:
Should one just identify and reward top
performers through performance pay —
something strongly suggested throughout
World Bank and OECD reports — or adopt
more flexible rewards mechanisms? This is still a
gray area within educational research.
The policy recommendation from UNESCO also
seems to embrace other factors that have not been taken
into account by the World Bank. For example, UNESCO
points out that policymakers should include principles of
education for Sustainable Development as well as chil-
dren’s rights and human rights policies (e.g. gender poli-
cy), a topic never fully explored by the Bank or OECD.
Lastly, UNESCO reports that policy should focus
Pupil Teacher Ratios on learner-centered approaches.
Conversely, the Bank focuses on an effective PTR to free
up resources and increase salaries for teachers. UNESCO
also states that policies should be applicable to all teach-
ers and in all regions whereas the OECD subdivides in
table six policies for particular types of teachers.
What society should care about is whether teachers are
generating learning in their students
(World Bank, Improving Teaching and Learning Through Incentives )
Teacher indicators should be tied closely to learning
outcomes
(UNESCO, Teacher Policy Development Guide )
“
”
16
18. The section “Contradiction and Overlaps in
Teacher Policy” demonstrates that international organi-
zations — although consistent with most of their rec-
ommendations and with the student-centered learning
goals — contradict themselves in their policy recom-
mendations. Perhaps, this can be an indicator of diver-
gent evidence and/or their own institutional practices.
Institutions, such as the World Bank, have their founda-
tions rooted in economic and neoclassical perspectives
(Rapley 15) whereas UNESCO seems to have a more
people-focused, humanistic approach to development.
However, this contradiction does not fully portray the
greatest disparity in teacher policy. Looking at the Index,
one can conclude that the most concerning disparity lies
between teacher policy and the evidence retrieved from
research.
Most of the time, the research concerning the
various teacher policies provide mixed evidence due
to different research methodologies. Yet, one still en-
counters policy recommendations despite these mixed
results on effectiveness. The international organizations
acknowledge this discrepancy, but, paradoxically, utilize
a few case studies and programs to make broad rec-
ommendations that may or may not be truly effective
elsewhere as indicated by the Index.
This discrepancy between evidence and policy is
highlighted in the paper published by J-Pal and pointed
out by the World Bank:
(Vegas et al. 31)
Contradiction Between Teacher Policy
&
EVIDENCE
In the following paragraphs, one can see the ma-
jor discrepancies between the evidence available and the
mainstream teacher policies.
Firstly, the Research Index indicates that possible
incentives for continued education such as entering a
master program does not make a professor more effec-
tive. Nevertheless, all policy reports advocate for con-
tinued education without going into much detail about
how to draft these policies (e.g. report titled “Improving
Teaching and Learning through Effective Incentives,” Ta-
ble 4 letter d). For example, the research in the Research
Index has reservations about the indicator “masters’
degree,” a higher level of training, but recognizes that
specialization within one’s subject matter might produce
marginal student achievement. The evidence suggests
that what matters the most is not the higher degree per
se, but rather if the teacher receives the training on the
content he or she teaches. For policymaking, this could
mean that, instead of just providing incentives to com-
pensate teachers who have a higher degree, one could
provide further support for those individuals who work
to speciliaze in the subject-related area they teach. Also,
it could mean that governments could motivate teach-
ers to seek further training in the fields they teach. If
resources are spent on inputs that do not make teachers
more effective in the classroom as measured by val-
ue-added models, then it is an indicator that the poli-
cy should be revaluated, specially if the policy is truly
focused on student learning only.
Secondly, the Research Index also questions
whether teachers’ certification can be a predictor of
student learning. The evidence is somewhat mixed.
Although teachers with certifications such as NBPTS
have proved to be more effective, the literature states
that what matters is the selection process per se. NBPTS
seems to stream good quality candidates, whereas other
certifications in other countries may or may not present
the same rigorous analysis of its own candidates. This
also highlights the importance of accreditation for higher
educational institutions and the certification market as a
whole.
“Two of the most commonly found observable factors re-
lated to student educational achievement in Latin America
and in studies of the determinants of student achievement
in other developing countries are teacher education and
training and teacher experience. In contrast, most of the lit-
erature on student achievement in developed countries has
found that teachers have an important impact on student
learning, but not because of their measurable attributes,
but instead because of differences in their skills or teach-
ing practices, variables that are very difficult to observe.”
17
19. Resource Allocation, Student Learning
and Teacher Salaries:
The Case of FUNDEB
Another issue regarding the gap between evidence
and policy relates to monetary compensations. It is widely
explained in the literature that issues of quality are related
to issues of quantity. The theory of change behind this type
of argument is as follows: if teachers have higher salaries,
then the profession will attract more qualified teachers
who will then boost learning in the classroom (McKenzie
et al.). However, as the Index shows, the evidence is some-
what mixed. For example, the research conducted by J-Pal
Poverty Lab demonstrates that, at least in the short term,
higher salaries do not seem to change teachers’ behaviour
or improve student achievement. Other well-known re-
searchers and economists, such as Hanushek, have con-
ducted research that contradicts the theory of change that
links salaries to student achievement.
Despite the paucity of concrete evidence to sup-
port one theory or another, international organizations
have strongly advocate benchmarking teachers’ salaries to
other types of profession (as pointed out in the mainstream
teacher policy section of this research paper). Needless
to say, one should ensure that teachers receive a salary
that is able to fulfill their needs and provide good living
standards. The problem, however, is when compensation
or bonuses do not match one’s effort to improve his/her
teaching methodologies and effectiveness. In other words,
one should assure that meritocratic values are embedded
in any type of award provision if the goal is to enhance
student learning. This course of action is also backed up by
the World Bank (Table 4, letter d) and other international
organizations such as the OECD (Table 6, number 4).
In Latin America, and specifically in Brazil, teach-
ers’ salaries were increased significantly with FUNDEF (see
BOX 1 on the next column), which follows the recommen-
dation to make salary levels more equitable compared to
other professions and therefore make the teaching profe-
sison more attractive as well. Nevertheless, no meritocratic
standards were included. In fact, most of the bonuses in
Latin America and in Brazil are based on seniority (years of
experience) (Vegas et al. 43). Years of experience — as
pointed out by the Research Index — is not a good
indicator for teacher effectiness or student learning.
If these type of policies want to emphasize
student learning as the most important outcome,
then one should evaluate how policies such as FUN-
DEB can effectively increase teachers’ salaries and
make the teaching profession more competitive while
improving student achievement. Perhaps, additional
steps are needed. Maybe, meritocratic standards for
performance pay and increased selectivity of teacher
programs could be key in achieving this goal (See
Table 1, number 4). If student learning truly matters
and years of experience do not account for student
learning, then this may be an indicator for policy
reform.
FUNDEB has been positively evaluated by
international organizations, however. For example,
the World Bank has published a book titled Achieving
18
Brazil’s FUNDEF (Fundo de Manutenção
e Desenvolvimento do Ensino Fundamental e de
Valorização do Magistério) was established in 1997
to guarantee that funds would be spent equally on
public schools nationwide across regions (Gordon
and Vegas). State funds and municipalities from all
over Brazil contribute 15% of specific taxes for this
fund. This fund is then transfered back to states and
municipalities based on student enrolment, thus
allowing local and state governments with higher
student populations and lower income to meet
spending standars outlined in its Constitution,
which demands that 25% of all state and munici-
palities’ revenue to be spent on education (Brazilian
Goverment). The rule also mandates that 60% of
FUNDEF’s revenue, currently known as FUNDEB,
be spent on teachers’ salaries (Brazilian Govern-
ment)
BOX 1: WHAT IS FUNDEB?
20. World Class Education in Brazil: The Next Agenda. The
authors of this book affirm that Brazil should stay “the
course on the core policies of the last [17] years [such as
FUNDEB]” (Bruns et al. 10). Likewise, the World Bank’s
report titled “Improving Teaching and Learning through
Effective Incentives: What Can We Learn from Reforms
in Latin America” states that after the 60% increase,
there was a decrease in the average teacher-pupil ratios
as well as in the percentage of teachers who only finished
primary education (Vegas et al. 27).
Notwithstanding, mixed evidence exists regard-
ing the effect of teacher-pupil ratios and the qualification
of teachers (e.g. master’s degree) on student achivie-
ment and learning. In fact, there seems to exist a lack of
systematic evaluation on FUNDEB; evaluations that are
able to determine the correlation and cau-
sality between the resources from FUNDEB
(including the 60% increase on teacher
salaries) on student learning. Because the
policy is applicable nationwide, it is under-
stantable that systematic, rigorous evalu-
ations are hard to conduct. Nevertheless,
this lack of evidence can create skepticism
about the true efficacy of the program in
terms of providing the best student learning
optimals.
Needless to say, policies are not usu-
ally based on just one objective. Through a
student learning approach, policies such as
FUNDEB may or may not be the best course of action to
increase student achievement — unless proved otherwise
by rigorous research. This research paper approaches
student learning as the most important policy outcome.
A Small, Yet Important Caveat
As UNESCO pointed out, teacher policy should
consider other important domains such as human rights.
Women constitute the majority of the teaching work-
force in Brazil and in Latin America (Bruns et al 74). In
comparison to other professions, the pool of workers
attracked to the teaching profession is from the lowest
income percentile and displays the lowest academic
achievement (Bruns et al. 74-76).
It is important to notice teachers may have not
had the opportunity to seek other career paths or even
leave their home towns. Moreover, men receive wages
30% higher compared to women (Brazilian Govern-
ment). At the global level, this figure persists (Interna-
19
tional Labor Organization), making women one of the
most vulnerable populations in the labor market in
terms of fair pay.
In order to make gender-friendly policies and
account for these inequalities, it is pivotal to account for
these disparities in one’s evaluations. Perhaps, through
a student learning perspective, giving additional finan-
cial incentives or raising teachers’ salaries may not be
cost-effictive. Nevertheless, if one accounts for gen-
der disparities and structural realities, then financial
incentives may also be a way to mitigate
these harsh conditions, at least in the short
term. Again, development can be perceived
through many competing perspectives such
as postdevelopment and neoclassical theories
and approaches.
Resource Allocation
One of the most important aspects of policy-
making regards resource allocation. Crafting
an effective policy does not matter if the gov-
ernment does not have the income to imple-
ment it. Most importantly, it is not desirable
to set up a costly policy that does not provide
the best maximizing outcome.
Due to this challenge, the Abdul Latif Jameel
Poverty Action Lab analyzed randomized evaluations
of twenty-nine programs through the cost-effectiveness
analysis (CEA) (see image on the next page). For exam-
ple, the lab found through an evaluation in India and
Kenya that there is “little evidence that simply increasing
the number of teachers or teaching resources improves
learning” (Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab).
Because one is dealing with competing needs
(e.g. infrastructure over teacher salaries), these questions
are also pertinent for policy debate. Obviously, infra-
structure, like any other school input, should dispose of
a level of diminishing marginal returns. In the case of
less privileged communities, economist Hanushek points
out that it may be the case that investing in infrastruc-
ture may be more effective than providing other types
of teacher incentives (Hanushek). In Brazil, for example,
infrastructure is one of the most necessary resources in
public schools (Bruns et al. 10). What to prioritize?
Very little research exists on specific policies or programs to
raise the professional rewards for teachers, and none in Latin
America.
(World Bank, Great Teachers: How to Raise Student Learning in LAC )
“
”
21. As stated in the introduction of this paper, teachers are considered the most important school input, which is
why teacher incentives are a pivotal component of education policy and school spending. Notwithstanding, there is
no clear answer on how to allocate resources efficiently through a systematic analysis due to the lack of evidence for
teacher policy. At best, the author of this paper argues that there is only space for supposition. Education research has
still a long way to go. FUNDEB may be an effective program, but more rigorous, systematic evaluation and evidence
is needed. Further evidence will help set this and other similar policies as part of the best practice and policy tool on
has to bring about sustainable, effective reform in education.
Conclusion
Teacher policy, like any other social policy, is a complex realm. International organizations provide several
divergent and convergent policies that are not always grounded on conclusive evidence. This research paper illus-
trates that there is a wide gap between the supporting evidence for mainstream teacher policy recommendations
from international organizations (UNESCO, World Bank and OECD). In order for countries such as Brazil to
further develop its own teacher policies and for international organizations to provide better quality services and
technical assistance, it is imperative that researchers improve their methodologies, and conduct and apply more
systematic evaluations on programs such as FUNDEB. Putting resources into education is pivotal for sustainable
development and human capital creation, but only as long as they can provide the best outcome in terms of student
achievement, while accounting for human rights and structural issues such as gender disparities. To this date, there
are only inconclusive paths and methods to achieve this goal. Therefore, there is much more education research to
look forward to in the future.
20
*Retrieved in its entirety from The Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab. “Calidad de La Educación | The Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.”
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