CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that AALAP DEEPAK VALIA of Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute
of Technology has successfully carried out his summer training as presented in this
report under the guidance of Mr. Mahendra Bhoir and his team during the period from
22nd May 2015 – 15th
July 2015.
The report fulfills all the stated criteria and findings as his original work.
I hereby certify his work is good to the best of my knowledge.
MR. MEHERIAR PATEL MR. MAHENDRA BHOIR
(HEAD TECHNOLOGY-GLOBAL INFRA) PROJECT GUIDE
(NETWORK HEAD)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I owe a great many thanks to a great many people who helped and supported me during this
training. My deepest thanks to Mr. Mahendra Bhoir, my guide of the project, for guiding
me with attention and care.
I would like to offer many thanks to my mentor Mr. Vivek Shinde, for training me despite his
busy schedule. He has provided me with valuable insights during the entire training work and
his co-operation at every step. Thanks to Mr. Deepak Shriyan and Mr. Sushant Sonar too for
their guidance.
My deep sense of gratitude to Mr. Sudhir Valia (Executive Director), Mr. Kiran Peshkar (Vice
President, Technology-Global Infra) and Mr. Meheriar Patel (Head, Technology-Global Infra)
for giving me the opportunity to work with Sun Pharma.
I am also grateful to the helpful people of Sun Pharma for updating my theoretical knowledge
with their rich practical learning experience. This training period has immensely increased my
knowledge in the field of Corporate Network.
Thanks and appreciation to the Sun Pharma and the staff for their ever time support and
guidance.

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Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.............................................................................................................................i
SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................. iv
1. COMPANY PROFILE........................................................................................................................1
1.1. List of Acquisitions and Joint ventures.............................................................................2
1.2. Global Presence .......................................................................................................................2
1.3. Board of Directors ...................................................................................................................3
2. ROLE OF COMPUTER NETWORK IN A CORPORATE ...........................................................4
2.1. Some of the ways a computer network is being utilized at Sun Pharma: ................5
3. COMPUTER NETWORK..................................................................................................................6
3.1. Introduction to Networks .......................................................................................................6
3.2. Network Topologies ................................................................................................................7
3.2.1. Bus.......................................................................................................................................7
3.2.2. Star.......................................................................................................................................7
3.2.3. Ring......................................................................................................................................8
3.2.4. Mesh ....................................................................................................................................9
3.3. Basic Network Types ............................................................................................................10
3.3.1. Local Area Network(LAN) ............................................................................................10
3.3.2. Metropolitan Area Network(MAN) ..............................................................................11
3.3.3. Wide Area Network(WAN)............................................................................................11
3.4. Network Architecture ............................................................................................................12
3.5. OSI Reference Model.............................................................................................................13
3.6. Passive Components ............................................................................................................15
3.7. IP ADDRESSING.....................................................................................................................19
3.7.1. Hardware Addressing ...................................................................................................19
3.7.2. IP Address Classes........................................................................................................20
3.7.3. Private IPs........................................................................................................................20
3.7.4. Subnetting........................................................................................................................20

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3.8. Networking Devices...............................................................................................................21
3.8.1. Hub.....................................................................................................................................21
3.8.2. Switch................................................................................................................................22
3.8.3. Router................................................................................................................................27
3.8.4. Routing Protocols..........................................................................................................32
3.9. Services....................................................................................................................................41
3.9.1. Dynamic Host Control Protocol (DHCP) ..................................................................41
3.9.2. Domain Name System (DNS) ......................................................................................42
3.10. Network Address Translation (NAT) .............................................................................43
3.11. Traffic Shaping....................................................................................................................44
3.12. Access Point .......................................................................................................................44
3.13. Video Conference...............................................................................................................45
4. CONFIGURATIONS ........................................................................................................................46
4.1. Cisco IOS..................................................................................................................................46
4.2. Switches ...................................................................................................................................46
4.2.1. VLAN..................................................................................................................................48
4.2.2. Stack..................................................................................................................................51
4.3. Routers .....................................................................................................................................52
4.3.1. Static Route .....................................................................................................................54
4.3.2. RIP......................................................................................................................................55
4.3.3. OSPF..................................................................................................................................56
4.4. DHCP .........................................................................................................................................61
4.5. DNS............................................................................................................................................62
4.6. NAT ............................................................................................................................................63
5. CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................................65
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY..............................................................................................................................66
Table of Figures........................................................................................................................................67

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SUMMARY
This training report pertains to the 2 month training I underwent at Sun Pharma.
I have learnt a lot from the skilled engineers and professional managers. I had a great
experience as a summer trainee at this firm. I learnt a lot about how a computer network is
established in a corporate, and how they are configured, maintained and monitored.
This report consists of all the technical knowledge that I have gained in the last 2 months in
brief. It is divided into 3 parts.
 Part 1 – The Role of Computer Network in a Corporate.
 Part 2 – Various concepts of Computer Network and Network devices.
 Part 3 – Configurations of the many network devices used in the company.

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1. COMPANY PROFILE
Sun Pharmaceutical Industries Limited is a multinational pharmaceutical company
headquartered in India’s financial capital Mumbai, Maharashtra. The company manufactures
and sells pharmaceutical formulations and active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) primarily in
India and the United States.
Sun Pharmaceuticals was established by Mr. Dilip Shanghvi in 1983 in Vapi with five products
to treat psychiatry ailments. Sales were initially limited to 2 states – West Bengal and Bihar.
Sales were rolled out nationally in 1985. Cardiology products were introduced in 1987 and
Monotrate, one of the first products launched at that time has since become one of the largest
selling products. Important products in Cardiology were then added; several of these were
introduced for the first time in India. Sun Pharma was listed on the main stock exchanges in
India in 1994.
It is an international speciality pharma company, with a presence in 30 markets. It also makes
active pharmaceutical ingredients. In branded markets, its products are prescribed in chronic
therapy areas like cardiology, psychiatry, neurology, gastroenterology, diabetology and
respiratory. Realizing the fact that research is a critical growth driver, they established their
research center SPARC in 1993 and this created a base of strong product and process
development skills.
The 2014 acquisition of Ranbaxy has made the company the largest pharma company in India,
the largest Indian pharma company in the US, and the 5th largest speciality generic company
globally.
Over 72% of Sun Pharma sales are from markets outside India, primarily in the US. The US is
the single largest market, accounting for about 60%. Manufacturing is across 26 locations,
including plants in the US, Canada, Brazil, Mexico and Israel.
Sun Pharma was listed on the stock exchange in 1994 in an issue oversubscribed 55 times. The
founding family continues to hold a majority stake in the company. On 15 June 2015, Sun
Pharma was India's largest pharmaceutical company with the market capitalisation valued at
Rs. 2, 01,706.41 crore.
The Indian pharmaceutical industry has become the third largest producer in the world in terms
of volumes and is poised to grow into an industry of $20 billion in 2015 from the current turnover
of $12 billion.

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1.1. List of Acquisitions and Joint ventures
Sun Pharma has complemented growth with select acquisitions over the last two decades
with the most recent one being of Ranbaxy.
On 6 April 2014, Sun Pharma announced that it would acquire 100% of Ranbaxy
Laboratories Ltd, in an all-stock transaction, valued at $3.2 billion. Japan’s Daiichi Sankyo
held 63.4% stake in Ranbaxy. After this acquisition, Sun Pharma has become the largest
pharmaceutical company in India, the largest Indian Pharma company in the US, and the
5th
largest generic company worldwide.
.
COMPANY BASED IN YEAR
 Knoll Pharma  India 1996
 Tamilnadu Dadha Pharmaceuticals Ltd. India 1997
 Natco Pharma Ltd. India 1998
 Gujarat Lyka Organics India 1999
 Milmet Pharma Ltd. India 1999
 Pradeep Drug Company India 2000
 MJ Pharma India 2002
 Phlox Pharma India 2004
 Women’s First Health Care USA 2004
 ICN Hungary 2005
 Able Laboratories Inc. USA 2005
 Chattem Chemicals Inc. USA 2008
 Inwood Laboratories, Inc. USA 2009
 Taro Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd. Israel 2010
 Caraco Pharmaceutical Laboratories USA 2010
 MSD Pharmaceuticals India Prived Ltd. India 2011
 Dusa Pharmaceuticals USA 2012
 URL Pharma India 2013
 Ranbaxy Laboratories Limited India 2014
Table 1 List of Acquisitions
1.2. Global Presence
 Africa
 Asia Pacific
 Europe
 North America
 South America
 CIS

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1.3. Board of Directors
Sun Pharma's Board of Directors include:
 Israel Makov Chairman
 Dilip Shanghvi Managing Director
 Sudhir V. Valia Executive Director
 Sailesh T. Desai Executive Director
 Hasmukh S. Shah Non-Executive Independent Director
 Keki M Mistry Non-Executive Independent Director
 Ashwin Dani Non-Executive Independent Director
 S. Mohanchand Dadha Non-Executive Independent Director
 Rekha Sethi Non-Executive Independent Director

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2. ROLE OF COMPUTER NETWORK IN A CORPORATE
Computer network can be defined as “A set of computers that are connected and able to
exchange data”. In a typical office environment, a local area network (LAN) is usually set up to
allow data exchange and resource sharing (such as files, printers, fax modem, scanner, and
Internet broadband access) between computers.
Computer Networking is a very vast project in the present developing era of electronics
and communication. It is the “backbone” that supports the entire organization’s critical functions.
Computer Networking has bound the world in a very small area with it wide networking
processes like LAN, MAN, WAN.
A typical computer network includes:
 Networking Hardware:
o Routers
o Switches
o LAN cards
o Wireless routers
o Cables
 Networking Software:
o Network operations and management
o Operating systems
o Firewall
o Network security applications
 Network Services:
o T-1 Line
o DSL
o Satellite
o Wireless protocols
o IP addressing

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2.1. Some of the ways a computer network is being utilized at Sun Pharma:
 File sharing: The network makes it easy for everyone to access the same file and prevents
people from accidentally creating different versions.
 Printer sharing: With the help of network, several computers share the same printer. It is
cheaper and efficient to use a common network printer for a particular group of users rather
than having a single printer installed for each user.
 Communication and collaboration: The network allows employees to use e-mail and
instant messaging tools to communicate quickly and to store messages for future reference.
IBM Lotus Notes is being used in this organization for the same purpose.
 Organization: A variety of scheduling software is available that makes it possible to arrange
meetings without constantly checking everyone’s schedules. Meeting Magic is implemented
at Sun Pharma.
 Remote access: With remote access in place, users are able to access the same files,
data, and messages even when they’re not in the office. This access can even be given to
mobile handheld devices.
 Data protection: Security needs to be given the utmost priority for protecting the company’s
sensitive data for falling in the wrong hands. Firewalls are deployed here at this organization
to protect the computer network.

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3. COMPUTER NETWORK
3.1. Introduction to Networks
A computer network is a group of two or more computers as well as other computing
hardware devices (such as printers, scanners, external hard drives, modems and routers)
that are linked together through communication channels to facilitate communication and
resource-sharing among a wide range of users. The most common resource shared today
is connection to the Internet. Other shared resources can include a printer or a file server.
Networks are categorized based on their characteristics, most commonly into Local Area
Networks (LAN), Wide Area Networks (WAN), Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN), and the
Internet.
The devices on a network are referred to as nodes. Nodes can be connected using any of
various types of media, including twisted pair copper wire cable, optical fiber cable, coaxial
cable and radio waves. And they can be arranged according to several
basic topologies (i.e., layouts), including bus (in which all nodes are connected along a
single cable), star (all nodes are connected to a central node), mesh and ring.
Figure 1 Computer Network

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3.2. Network Topologies
3.2.1. Bus
A bus topology is a network setup where each computer and network device is
connected to a single cable or backbone.
Bus networks are useful in small and have the advantage of using less cable.
Their main disadvantage is that a break in the segment of the network will affect
all hosts on the segment. Such faults are often very difficult to troubleshoot
Bus topologies are inexpensive to implement, but are almost entirely deprecated
in Ethernet.
Figure 2 Bus Topology
3.2.2. Star
Star topology is a network topology where each individual piece of a network is
attached to a central node (often called a hub or switch). The attachment of these
network pieces to the central component is visually represented in a form similar
to a star.
There are two disadvantages to the star topology:
• The hub or switch represents a single point of failure.
• Equipment and cabling costs are generally higher than in a bus topology.
However, the star is still the dominant topology in modern Ethernet networks, due
to its flexibility and scalability.

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Figure 3 Star Topology
3.2.3. Ring
A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly two
other nodes, forming a single continuous pathway for signals through each node
- a ring. Data travel from node to node, with each node along the way handling
every packet.
One of the disadvantages of a ring topology is that just one failure to transmit
data can impact the entire network.
Figure 4 Ring Topology

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3.2.4. Mesh
In a mesh network topology, each of the network node, computer and other
devices, are interconnected with one another.
Every node not only sends its own signals but also relays data from other nodes.
In fact a true mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every
other node in the network. This type of topology is very expensive as there are
many redundant connections, thus it is not mostly used in computer networks. It
is commonly used in wireless networks. Flooding or routing technique is used in
mesh topology.
Figure 5 Mesh Topology

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3.3. Basic Network Types
Networks can be categorized as per geographical area to be covered by the
network. Computer network are divided into three basic categories: LAN, WAN and MAN.
3.3.1. Local Area Network(LAN)
A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers
within a limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office
building, using network media.
It is generally a high-speed network that covers a small geographic area. A LAN
is usually under the administrative control of a single organization. Ethernet is the
most common LAN technology.
Figure 6, shows a basic LAN Topology wherein all the network devices are
interconnected with the help of a networking hub. A networking switch may also
be used.
Figure 6 LAN Topology
AdvantagesofLAN
 Provides communication in smaller networks, easy to install and configure.
 Many users can share data or network elements at the same time which results
in fast work.
DisadvantagesofLAN
 Limited numbers of computers are connected in a LAN.
 LAN cannot cover large area.
 Network performance degrades as the number of users exceeds.

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3.3.2. Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is similar to a local area network (LAN) but
spans an entire city or campus. MANs are formed by connecting multiple LANs.
Thus, MANs are larger than LANs but smaller than wide area networks (WAN).
MANs are extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed
carriers, such as fiber optic cables.
If a company has a few offices in the same city, and the computer users at each
location are able to share data between the two offices, they are generally doing
this over a MAN.
Figure 7 MAN Topology
3.3.3. Wide Area Network(WAN)
A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that spans large geographical
locations, usually to connect multiple LANs.
It connects computer networks through public networks like, telephone system,
microwave, satellite link or leased line. Most of the WANs use leased lines for
internet access as they provide faster data transfer.
WAN helps an organization to establish network between all its departments and
offices located in the same or different cities. It also enables communication
between the organization and the rest of the world.
Device used in WAN is only Router.

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Figure 8 WAN Topology
3.4. Network Architecture
3.4.1. Peer-to-Peer
In a basic peer-to-peer architecture, all hosts on the network can both request
and provide data and services. For example, two Windows XP workstations
configured to share files would be considered a peer-to-peer network.
3.4.2. Client/Server
In client/server architecture, hosts are assigned specific roles. Clients request
data and services stored on servers. An example of a client/server network would
be Windows XP workstations accessing files off of a Windows 2003 server
.
3.4.3. Mainframe/Terminal
In mainframe/terminal architecture, a single device (the mainframe) stores all
data and services for the network. This provides the same advantages as
client/server architecture – centralized management and security of data.
Additionally, the mainframe performs all processing functions for the dumb
terminals that connect to the mainframe.

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3.5. OSI Reference Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model was developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), and formalized in 1984.
OSI is a reference model for how applications can communicate over a network. Its goal is
the interoperability of diverse communication systems with standard protocols
The OSI model consists of seven layers, each corresponding to a specific network
function. A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it.
7 APPLICATION
Provides the interface between the user application and the network. A
web browser and an email client are examples of user applications.
Protocols: FTP, HTTP, POP3, SMTP, Telnet.
6 PRESENTATION
Controls the formatting and syntax of user data for the application layer.
This ensures that data from the sending application can be understood
by the receiving application.
5 SESSION
Responsible for establishing, maintaining, and ultimately terminating
sessions between devices. If a session is broken, this layer can attempt
to recover the session.
4 TRANSPORT
Responsible for the reliable transfer of data, by ensuring that data
arrives at its destination error-free and in order. Protocols: TCP, UDP.
3 NETWORK
Controls internetwork communication, and has two key responsibilities:
• Logical addressing – provides a unique address that identifies both
the host, and the network that host exists on.
• Routing – determines the best path to a particular destination network,
and then routes data accordingly.
IP and IPX are the most common protocols.
2 DATA-LINK
Responsible for transporting data within a network. The Data-Link layer
consists of two sublayers:
• Logical Link Control (LLC) - serves as the intermediary between the
physical link and all higher layer protocols. It ensures that protocols like
IP can function regardless of what type of physical technology is being
used.
• Media Access Control (MAC) - controls access to the physical
medium, serving as mediator if multiple devices are competing for the
same physical link.
1 PHYSICAL
Controls the signalling and transferring of raw bits onto the physical
medium. The Physical layer is closely related to the Data-link layer, as
many technologies (such as Ethernet) contain both data-link and
physical functions.
Table 2 OSI Reference Model Layers

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Figure 9 OSI Reference Model
As data is passed from the user application down the virtual layers of the OSI model,
each layer adds a header (and sometimes a trailer) containing protocol information
specific to that layer. These headers are called Protocol Data Units (PDUs), and the
process of adding these headers is called encapsulation.
The PDU of each layer is identified with a different term:
LAYER PDU
APPLICATION -
PRESENTATION -
SESSION -
TRANSPORT Segments
NETWORK Packets
DATA-LINK Frames
PHYSICAL Bits
Table 3 PDU of Each Layer

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3.6. Passive Components
Passive components provide physical connectivity between the various network devices.
They provide a medium to transfer data in a relatively high speed (Bandwidth) between
the network devices. They also help in connecting devices over long distances.
The passive components used here at Sun House are:
• Cables
• Patch Panel
• Patch Cord
• I/O box
• Racks
• RJ-45 Connectors
3.6.1. Cables
Ethernet can be deployed over 3 types of cabling.
a. Coaxial Cables
Coaxial cable consists of a single wire surrounded by insulation, a
metallic shield, and a plastic sheath. The shield helps protect against
electromagnetic interference (EMI), which can cause attenuation.
It is almost entirely deprecated in Ethernet networking.
b. Twisted-Pair Cables
Twisted-pair cable consists of two or four pairs of copper wires in a plastic
sheath. Wires in a pair twist around each other to reduce crosstalk, a form
of EMI that occurs when the signal from one wire bleeds or interferes with
a signal on another wire. Twisted-pair is the most common Ethernet
cable.
Twisted-pair cabling are of 2 types:
 Shielded-In this, an extra wire which is called shielded wire is
wrapped over the inner cover which holds copper in pairs. This
protection is used to protect signal from external noise.
 Unshielded-In this type of wire no shielded cover is there for extra
protection from noise.
An RJ45 connector is used to connect a device to a twisted-pair cable.

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CATEGORY SPEED
CAT-1 56 Kbps
CAT-2 4 Mbps
CAT-3 10 Mbps
CAT-4 16-20 Mbps
CAT-5 100 Mbps
CAT-6 1 Gbps
CAT-7 1 Gbps
Table 4 Categories of Twisted-Pair Cables
c. Fiber Optic Cables
Fiber optic cable consists of a very fine fiber made from two types of
glass, one for the inner core and the other for the outer layer. Here signal
is transmitted in the form of light. Different varieties of fiber optics are
used depending on the size of the network. Single mode fiber optics is
used for networks spanning longer distance. Fiber Optics has
lower propagation factor than coaxial cable. It is a costly but more secure
transmission media
3.6.1.1. Ethernet Cabling
There are three types of Ethernet cables:
 Straight cable
 Crossover cable
 Rolled cable
a. Straight Cable
It is used when we have to connect unlike devices:
 PC to Switch
 PC to Hub
 Hub to Router
 Switch to Router
Table 5 Straight Cable Colour Code Figure 10 Straight Cable
PIN CONNECTOR 1 CONNECTOR 2 PIN
1 WHITE ORANGE WHITE ORANGE 1
2 ORANGE ORANGE 2
3 WHITE GREEN WHITE GREEN 3
4 BLUE BLUE 4
5 WHITE BLUE WHITE BLUE 5
6 GREEN GREEN 6
7 WHITE BROWN WHITE BROWN 7
8 BROWN BROWN 8

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b. Cross Over Cable
It is used when we have to connect like devices. Modern devices can now
automatically detect whether the crossover function is required, negating
the need for a crossover cable.
 PC to PC
 Hub to Hub
 Switch to switch
 Router to Router
 PC to Router
 Hub to Switch
Table 6 Crossover Cable Colour Code Figure 11 Crossover Cable
c. Rollover Cable
A rollover cable is used to connect a workstation or laptop into a Cisco
device’s console or auxiliary port, for management purposes. A rollover
cable is often referred to as a console cable, and its sheathing is usually
flat and light-blue in color. Rollover cables can be used to configure Cisco
routers, switches, and firewalls
Table 7 Rollover Cable Colour Code Figure 12 Rollover Cable
1 WHITE ORANGE WHITE GREEN 1
2 ORANGE GREEN 2
3 WHITE GREEN WHITE ORANGE 3
4 BLUE BLUE 4
5 WHITE BLUE WHITE BLUE 5
6 GREEN ORANGE 6
7 WHITE BROWN WHITE BROWN 7
8 BROWN BROWN 8
1 WHITE ORANGE BROWN 8
2 ORANGE WHITE BROWN 7
3 WHITE GREEN GREEN 6
4 BLUE WHITE BLUE 5
5 WHITE BLUE BLUE 4
6 GREEN WHITE GREEN 3
7 WHITE BROWN ORANGE 2
8 BROWN WHITE ORANGE 1

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d. Power over Ethernet(PoE)
Power over Ethernet (PoE) allows both data and power to be sent
across the same twisted-pair cable, eliminating the need to provide
separate power connections. This is especially useful in areas where
installing separate power might be expensive or difficult.
PoE can be used to power many devices, including:
• Voice over IP (VoIP) phones
• Security cameras
• Wireless access points
• Thin clients
3.6.2. Patch Panel
A patch panel is a panel of network ports which provides a convenient place to
terminate all of the cable runs coming from different parts of the office into the
wiring closet. From the patch panel, the ports are connected to the switch with
the help of patch cords. The patch panel connects the network's computers to
each other and to the outside lines that enable the LAN to connect to the Internet
or another WAN
The patch panel are labelled port wise to give an idea of where each wire is
connected to. It helps to avoid a chaotic arrangement.
Also, with a patch panel, if any changes have to be made, like moving a station
or switch, you just move the patch cable with it, instead of having to re-terminate
the cable run.
Figure 13 Patch Panel

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3.7. IP ADDRESSING
IP address is a 32-bit number, usually written in dotted decimal form that uniquely
identifies an interface of some computer. It provides a unique address that identifies both
the host, and the network that host exists on. An IP address is most often represented in
decimal, in the following format:
158.80.164.3
There are two versions of IP addressing:
 IPv4
 IPv6
Table 8 IPv4 vs IPv6
Part of an IP address identifies the network. The other part of the address identifies the
host. A subnet mask is required to provide this distinction
3.7.1. Hardware Addressing
A hardware address is used to uniquely identify a host within a local network.
Hardware addressing is a function of the Data-Link layer of the OSI model
(Layer-2). Ethernet utilizes the 48-bit MAC address as its hardware address. The
MAC address is often hardcoded on physical network interfaces.
A MAC address is most often represented in hexadecimal, using one of two
accepted formats:
00:43:AB:F2:32:13
0043.ABF2.3213
The first six hexadecimal digits of a MAC address identify the manufacturer of the
physical network interface. This is referred to as the OUI (Organizational Unique
Identifier). The last six digits uniquely identify the host itself, and are referred to
as the host ID. The MAC address has one shortcoming – it contains no
hierarchy.
S.No. IPv4 IPv6
1. 32 bit long. 128 bit long.
2. Divided into 4 octets. Divided into 16 octets
3. Performs broadcasting, multicasting and
unicasting.
Does not support broadcasting.
4. Divided into 5 classes(A to E) Does not contain classes.
5. Represented in decimal form. Represented in hexadecimal form.

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3.7.2. IP Address Classes
3.7.3. Private IPs
A private address is intended for internal use within a home or organization, and
can be freely used by anyone. However, they can never be routed on the Internet
Three private address ranges are defined, one for each IPv4 class:
• Class A - 10.x.x.x /8
• Class B - 172.16.x.x /12
• Class C - 192.168.x.x /24
3.7.4. Subnetting
Subnetting is the process of creating new networks (or subnets) by stealing bits
from the host portion of a subnet mask. There is one caveat: stealing bits from
hosts creates more networks but fewer hosts per network. It is basically the
process of sub-diving a network into smaller subnets.
Example: Consider the following network: 192.168.254.0
Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
11111111.1111111.1111111.00000000
To create 10 new networks, subnetting of the network is required.
This can be done by stealing 4 bits from the host, which will give:
24
=16 new networks
New subnet mask:255.255.255.240
11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000
The hosts per network will be 24
-2=14
CLASS
FIRST OCTET
RANGE
NETWORK/HOST
ID
DEFAULT
SUBNET MASK
NO. OF
NETWORKS
NO. OF HOSTS PER
N/W
Class
A
1-127 N.H.H.H 255.0.0.0 126(27
– 2) 16,777,214(224
-2)
Class
B
128-191 N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0 16,382(214
-2) 65,534(216
-2)
Class
C
192-223 N.N.N.H 255.255.255.0 2,097,150(221
-2) 254(28
-2)
Class
D
224-239
Reserved for Multicasting
Class
E
240-255
Experimental

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3.8. Networking Devices
Network devices are components used to connect computers or other electronic devices
together so that they can share files or resources like printers, fax machines or the
internet. Devices used to setup a Local Area Network (LAN) are the most common type of
network devices used by the public. A LAN requires a hub, switch and a router.
3.8.1. Hub
Hubs are Layer-1 devices and are used to physically connect network devices
together for communication. They can also be called as repeaters. Hubs provide
no intelligent forwarding. Hence, they are also known as a dumb device.
Hubs are incapable of processing either Layer-2 or Layer-3 information. Hubs will
always forward every frame out every port, excluding the port originating the
frame. Hubs do not differentiate between frame types, and thus will always
forward unicasts, multicasts, and broadcasts out every port but the originating
port. Ethernet hubs operate at half-duplex, which allows a host to either transmit
or receive data, but not simultaneously.
If any two devices connected to a hub send a frame simultaneously, a collision
will occur. Thus, all ports on a hub belong to the same collision domain. A
collision domain is simply defined as any physical segment where a collision can
occur.
Hubs also belong to only one broadcast domain – a hub will forward both
broadcasts and multicasts out every port but the originating port. A broadcast
domain is a logical segmentation of a network, dictating how far a broadcast (or
multicast) frame can propagate.
Hubs are almost deprecated.

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3.8.2. Switch
A switch is a networking device which filters and forward packets through the
network. It is a layer-2 device. It is more advanced than a hub. The basic function
that any switch is supposed to perform is to receive information from any source
connected to it and dispatch that information to the appropriate destination only.
This thing differentiates switches from hubs.
Switches build hardware address tables, which at a minimum contain the
following:
 Hardware addresses for hosts
 The port each hardware address is associated with
Using this information, switches makes intelligent forwarding decisions based on
the frame (or data-link) headers. A frame can then be forwarded out only the
appropriate destination port, instead of all ports. Hence, a switch is also known
as an intelligent device.
Switches can operate in full-duplex. Each individual port on a switch belongs to
its own collision domain. Thus, switches create more collision domains, which
results in fewer collisions.
Switches belong to only one broadcast domain. A Layer-2 switch will forward
both broadcasts and multicasts out every port but the originating port. Only
Layer-3 devices separate broadcast domains
Both hubs and switches are susceptible to switching loops, which result in
destructive broadcast storms. Switches utilize the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)
to maintain a loop-free environment. There are three things that switches do that
hubs do not:
 Hardware address learning
 Intelligent forwarding of frames
 Loop avoidance
Figure 14 Switch

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3.8.2.1. Working
Ethernet switches build MAC address tables through a dynamic learning
process.
A switch behaves much like a hub when first powered on. The switch will
flood every frame, including unicasts, out every port but the originating
port. The switch will then build the MAC-address table by examining the
source MAC address of each frame.
Consider the following diagram:
Figure 15 Working of a Switch
When Computer A sends a frame to Computer B, the switch will add
Computer A’s MAC address to its table, associating it with port fa0/10.
However, the switch will not learn Computer B’s MAC address until
Computer B sends a frame to Computer A, or to another device
connected to the switch. Switches always learn from the source MAC
address in a frame.
As the MAC address table becomes populated, the flooding of frames will
decrease, allowing the switch to perform more efficient forwarding
decisions.
Now when computer A wants to send data to computer B, the device A
passes the data and the switch receives it. The switch then checks the
MAC-address table and matches the destination MAC address. It then
transfers the data only to the computer B instead of broadcasting.

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3.8.2.2. Forwarding Methods
 Store-and-Forward method copies the entire frame into memory, and
performs a Cycle Redundancy Check (CRC) to completely ensure the
integrity of the frame. However, this level of error-checking introduces
the highest latency of any of the switching methods.
 Cut-Through (Real Time) method copies only enough of a frame’s
header to determine its destination address. This is generally the first
6 bytes following the preamble. This method allows frames to be
transferred at wire speed, and has the least latency of any of the three
methods. No error checking is attempted when using the cut-through
method.
 Fragment-Free (Modified Cut-Through) method copies only the first
64 bytes of a frame for error-checking purposes. Most collisions or
corruption occur in the first 64 bytes of a frame. Fragment-Free
represents a compromise between reliability (store-and-forward) and
speed (cut-through).
Switches are of two types:
 Managed - Support Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
and have a command line interface (CLI) that can be accessed via
serial console, Telnet, and Secure Shell. These switches can often be
configured and managed as groups.
 Unmanaged - Unmanaged switches are basic plug-and-play switches
with no remote configuration, management, or monitoring options,
although many can be locally monitored and configured

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3.8.2.3. Virtual LAN(VLAN)
A switch can be logically segmented into separate broadcast domains,
using Virtual LANs (VLANs). VLANs are very common in LAN and
campus networks. Each VLAN represents a unique broadcast domain:
 Traffic between devices within the same VLAN is switched.
 Traffic between devices in different VLANs is routed.
Figure 16 VLAN
In the above figure 16,
Four hosts are connected to a Layer-2 switch.
Host A and Host B belong to VLAN 100 while Host C and Host D belong
to VLAN 200.
Since Host A and Host B belong to the same VLAN, they belong to the
same broadcast domain. Frames can therefore be switched without the
need of a router. In the same way, Host C and Host D belong to the same
broadcast domain and frames are switched.
However, Host A and Hot B cannot communicate with Host C and Host D
as they are embers of different VLANs. A layer-3 device or a router is
needed for hosts of different VLANs to communicate.
VLANs provide the several benefits:
 Broadcast Control – eliminates unnecessary broadcast traffic,
improving network performance and scalability.
 Security – logically separates users and departments, allowing
administrators to implement access-lists to control traffic between
VLANs.
 Flexibility – removes the physical boundaries of a network, allowing a
user or device to exist anywhere.

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VLAN membership can be configured in two ways:
 Static-Manually assigning an individual port or a group of ports to a VLAN.
 Dynamic- Assigning a VLAN based on the MAC address of the host.
3.8.2.4. VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP)
VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP) is Cisco proprietary. It simplifies the
maintenance of a consistent VLAN database in a large switching
environment. Updates to the VLAN database are propagated to all
switches using VTP advertisements. VTP requires that all participating
switches join a VTP domain and must be in the same domain to share
VTP updates.
VLANs are created on the VTP server switch. It sends periodic updates to
the VTP client switches, which replicate the VLAN database on the
server.
VTP Modes
A switch using VTP requires it to operate in one of the three modes:
 Server
 Client
 Transparent
VTP servers are responsible for creating, deleting or modifying entries in
the VLAN database. By default, all Cisco switches are in the VTP server
mode. Severs advertise the VLAN database to all other switches in the
VTP domain.
VTP clients cannot create, modify or delete entries in the VLAN
database. They rely on updates from the VTP server for creating VLANs
and also forward VTP updates.
VTP transparent switch is able to create, delete and modify its local
VLAN database. It forwards the VTP updates from other switches without
learning any information from it. Also, it will never advertise its local VLAN
database to other switches.

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3.8.3. Router
A router is a device that forwards data packets along networks. It is used to
interconnect at least two different networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a
LAN and its ISP’s network. They are located at gateways, the place where two or
more networks connect.
Routers build routing tables to perform forwarding decisions, which contain the
following:
 The destination network and subnet mask
 The next hop router to get to the destination network
 Routing metrics and Administrative Distance
The routing table is concerned with two types of Layer-3 protocols:
 Routed protocols - assigns logical addressing to devices, and routes
packets between networks. Examples include IP and IPX.
 Routing protocols - dynamically builds the information in routing tables.
Examples include RIP, EIGRP, and OSPF
Each individual interface on a router belongs to its own collision domain. Thus,
routers create more collision domains which result in fewer collisions.
Routers also separate broadcast domains. A router will never forward broadcasts
from one network to another unless explicitly configured.
Figure 17 Broadcast and Collision Domains
In the above figure, there are three broadcast domains and eight collision
domains. Hubs belong to a single collision domain and broadcast domain.
Switches separate collision domains but belong to one broadcast domain.
Routers separate collision domains as well as broadcast domains.

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3.8.3.1. Router Components
Cisco routers (and switches) generally contain four types of memory:
 ROM - contains a bootstrap program called ROM Monitor (ROMmon).
 Flash - Stores the Cisco Internetworking Operating System (IOS)
 NVRAM – Stores the Startup Configuration (startup-config) file
 RAM –Stores the Running Configuration (running-config)
3.8.3.2. Layer-3 Switches
In addition to performing Layer-2 switching functions, a Layer-3 switch
must also meet the following criteria:
 The switch must be capable of making Layer-3 forwarding decisions
(traditionally referred to as routing).
 The switch must cache network traffic flows, so that Layer-3
forwarding can occur in hardware.
For the first packet of a particular traffic flow, the Layer-3 switch will
perform a standard route-table lookup. This flow is then cached in
hardware – which preserves required routing information, such as the
destination network and the MAC address of the corresponding next-hop.
Subsequent packets of that flow will bypass the route-table lookup, and
will be forwarded based on the cached information, reducing latency. This
concept is known as route once, switch many.
Layer-3 switches are predominantly used to route between VLANs:
Figure 18 Layer-3 Switch
Traffic between Computer A and Computer B is switched at Layer-2 as
normal. The first packet between the Computers in the different VLANs
such as Computer A and Computer D, is routed. The switch then caches
the IP traffic flow and the subsequent packets in that flow will be switched
in hardware.

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3.8.3.3. Routing Table
As mentioned, routers build routing tables to perform forwarding
decisions, which contain the following:
 The destination network and subnet mask
 The next hop router to get to the destination network
 Routing metrics and Administrative Distance
To determine the best route to a destination, a router considers three
elements (in this order):
 Prefix-Length
 Metric (within a routing protocol)
 Administrative Distance (between separate routing protocols)
Prefix-Length- Prefix-length is the number of bits used to identify the
network, and is used to determine the most specific route. A longer prefix-
length indicates a more specific route.
Metric- A “metric” allows a router to choose the best path within a routing
protocol. Distance vector routing protocols use “distance” (usually hop-
count) as their metric. Link state protocols utilize some sort of “cost” as
their metric. Only routes with the best metric are added to the routing
table.
Administrative Distance- If a router is running multiple routing protocols,
Administrative Distance is used to determine which routing protocol to
trust the most. Lowest administrative distance wins. AD values are fixed
for routing protocols and can be changed at will. A route with an
“unknown” Administrative Distance will never be inserted into the routing
table.
Figure 19 Administrative Distance Values

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3.8.3.4. Classful vs. Classless Routing
Classful routing protocols do not send subnet mask information with
their routing updates. A router running a classful routing protocol will react
in one of two ways when receiving a route:
 If the router has a directly connected interface belonging to the same
major network, it will apply the same subnet mask as that interface.
 If the router does not have any interfaces belonging to the same major
network, it will apply the classful subnet mask to the route.
Classless routing protocols do send the subnet mask with their
updates. Thus, Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSMs) are allowed
when using classless routing protocols.
3.8.3.5. Types of Routing
 Static Routing
A static routing table is created, maintained, and updated by a
network administrator, manually. A static route to every network is
configured on all routers for full connectivity. Static routing is
impractical on large networks.
Static routes have an Administrative Distance (AD) of 1 and thus are
always preferred over dynamic routes.
Advantages
• Minimal CPU/Memory overhead
• No bandwidth overhead (updates are not shared between routers)
• Granular control on how traffic is routed
Disadvantages
• Infrastructure changes must be manually adjusted
• No “dynamic” fault tolerance if a link goes down
• Impractical on large network

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 Dynamic Routing
A dynamic routing table is created, maintained, and updated by a
routing protocol running on the router.
Routers share dynamic routing information with each other, which
increases CPU, RAM, and bandwidth usage. However, routing
protocols are capable of dynamically choosing a different (or better)
path when there is a change to the routing infrastructure.
Advantages
• Simpler to configure on larger networks
• Will dynamically choose a different better route if a link goes down
• Ability to load balance between multiple links
Disadvantages
• Updates are shared between routers, thus consuming bandwidth
• Routing protocols put additional load on router CPU/RAM
• The choice of the “best route” is in the hands of the routing protocol,
and not the network administrator
3.8.3.6. Default Routing
Normally, if a specific route to a particular network does not exist, a router
will drop all traffic destined to that network. A default route, or gateway
of last resort, allows traffic to be forwarded, even without a specific route
to a particular network.
The default route is identified by all zeros in both the network and subnet
mask (0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0). It is the least specific route possible, and thus will
only be used if a more specific route does not exist and hence the name
“gateway of last resort”.

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3.8.4. Routing Protocols
Classes
 Distance-Vector Routing Protocols
 Link-State Routing Protocols
 Hybrid Protocols
3.8.4.1. Distance-Vector Routing Protocols
Key characteristics of Distance-Vector Routing Protocols:
 Periodic updates of the full routing table are sent to routing neighbors.
 Distance-vector protocols suffer from slow convergence, and are
highly susceptible to loops.
 Some form of distance is used to calculate a route’s metric.
 The Bellman-Ford algorithm is used to determine the shortest path.
Examples of distance-vector routing protocols are RIP and IGRP.
Disadvantages
 Slow convergence.
 Highly susceptible to routing loops.
Distance-vector protocols utilize some form of distance to calculate a
route’s metric. RIP uses hop count as its distance metric, and IGRP uses
a composite of bandwidth and delay.
3.8.4.2. Link-State Routing Protocols
Link-state routing protocols were developed to alleviate the
convergence and loop issues of distance-vector protocols. Link-state
protocols maintain three separate tables:
 Neighbour table – contains a list of all neighbors, and the interface
each neighbor is connected off of. Neighbors are formed by sending
Hello packets.
 Topology table – otherwise known as the “link-state” table, contains
a map of all links within an area, including each link’s status.
 Shortest-Path table – contains the best routes to each particular
destination. Dijkstra formula is used. Also, known as the routing table.

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Key characteristics:
 Routers send updates advertising the state of their links.
 All routers within an area have identical topology tables.
 If the state of a link changes, such as a router interface failing, an
advertisement containing only this link-state change will be sent to all
routers within that area
 By maintaining a consistent topology table among all routers within an
area, link-state protocols can converge very quickly and are immune
to routing loops.
 Updates are sent only during a link-state change, and contain only the
change (and not the full table). Hence, link-state protocols are less
bandwidth intensive than distance-vector protocols.
 Utilize more RAM and CPU on the router itself.
Link-state protocols utilize some form of cost, usually based on
bandwidth, to calculate a route’s metric.
Examples are OSPF and IS-IS.
3.8.4.3. Hybrid Protocols
Uses both aspects of distance-vector and link-state protocols. Example of
this type is EIGRP.

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3.8.4.4. Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a true Distance Vector routing
protocol. It is designed for use on smaller networks.
Characteristics:
 RIP sends out periodic routing updates every 30 seconds
 RIP sends out the full routing table every periodic update
 RIP uses hopcount as its metric
 RIP uses the Bellman-Ford Distance Vector algorithm to determine
the best “path” to a particular destination
 RIP supports IP and IPX routing.
 RIP utilizes UDP port 520
 RIP routes have an administrative distance of 120.
 RIP has a maximum hopcount of 15 hops
A metric of 16 is considered a poison route or infinity metric and is
unreachable by RIP.
If multiple paths exist to a particular destination, RIP will load balance
between those paths only if the metric is equal. RIP uses a round-robin
system of load-balancing between equal metric routes, which can lead to
pinhole congestion.
RIP Versions
RIP has two versions, RIPv1 and RIPv2.
RIPv1 is classful and thus does not include the subnet mask with its
routing table updates. Hence, it does not support Variable Length Subnet
Masks (VLSMs).
RIPv1 sends updates as broadcasts to address 255.255.255.255.
RIPv2 is classless and thus does include the subnet mask with its routing
table updates. RIPv2 fully supports VLSMs. Routing updates are sent via
multicast, using address 224.0.0.9.Encrypted authentication can be
configured between RIPv2 routers
RIPv2 can interoperate with RIPv1.
By default:
• RIPv1 routers will sent only Version 1 packets
• RIPv1 routers will receive both Version 1 and 2 updates
• RIPv2 routers will both send and receive only Version 2 updates

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RIP Timers
RIP has four basic timers:
 Update Timer (default 30 seconds) – indicates how often the router
will send out a routing table update.
 Invalid Timer (default 180 seconds) – indicates how long a route will
remain in a routing table before being marked as invalid, if no new
updates are heard about this route. The invalid timer will be reset if an
update is received for that particular route before the timer expires. A
route marked as invalid is not immediately removed from the routing
table. Instead, the route is marked (and advertised) with a metric of
16, indicating it is unreachable, and placed in a hold-down state.
 Hold-down Timer (default 180 seconds) – indicates how long RIP
will suppress a route that it has placed in a hold-down state. RIP will
not accept any new updates for routes in a hold-down state, until the
hold-down timer expires.
 Flush Timer (default 240 seconds) – indicates how long a route can
remain in a routing table before being flushed, if no new updates are
heard about this route. The flush timer runs concurrently with the
invalid timer, and thus will flush out a route 60 seconds after it has
been marked invalid.
RIP timers must be identical on all routers on the RIP network, otherwise
massive instability will occur.

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3.8.4.5. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a standardized Link-state routing
protocol, designed to scale efficiently to support larger networks.
Characteristics:
 OSPF employs a hierarchical network design using Areas.
 OSPF will form neighbour relationships with adjacent routers in the
same Area.
 Instead of advertising the distance to connected networks, OSPF
advertises the status of directly connected links using Link-State
Advertisements (LSAs).
 OSPF sends updates (LSAs) when there is a change to one of its
links, and will only send the change in the update. LSAs are
additionally refreshed every 30 minutes.
 OSPF traffic is multicast either to address 224.0.0.5 (all OSPF
routers) or 224.0.0.6 (all Designated Routers).
 OSPF uses the Dijkstra Shortest Path First algorithm to determine the
shortest path.
 OSPF is a classless protocol, and thus supports VLSMs.
 OSPF supports only IP routing.
 OSPF routes have an administrative distance is 110.
 OSPF uses cost as its metric, which is computed based on the
bandwidth of the link. OSPF has no hop-count limit.
The OSPF process builds and maintains three separate tables:
 Neighbour table – contains a list of all neighboring routers.
 Topology table – contains a list of all possible routes to all known
networks within an area.
 Routing table – contains the best route for each known network

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OSPF Neighbours
OSPF forms neighbour relationships, called adjacencies, with other
routers in the same Area by exchanging Hello packets to multicast
address 224.0.0.5. Only after an adjacency is formed can routers share
routing information. Each OSPF router is identified by a unique Router ID.
By default, Hello packets are sent out OSPF-enabled interfaces every 10
seconds for broadcast and point-to-point interfaces, and 30 seconds for
non-broadcast and point-to-multipoint interfaces. OSPF also has a Dead
Interval, which indicates how long a router will wait without hearing any
hellos before announcing a neighbour as “down.” Default for the Dead
Interval is 40 seconds for broadcast and point-to-point interfaces, and 120
seconds for non-broadcast and point-to-multipoint interfaces
OSPF routers will only become neighbours if the following parameters
within a Hello packet are identical on each router:
 Area ID
 Area Type (stub, NSSA, etc.)
 Prefix
 Subnet Mask
 Hello Interval
 Dead Interval
 Network Type (broadcast, point-to-point, etc.)
 Authentication
A neighbour table is constructed from the OSPF Hello packets, which
includes the following information:
 Router ID of each neighbouring router
 Current state of each neighbouring router
 Interface directly connecting to each neighbour
 IP address of the remote interface of each neighbour
If a link on a router is down, it would flood the information to its
neighbours who would in turn send it to their neighbours. This results
in waste of bandwidth and processor usage. To prevent this, OSPF
elects a Designated Router (DR) for each multi-access networks,
accessed via multicast address 224.0.0.6. A Backup Designated
Router (BDR) is also elected. OSPF routers will form adjacencies with
the DR and BDR. If a change occurs to a link, the update is forwarded
only to the DR, which then forwards it to all other routers. This greatly
reduces the flooding of LSAs.

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Network Types
 Broadcast Multi-Access – indicates a topology where broadcast
occurs. OSPF will elect DRs and BDRs.
 Point-to-Point – indicates a topology where two routers are directly
connected. OSPF will not elect DRs and BDRs.
 Point-to-Multipoint – indicates a topology where one interface can
connect to multiple destinations. Each connection between a source
and destination is treated as a point-to-point link. OSPF will not elect
DRs and BDRs.
 Non-broadcast Multi-access Network (NBMA) – indicates a
topology where one interface can connect to multiple destinations;
however, broadcasts cannot be sent across a NBMA network. OSPF
will elect DRs and BDRs
OSPF Areas
OSPF is a hierarchical system that separates an Autonomous System
into individual areas. OSPF traffic can either be intra-area, inter-area or
external. OSPF routers build a Topology Database of all links within their
area. Routing updates between these routers will only contain information
about links local to their area.
OSPF routers can belong to multiple areas, and will thus contain separate
Topology databases for each area. These routers are known as Area
Border Routers (ABRs).
Area 0 is required for OSPF to function, and is considered the Backbone
area. As a rule, all other areas must have a connection into Area 0,
though this rule can be bypassed using virtual links
Thus, the four separate OSPF router types are as follows:
 Internal Routers – all router interfaces belong to only one Area.
 Area Border Routers (ABRs) – contains interfaces in at least two
separate areas
 Backbone Routers – contains at least one interface in Area 0
 Autonomous System Border Routers (ASBRs) – contain a
connection to a separate Autonomous System

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Figure 20 OSPF Areas
In the above figure:
 Router A, B, E and F are Internal Routers
 Routers C and D are ABRs
 Router G is ASBR
Virtual Links
Figure 21 Virtual Link
Virtual links can be used to logically connect separated areas to Area 0.
In the above example, a virtual link would create a link from Area 2 to
Area 0, using Area 1 a transit area. One end of the Virtual Link must be
connected to Area 0. Configuration occurs on the Area Border Routers
(ABRs) connecting Area 1 to Area 2 (Router B), and Area 1 to Area 0
(Router C)

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OSPF Area Types
 Standard Area – A “normal” OSPF area.
 Stub Area – Prevents external routes from flooding into an area. The
purpose of Stub areas is to limit the number of LSAs flooded into the
area, to conserve bandwidth and router CPUs. The Stub’s ABR will
automatically inject a default route into the Stub area, so that those
routers can reach the external networks. The ABR will be the next-hop
for the default route.
 Totally Stubby Area – Prevents both inter-area and external routes
from flooding into an area.
 Not So Stubby Area (NSSA) – Similar to a Stub area; prevents
external routes from flooding into an area, unless those external
routes originated from an ASBR within the NSSA area.
 Totally Not So Stubby Area (TNSSA) – Similar to a Totally Stubby
area; prevents both inter-area and external routes from flooding into
an area, unless those external routes originated from an ASBR within
the NSSA area.
Figure 22 LSAs Accepted by Different OSPF Areas
Table 9 LSAs
LSA DESCRIPTION
1 Router
2 Network
3 Network Summary
4 ASBR Summary
5 AS External
7 NSSA External

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3.9. Services
3.9.1. Dynamic Host Control Protocol (DHCP)
Dynamic Host Control Protocol (DHCP) helps in dynamically allocating IP
addresses to the devices rather than statically assigning an IP address on each
device. This is done with the help of a DHCP server.
DHCP servers lease out IP addresses to DHCP clients, for a specific period of
time. There are four steps to this DHCP process as shown in the figure.
Figure 23 DHCP Process
By default, DHCP leases an address for 8 days. Once 50% of the lease
expires, the client will try to renew the lease with the same DHCP server. If
successful, the client receives a new 8 day lease.

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3.9.2. Domain Name System (DNS)
Domain Name System (DNS) is a name resolution system. The DNS translates
Internet domain and host names to IP addresses. DNS automatically converts
the names we type in our Web browser address bar to the IP addresses of Web
servers hosting those sites. Domain names are alphabetic, and hence easier to
remember.
For example, if a request is sent to a DNS Server to translate
www.howstuffworks.com, the server returns the IP address of 70.42.251.42.
Figure 24 DNS

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3.10. Network Address Translation (NAT)
A private address is used for internal use within a house or an organization, and is freely
accessible to anyone. A private address can never be routed on the internet. Only a
device with a public address can access the Internet.
For the purpose private addresses to be routed on the Internet, Network Address
Translation (NAT) is used. NAT allows a host configured with a private address to be
stamped with a public address, thus allowing it to communicate across the Internet.
It is also possible to translate multiple privately-addressed hosts to a single public
address, which conserves the public address space. NAT provides an additional benefit
of hiding the particular private IP and the private internal addressing structure of the
network.
3.10.1. Types of Nat
 Static NAT – performs a static one-to-one translation between two
addresses, or between a port on one address to a port on another
address.
 Dynamic NAT – utilizes a pool of global addresses to dynamically
translate the outbound traffic of clients behind a NAT-enabled device.
 NAT Overload or Port Address Translation (PAT) – translates the
outbound traffic of clients to unique port numbers off of a single global
address. PAT is necessary when the number of internal clients exceeds
the available global addresses.
Figure 25 NAT

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3.11. Traffic Shaping
Traffic shaping, also known as packet shaping, is the practice of regulating network
data transfer to assure a certain level of performance and quality of service
(QoS). Traffic shaping is used to optimize or guarantee performance, improve latency,
and/or increase usable bandwidth for some kinds of packets by delaying other kinds that
are designated as less important.
A device Bluecoat PacketShaper is in use at Sun Pharma.
Figure 26 Bluecoat PacketShaper
3.12. Access Point
Access point (AP) is a device that allows wireless devices to connect to a wired
network using Wi-Fi. The AP usually connects to a router (via a wired network) as a
standalone device, but it can also be an integral component of the router itself.
Ruckus AP is deployed at Sun Pharma.
Figure 27 Ruckus AP

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3.13. Video Conference
Videoconferencing (Video Conference) is a means to conduct live conference/
meetings/presentations between two or more participants at different sites by
using computer networks to transmit audio and video data.
Polycom and Cisco devices are used at Sun Pharma.
Figure 28 Polycom HD 7000

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4. CONFIGURATIONS
4.1. Cisco IOS
The Cisco IOS (Internetwork Operating System) is a command-line interface used by
nearly all current Cisco routers and Catalyst switches. The IOS provides the mechanism
to configure all Layer 2 and Layer 3 functions on Cisco devices. The devices can be
configured remotely or by console, with the help of a SSH client. PuTTY is being used
here at Sun House for this purpose.
Figure 29 PuTTY
4.2. Switches
The switches used at Sun House are:
 Core Switch- Cisco Nexus 7000 Series
 Access Layer Switch-Cisco Catalyst 2960-X and 2960-S
Figure 30 Cisco Catalyst 2960 Series Figure 31 Cisco Nexus 7000 Series

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Basic Configurations
 To change the hostname:
Switch# configure terminal
Switch(config)# hostname SW1
SW1(config)#
 To enter interface configuration mode:
Switch(config)# interface <type> <no.>
Switch(config-if)#
For the third Fast Ethernet interface of the second module:
Switch(config)# interface FastEthernet 2/3
(OR)
Switch(config)# interface fa 2/3
For Gigabit Ethernet:
Switch(config)# interface GigabitEthernet 2/3
(OR)
Switch(config)# interface gi 2/3
 On Nexus switches using the NX-OS, all interfaces are simply Ethernet:
NexusSwitch(config)# interface Ethernet 2/3
 Multiple interfaces can be configured simultaneously over a range:
Switch(config)# interface range gi2/3 , gi2/5 , gi2/7
Switch(config-if-range)#
(OR)
Switch(config)# interface range gi2/3 - 7
 To administratively shutdown a port:
Switch(config)# interface gi3/10
Switch(config-if)# shutdown
To remove an interface from its shutdown state:
Switch(config-if)# no shutdown
 To add description on the interface:
Switch(config-if)# description SWITCH 1

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4.2.1. VLAN
 Creating VLANs
Switch# vlan database
Switch(vlan)#vlan <no.> name <name of VLAN>
Switch(vlan)#exit
 To configure VLAN access to a port:
Switch(config-if)# switchport access vlan 2
Switch(config-if)# exit
 To display VLAN and port membership
Switch# show vlan brief
 To trunk a port:
Switch(config-if)# switchport mode trunk

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VTP and VLAN Configuration in GNS3
Figure 32 Inter VLAN Routing
 At the switch ESW1:
ESW1# vlan database
ESW1 (vlan)# vlan 10 name Accounts
ESW1 (vlan)# vlan 20 name Marketing
ESW1 (vlan)# vlan 30 name IT
ESW1 (vlan)# vlan 100 name Admin
ESW1 (vlan)# apply
ESW1# conf t
ESW1 (config)# vtp domain sun
ESW1 (config)# vtp password test
ESW1 (config)# vtp version 2
ESW1 (config)# vtp mode server
 At the switch ESW2, ESW3, ESW4:
Switch (config)# vtp domain sun
Switch (config)# vtp password test
Switch (config)# vtp version 2
Switch (config)# vtp mode client

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 To see the configurations:
Switch#show vlan brief
Switch#show vtp password
Switch#show vtp status
ESW1 VTP Status
ESW2 VTP Status. ESW3 and ESW4 will be identical.
 For Routing between different VLANs, configurations at the router:
R1(config)# interface fastEthernet 0/0
R1(config-if)# no shut
R1(config-if)# interface fastEthernet 0/0.10
R1(config-subif)# encapsulation dot1Q 10
R1(config-subif)# ip address 192.168.10.1 255.255.255.0
R1(config-subif)# no shut
R1(config-if)# interface fastEthernet 0/0.20
R1(config-subif)# encapsulation dot1Q 20
R1(config-subif)# ip address 192.168.20.1 255.255.255.0
R1(config-subif)# no shut
Similar as above for VLAN 30 and 100.

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4.2.2. Stack
Switches at Sun House are connected in stack in all the Hub rooms. The stacks
are of either pure Catalyst 2960-X switches or a mixed stack of 2960-X along
with 2960-S.
The maximum number of switches that can be connected together in a pure
2960-X stack is 8 whereas in a mixed stack, it is 4.
In a mixed stack, the pre-requisite is that the port speed of 2960-X should be
manually configured to match the port speed of 2960-S.
A stack is made by attaching FlexStack cables to the FlexStack modules in the
switch.
A stack always has one master with the rest being slaves. A particular switch can
be manually configured so that it would be elected as a master in the election
process. The master is connected to the Core Switch in the Data Center. The
master is given an IP address for remote management.
VTP is configured and stack switches are made the clients whereas the core
switch is the VTP server.
Basic configuration of a new switch at a corporate usually involves configuring
the line console and VTY, setting a management IP, ip domain-name, configuring
VTP and adding the usernames and passwords of the network administrators.
Figure 33 Switch Stack

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4.3. Routers
Basic Configurations
 To configure IP address on an interface:
Router# configure terminal
Router(config)# interface <type> <no>
Router(config-if)# ip address <ip> <mask>
 To configure hostname on a router:
Router# config terminal
Router(config)# hostname R1
R1(config)#
 To see a configured interface:
Router# show interface <type> <no>
 To add a banner:
Router# config t
Router(config)# banner <type> <delimation char> Text Message <delimation char>
Example
Router# config t
Router(config)# banner motd $ Unauthorized Access is Prohibited $
 To configure a protocol:
Router(config)# router <protocol> [<option>]
Router(config)# router rip
Router(config)# router eigrp 10

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Password Configuration
 Console Password
Router(config)# line console 0
Router(config-line)# password <word>
Router(config-line)# login
 VTY Password
Router(config)# line vty 0 4
Router(config-line)# password <word>
Router(config-line)# login
 Auxiliary Password
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#line Aux 0
Router(config-line)#password <word>
Router(config-line)#login
 Enable Password
Router(config)#enable password <word>
 Enable Secret Password
Router(config)#enable secret <word>
 Encryption all passwords
Router(config)#service password-encryption
 username name [privilege privilege-level ] password password
The same commands can be used on a switch

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4.3.1. Static Route
Figure 34 Static Route-Packet Tracer
Syntax
Router (config)# ip route [destination_network] [mask] [next_hop/exit_interface]
[administrative_distance] [permanent]
IP Addresses
PC0 10.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
PC1 30.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
Router0(Se0) 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router0(Se1) 20.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router1(Se0) 20.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
Router1(Se1) 30.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
R0(config)# ip route 30.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 20.0.0.2
R0(config)#
R1(config)# ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 20.0.0.1
R1(config)#
R1# show ip route
Route Table of R1

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4.3.2. RIP
Figure 35 RIP-GNS3
IP Addresses
PC1 192.168.0.2 255.255.255.0
PC2 172.16.0.2 255.255.255.0
R1(fa0/0) 192.168.0.1 255.255.255.0
R1(Se1/0) 10.1.0.2 255.255.255.0
R2(Se1/0) 10.1.0.3 255.255.255.0
R2(fa0/0) 172.16.0.1 255.255.255.0
R1(config)# router rip
R1(config)# network 192.168.0.0
R1# show ip route
Route Table of R1

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4.3.3. OSPF
Syntax
Router(config)# router ospf <ospf process id>
Router(config-router)# network <network address> <wild card mask> area<area
number>
Configuring at Interface:
Router(config-if)# ip ospf <ospf process id> area <area number>
Figure 36 OSPF Standard, Stub, TSA-GNS3
 Standard Area
R1:
R1(config)# interface Loopback1
R1(config‐if)# ip address 10.1.2.1 255.255.255.0
R1(config ‐if)# ip ospf 1 area 1
Same method for other loopbacks.

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R1(config)# interface Serial1/0
R1(config‐if)# ip ospf 1 area 1
R1(config)# router ospf 1
R1(config‐router)# router‐id 1.1.1.1
R2:
R2(config)# conf t
R2(config)# ip address 10.1.1.2 255.255.255.0
R2(config)# ip ospf 1 area 1
R3:
R3(config)# interface Loopback1
Same method for other loopbacks.
R3(config‐if)# interface Serial1/0
R3(config‐if)# interface Serial1/1
R3 Redistribution:
R3(config)# router rip
R3(config‐router)# version 2
R3(config‐router)# network 99.0.0.0 exit
R3(config‐router)# summary‐address 99.9.0.0 255.255.248.0
R3(config‐router)# redistribute rip subnets metric 5

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R4
R5
R5(config)#interface Serial1/0
R4(config)#exit
R5(config)#router ospf 1
R5(config‐router)#area 2 stub
Route Table of R1
Route Table of R5

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 Stub Area
In order to implement Stub Area, the following should be configured in
addition to the standard area configuration:
R1 Stub area configuration:
R1(config)# area 1 stub
R2 Stub area configuration:
R2(config-router)# area 1 stub
For summarization:
R2(config-router)# area 1 range 10.1.0.0 255.255.248.0
Route Table of R1
 Totally Stubby Area
R5 totally Stubby area configuration:
R5(config-router)# area 2 stub
R4 totally Stubby area configuration commands:
R4(config-router)# area 2 stub no-summary
Route Table of R5

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 Not So Stubby Area
Configure the standard area topology but create the loopbacks on R5 instead
on R3 and advertise them as RIP route and then redistribute them into OSPF.
Figure 37 OSPF NSSA-GNS3
R5 NSSA configuration:
R5(config-router)# area 2 nssa
R4 NSSA configuration:
R4(config-router)# area 2 nssa no-summary
RIP routes in R5 are appears as type-7.
But when they reach at R4, then again they converted into type-5.

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R5# show ip ospf 1 database
OSPF Database of R5
R4# show ip ospf 1 database
OSPF Database of R4
4.4. DHCP
Figure 38 DHCP-GNS3
To configure the router as a DHCP server:
R1(config)# ip dhcp pool Name
R1(dhcp-config)# network 192.168.3.0 255.255.255.0
R1(dhcp-config)# default-router 192.168.3.1
Configure interface that connects to the switch:
R1(config)# int fa 0/0
R1(config-if)# ip add 192.168.3.1 255.255.255.0

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4.5. DNS
Figure 39 DNS-GNS3
IP at each interface is set:
R1(fa0/0) 10.10.10.1 255.255.255.0
R2(fa0/0) 10.10.10.2 255.255.255.0
R3(fa0/0) 10.10.10.3 255.255.255.0
R4(fa0/0) 10.10.10.4 255.255.255.0
R1-Primary Server
R1# conf t
R1(config)# ip dns server
R1(config)# ip dns primary test.com soa ns1.test.com admin.test.com
[Router(config)# ip dns <domain name> soa <dns server name> <admin email>]
R1(config)# ip host test.com ns 10.10.10.1
R1(config)# ip host ns1 10.10.10.1
R1(config)# ip host R2 10.10.10.2
Configure clients R2, R3, R4
R2# conf t
R2(config)# ip domain-lookup
R2(config)# ip name-server 10.10.10.1
Same configuration for R3 and R4.

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4.6. NAT
Figure 40 NAT-GNS3
IP Address
R1(fa0/0) 192.168.1.100 255.255.255.0
R1(fa0/1) 10.1.1.1 255.255.255.0
PC1 10.1.1.11 255.255.255.0
Step 1: Inside-Outside Interface
R1(config-if)# ip nat outside
R1(config-if)# ip nat inside
R1(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 192.168.1.1
Step 2: Permit local IPs
R1(config)# access-list 1 permit 10.1.1.0 0.0.0.255
Step 3: Create Global IP Pool
R1(config)# ip nat pool global-ips 192.168.1.33 192.168.1.40 netmask 255.255.255.0
[Router(config)# ip nat pool <name> <start ip> <end ip> netmask <mask>]
Step 4: NAT Configuration
R1(config)# ip nat inside source list 1 pool global-ips

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Pinging 98.137.149.56 from PC1
R1# show ip nat translations
IP mapping

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5. CONCLUSION
Computer Network is the back bone of any corporate. It is a very vast and important project in
the present era. Without the existence of a computer network, businesses would experience a
downfall. All the offices of a company are connected to share resources and to perform day to
day work for efficient functioning. Computer Network has bound the world in a very small area
with the networking processes like LAN, MAN, WAN and the Internet.

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6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1) www.sunpharma.com
2) www.routeralley.com
3) www.cisco.com
4) www.techopedia.com
5) www.compnetworking.about.com

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Table of Figures
Figure 1 Computer Network .................................................................................................................................6
Figure 2 Bus Topology...........................................................................................................................................7
Figure 3 Star Topology..........................................................................................................................................8
Figure 4 Ring Topology..........................................................................................................................................8
Figure 5 Mesh Topology........................................................................................................................................9
Figure 6 LAN Topology........................................................................................................................................10
Figure 7 MAN Topology ......................................................................................................................................11
Figure 8 WAN Topology ......................................................................................................................................12
Figure 9 OSI Reference Model ............................................................................................................................14
Figure 10 Straight Cable......................................................................................................................................16
Figure 11 Crossover Cable ..................................................................................................................................17
Figure 12 Rollover Cable.....................................................................................................................................17
Figure 13 Patch Panel .........................................................................................................................................18
Figure 14 Switch..................................................................................................................................................22
Figure 15 Working of a Switch............................................................................................................................23
Figure 16 VLAN....................................................................................................................................................25
Figure 17 Broadcast and Collision Domains........................................................................................................27
Figure 18 Layer-3 Switch.....................................................................................................................................28
Figure 19 Administrative Distance Values ..........................................................................................................29
Figure 20 OSPF Areas..........................................................................................................................................39
Figure 21 Virtual Link..........................................................................................................................................39
Figure 22 LSAs Accepted by Different OSPF Areas .............................................................................................40
Figure 23 DHCP Process......................................................................................................................................41
Figure 24 DNS......................................................................................................................................................42
Figure 25 NAT......................................................................................................................................................43
Figure 26 Bluecoat PacketShaper .......................................................................................................................44
Figure 27 Ruckus AP............................................................................................................................................44
Figure 28 Polycom HD 7000................................................................................................................................45
Figure 29 PuTTY ..................................................................................................................................................46
Figure 30 Cisco Catalyst 2960 Series...................................................................................................................46
Figure 31 Cisco Nexus 7000 Series......................................................................................................................46
Figure 32 Inter VLAN Routing .............................................................................................................................49
Figure 33 Switch Stack ........................................................................................................................................51
Figure 34 Static Route-Packet Tracer..................................................................................................................54
Figure 35 RIP-GNS3.............................................................................................................................................55
Figure 36 OSPF Standard, Stub, TSA-GNS3 .........................................................................................................56
Figure 37 OSPF NSSA-GNS3 ................................................................................................................................60
Figure 38 DHCP-GNS3.........................................................................................................................................61
Figure 39 DNS-GNS3 ...........................................................................................................................................62
Figure 40 NAT-GNS3 ...........................................................................................................................................63

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