This document discusses social conditions and industrialization during the 19th century. Railroad mileage expanded rapidly across the United States from 1850 to 1890. Working conditions for railroad workers were difficult, with 22,000 deaths or injuries in 1889. Chinese workers were paid $1 per day while Irish workers received $2. The document also discusses influential thinkers like John Henry Newman and John Stuart Mill who critiqued aspects of industrialization and advocated for reforms in education and civil liberties.

1. The Age ofThe Age of
Industrialization (1850Industrialization (1850
– 1950)– 1950)
Worldwide Empires and WorldwideWorldwide Empires and Worldwide
ExploitationExploitation

2. Social Conditions in the Age ofSocial Conditions in the Age of
IndustrializationIndustrialization

3. The World - 1911The World - 1911

4. RAILROAD MILEAGE BY REGIONRAILROAD MILEAGE BY REGION
18501850 18601860 18701870 18801880 18901890
New EnglandNew England 2,5072,507 3,6603,660 4,4944,494 5,9825,982 6,8316,831
Middle StatesMiddle States 3,2023,202 6,7056,705 10,96410,964 15,87215,872 21,53621,536
Southern StatesSouthern States 2,0362,036 8,8388,838 11,19211,192 14,77814,778 29,20929,209
Western States andWestern States and
TerritoriesTerritories
1,2761,276 11,40011,400 24,58724,587 52,58952,589 62,39462,394
Pacific States and TerritoriesPacific States and Territories 2323 1,6771,677 4,0804,080 9,8049,804
TOTAL USATOTAL USA 9,0219,021 30,62630,626 52,91452,914 93,30193,301 129,774129,774

5. Harper’s Index of the Gilded AgeHarper’s Index of the Gilded Age
 Number of deaths or injury sustained by railroadNumber of deaths or injury sustained by railroad
workers in 1889: 22,000workers in 1889: 22,000
 Number of hours worked per day by railroad workersNumber of hours worked per day by railroad workers
in 1900: 12 – 14in 1900: 12 – 14
 Wages paid per day, in dollars, to Chinese railroadWages paid per day, in dollars, to Chinese railroad
workers: 1workers: 1
 Wages paid, per day, to Irish Workers: 2Wages paid, per day, to Irish Workers: 2
 Amount, in dollars, paid by J.P. Morgan for AndrewAmount, in dollars, paid by J.P. Morgan for Andrew
Carnegie’s steel company in 1900: 492,000,000Carnegie’s steel company in 1900: 492,000,000
 Amount then sold in stocks and bonds for theAmount then sold in stocks and bonds for the
combined companies of Morgan and Carnegie:combined companies of Morgan and Carnegie:
1,300,000,0001,300,000,000
 Commission fee, in dollars, Morgan gave himself forCommission fee, in dollars, Morgan gave himself for
the consolidation: 150,000,000the consolidation: 150,000,000

6. Possible Significance to CriticalPossible Significance to Critical
ThinkingThinking
 When the overwhelming majority of time and energyWhen the overwhelming majority of time and energy
each day are devoted to work, little remains for theeach day are devoted to work, little remains for the
development of the mind.development of the mind.
 When there is little to no access to schools or libraries,When there is little to no access to schools or libraries,
as was the case with many workers in the Industrial era,as was the case with many workers in the Industrial era,
there are few opportunities for learning and intellectualthere are few opportunities for learning and intellectual
growth.growth.
 A system which explicitly supports the development ofA system which explicitly supports the development of
vast fortunes of wealth and suppresses the ability of thevast fortunes of wealth and suppresses the ability of the
lower class to improve their status is not conducive to alower class to improve their status is not conducive to a
critical society.critical society.

7. Declining Standards at Oxford andDeclining Standards at Oxford and
CambridgeCambridge
The middle of the 19The middle of the 19thth
century was a period ofcentury was a period of
tremendous change and transition at Oxford andtremendous change and transition at Oxford and
Cambridge. Until this point, both had been firstCambridge. Until this point, both had been first
institutions for the training of the clergy andinstitutions for the training of the clergy and
later places for the sons of wealthy elite to meetlater places for the sons of wealthy elite to meet
and establish business contacts. By the 1850’sand establish business contacts. By the 1850’s
their prestige as educational establishments weretheir prestige as educational establishments were
declining precipitously.declining precipitously.

8. Reforms and the TutorialReforms and the Tutorial
Significant reforms in second half of the 1800’s largelySignificant reforms in second half of the 1800’s largely
resulted in the Oxford and Cambridge which existresulted in the Oxford and Cambridge which exist
todaytoday
 The Oath of the 39 articles, a pledge of religious fealtyThe Oath of the 39 articles, a pledge of religious fealty
which all Oxford and Cambridge students werewhich all Oxford and Cambridge students were
required to take, was abolishedrequired to take, was abolished
 Medieval methods of memorization and regurgitationMedieval methods of memorization and regurgitation
were replaced with tutorial instruction. This emphasizedwere replaced with tutorial instruction. This emphasized
a low ratio of student to teacher and a high degree ofa low ratio of student to teacher and a high degree of
reading and writing. The focus was placed on thereading and writing. The focus was placed on the
thinking of the student. Students were encouraged tothinking of the student. Students were encouraged to
initiate and pursue their own questions, construct theirinitiate and pursue their own questions, construct their
own conclusions, and develop a unique and wellown conclusions, and develop a unique and well
reasoned point of view.reasoned point of view.

9. Significance to Critical ThinkingSignificance to Critical Thinking
 The tutorial system curtails passivity and promotesThe tutorial system curtails passivity and promotes
active engagement, an essential trait of the critical mind.active engagement, an essential trait of the critical mind.
 By requiring large amounts of reading and writing, itBy requiring large amounts of reading and writing, it
fosters a disciplined pursuit of knowledge and thefosters a disciplined pursuit of knowledge and the
development and refining of ideas.development and refining of ideas.
 However, it also has the potential to produce sophisticHowever, it also has the potential to produce sophistic
critical thinkers who are skilled at intellectual trickerycritical thinkers who are skilled at intellectual trickery
and manipulation.and manipulation.
 No educational system can be designed to foster strongNo educational system can be designed to foster strong
sense critical thinking in all its students unlesssense critical thinking in all its students unless
instructors have internalized a rich conception ofinstructors have internalized a rich conception of
critical thinking and explicitly teach it to students.critical thinking and explicitly teach it to students.

10. Trends in the 19Trends in the 19thth
and 20and 20thth
CenturiesCenturies
 Beginning in the middle of the 19th century andBeginning in the middle of the 19th century and
continuing to the present day, there has been acontinuing to the present day, there has been a
proliferation in terms of the diversity of critiquesproliferation in terms of the diversity of critiques
produced, making it hard to describe and generalize.produced, making it hard to describe and generalize.
 However, one trend that can be noted is thatHowever, one trend that can be noted is that
organizations and social movements are increasing inorganizations and social movements are increasing in
scale and consideration.scale and consideration.
 For example, the International Committee of the RedFor example, the International Committee of the Red
Cross, which was founded in 1863 with the purposeCross, which was founded in 1863 with the purpose
of protecting war wounded, refugees, and prisoners,of protecting war wounded, refugees, and prisoners,
is not tied to any one country or polity.is not tied to any one country or polity.

11. Trends (contd.)Trends (contd.)
 The League of Nations (1919), followed by theThe League of Nations (1919), followed by the
United Nations (UN) in 1945, were founded withUnited Nations (UN) in 1945, were founded with
the mission of preventing war, settling globalthe mission of preventing war, settling global
disputes, and improving the general quality of lifedisputes, and improving the general quality of life
throughout the world.throughout the world.
 The World Health Organization (WHO, 1948) andThe World Health Organization (WHO, 1948) and
the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF,the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF,
1946), specialized agencies within the UN, were1946), specialized agencies within the UN, were
established for similar reasons.established for similar reasons.

12. Trends (contd.)Trends (contd.)
 This era also marked the beginning of socialThis era also marked the beginning of social
movements based on helping those in othermovements based on helping those in other
groups and nations.groups and nations.
 In other words, instead of seeking to gainIn other words, instead of seeking to gain
benefits for themselves, as much critique andbenefits for themselves, as much critique and
activism had in the past, many humanitarianactivism had in the past, many humanitarian
efforts in the 19th and 20th centuries have hadefforts in the 19th and 20th centuries have had
the express purpose of giving aid to others whothe express purpose of giving aid to others who
are not able to help themselves.are not able to help themselves.

13. Significance to Critical ThinkingSignificance to Critical Thinking
 These organizations may point towards theThese organizations may point towards the
development of a broader awareness, at least fordevelopment of a broader awareness, at least for
the small percentage of people who engage inthe small percentage of people who engage in
and support them.and support them.
 As the world becomes increasinglyAs the world becomes increasingly
interconnected and interdependent, theinterconnected and interdependent, the
consequences of uncritical and weak senseconsequences of uncritical and weak sense
critical thought grow exponentially.critical thought grow exponentially.

14. Influential Thinkers in the Age ofInfluential Thinkers in the Age of
IndustrializationIndustrialization

15. John Henry Newman (1801 – 1890)John Henry Newman (1801 – 1890)
 Key Idea: Newman critiqued the educational system inKey Idea: Newman critiqued the educational system in
a profound manner, arguing vociferously for not simplea profound manner, arguing vociferously for not simple
piecemeal changes but a paradigm shift. His mainpiecemeal changes but a paradigm shift. His main
targets were the medieval forms of instruction whichtargets were the medieval forms of instruction which
emphasized rote memorization of masses of facts, andemphasized rote memorization of masses of facts, and
the more recent decline in standards for wealthy elitethe more recent decline in standards for wealthy elite
who essentially bought their degrees while spending thewho essentially bought their degrees while spending the
majority of their time amusing themselves and escapingmajority of their time amusing themselves and escaping
intellectual work.intellectual work.

16. I will tell you, Gentlemen, what has been the practicalI will tell you, Gentlemen, what has been the practical
error of the last twenty years – not to load the memory oferror of the last twenty years – not to load the memory of
the student with a mass of undigested knowledge, but tothe student with a mass of undigested knowledge, but to
force upon him so much that he has rejected all. It hasforce upon him so much that he has rejected all. It has
been the error of distracting and enfeebling the mind bybeen the error of distracting and enfeebling the mind by
an unmeaning profusion of subjects; of implying that aan unmeaning profusion of subjects; of implying that a
smattering in a dozen branches of study is notsmattering in a dozen branches of study is not
shallowness, which it really is, but enlargement, which itshallowness, which it really is, but enlargement, which it
is not; of considering an acquaintance with the learnedis not; of considering an acquaintance with the learned
names of things and persons, and the possession of thenames of things and persons, and the possession of the
clever duodecimos, and attendance on eloquent lecturers,clever duodecimos, and attendance on eloquent lecturers,
and membership with scientific institutions, and the sightand membership with scientific institutions, and the sight
of the experiments of a platform and the specimens of aof the experiments of a platform and the specimens of a
museum, that all this was not dissipation of mind, butmuseum, that all this was not dissipation of mind, but
progress. progress.

17. All I say is, call things by their right names, and do notAll I say is, call things by their right names, and do not
confuse together ideas which are essentially different. Aconfuse together ideas which are essentially different. A
thorough knowledge of one science and a superficialthorough knowledge of one science and a superficial
acquaintance with many, are not the same thing; a smatteringacquaintance with many, are not the same thing; a smattering
of a hundred things or a memory for detail, is not aof a hundred things or a memory for detail, is not a
philosophical or comprehensive view. Recreations are notphilosophical or comprehensive view. Recreations are not
education; accomplishments are not education. Do not say,education; accomplishments are not education. Do not say,
the people must be educated, when, after all, you only mean,the people must be educated, when, after all, you only mean,
amused, refreshed, soothed, put into good spirits and goodamused, refreshed, soothed, put into good spirits and good
humour, or kept from vicious excesses. I do not say that suchhumour, or kept from vicious excesses. I do not say that such
amusements, such occupations of mind, are not a great gain;amusements, such occupations of mind, are not a great gain;
but they are not education. You may as well call drawing andbut they are not education. You may as well call drawing and
fencing education, as a general knowledge of botany orfencing education, as a general knowledge of botany or
conchology.conchology.

18. Newman’s Significance to Critical ThinkingNewman’s Significance to Critical Thinking
 Newman contributed a rich and substantive model ofNewman contributed a rich and substantive model of
education which, despite its flaws, nevertheless would beeducation which, despite its flaws, nevertheless would be
a powerful force for fostering critical thinking if it wasa powerful force for fostering critical thinking if it was
taken seriously and widely applied.taken seriously and widely applied.
 He represents a mind concerned with lifelong learning,He represents a mind concerned with lifelong learning,
systematic and disciplined thinking, applying intellectualsystematic and disciplined thinking, applying intellectual
skills to multiple subjects, to problem’s in human life, andskills to multiple subjects, to problem’s in human life, and
to oneself in an effort to take charge of one’s life. He hadto oneself in an effort to take charge of one’s life. He had
with a healthy respect for freedom of thought and humanwith a healthy respect for freedom of thought and human
reason. He was not afraid to exercise his autonomousreason. He was not afraid to exercise his autonomous
thought by speaking out against received views.thought by speaking out against received views.

19. John Stuart Mill (1806 – 1873)John Stuart Mill (1806 – 1873)
Key Idea: Mill contributed much to the historyKey Idea: Mill contributed much to the history
of critical thinking, but the most important ofof critical thinking, but the most important of
his works are those focused on civil liberties. Inhis works are those focused on civil liberties. In
these essays, he argues that all liberties arethese essays, he argues that all liberties are
connected in an integral way, if one should beconnected in an integral way, if one should be
removed then the others will be, at the veryremoved then the others will be, at the very
least, diminished.least, diminished.

20.  ““[The appropriate region of human liberty] comprises, first,[The appropriate region of human liberty] comprises, first,
the inward domain of consciousness; demanding liberty ofthe inward domain of consciousness; demanding liberty of
conscience in the most comprehensive sense; liberty ofconscience in the most comprehensive sense; liberty of
thought and feeling; absolute freedom of opinion andthought and feeling; absolute freedom of opinion and
sentiment on all subjects, practical or speculative, scientific,sentiment on all subjects, practical or speculative, scientific,
moral, or theological…The liberty of expressing andmoral, or theological…The liberty of expressing and
publishing opinions…is practically inseparable from it…publishing opinions…is practically inseparable from it…
Second, the principle requires liberty of tastes and pursuits; ofSecond, the principle requires liberty of tastes and pursuits; of
framing the plan of our life to suit our own character; of doingframing the plan of our life to suit our own character; of doing
as we like, subject to such consequences as may follow;as we like, subject to such consequences as may follow;
without impediment from our fellow-creatures, so long aswithout impediment from our fellow-creatures, so long as
what we do does not harm them, even though they shouldwhat we do does not harm them, even though they should
think our conduct foolish, perverse, or wrong…No society inthink our conduct foolish, perverse, or wrong…No society in
which these liberties are not, on the whole respected, is free,which these liberties are not, on the whole respected, is free,
whatever may be its form of government; and none iswhatever may be its form of government; and none is
completely free in which they do not exist absolute andcompletely free in which they do not exist absolute and
unqualified.”unqualified.”

21. We can never be sure that the opinion we are endeavoring to stifleWe can never be sure that the opinion we are endeavoring to stifle
is a false opinion; and if we were sure, stifling it would be an evilis a false opinion; and if we were sure, stifling it would be an evil
still. First: the opinion which it is attempted to suppress bystill. First: the opinion which it is attempted to suppress by
authority may possibly be true. Those who desire to suppress it, ofauthority may possibly be true. Those who desire to suppress it, of
course, deny its truth; but they are not infallible. They have nocourse, deny its truth; but they are not infallible. They have no
authority to decide the question for all mankind, and exclude everyauthority to decide the question for all mankind, and exclude every
other person from the means of judging. To refuse a hearing to another person from the means of judging. To refuse a hearing to an
opinion, because they are sure it is false, is assuming that theiropinion, because they are sure it is false, is assuming that their
certainty is the same thing as absolute certainty. All silencing ofcertainty is the same thing as absolute certainty. All silencing of
discussion is an assumption of infallibility…on any matter not self-discussion is an assumption of infallibility…on any matter not self-
evident, there are ninety-nine persons incapable of judging of it forevident, there are ninety-nine persons incapable of judging of it for
one who is capable; and the capacity of the hundredth person isone who is capable; and the capacity of the hundredth person is
only comparative; for the majority of the eminent men of everyonly comparative; for the majority of the eminent men of every
past generation held many opinions now known to be erroneous,past generation held many opinions now known to be erroneous,
and did or approved numerous things which no one will nowand did or approved numerous things which no one will now
justify. justify.

22. Mill’s Significance to Critical ThinkingMill’s Significance to Critical Thinking
 Mill’s many treatises explicating and defending the rights ofMill’s many treatises explicating and defending the rights of
citizens exemplify the importance of thinking through ancitizens exemplify the importance of thinking through an
idea deeply and following out the implications that result. Heidea deeply and following out the implications that result. He
thus characterizes the critical traits of thinking in athus characterizes the critical traits of thinking in a
disciplined and systematic manner.disciplined and systematic manner.
 He is, in this regard, an excellent example of applyingHe is, in this regard, an excellent example of applying
intellectual skills to human problems in an attempt tointellectual skills to human problems in an attempt to
alleviate suffering and pain. He was committed to thinkingalleviate suffering and pain. He was committed to thinking
within multiple points of view and to speaking out againstwithin multiple points of view and to speaking out against
established systems of power.established systems of power.
 Additionally, he firmly believed that reason should guideAdditionally, he firmly believed that reason should guide
human thought and behavior, and that learning is a lifelonghuman thought and behavior, and that learning is a lifelong
process of growth and development.process of growth and development.

23. Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955)Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955)
Key ideas: Einstein did not think of himself as being particularlyKey ideas: Einstein did not think of himself as being particularly
gifted or intelligent, but credited his success to a questioninggifted or intelligent, but credited his success to a questioning
mind which could focus on an idea intensely until it was solved.mind which could focus on an idea intensely until it was solved.
He refused to follow along with the scientific status quo andHe refused to follow along with the scientific status quo and
was able to shift the paradigm in terms of our understanding ofwas able to shift the paradigm in terms of our understanding of
the universe as a result. Apart from his considerablethe universe as a result. Apart from his considerable
contributions to the scientific world, Einstein was also a strongcontributions to the scientific world, Einstein was also a strong
voice for the creation of a world with more equality that wasvoice for the creation of a world with more equality that was
more just and more peaceful. Additionally, and most significantmore just and more peaceful. Additionally, and most significant
to critical thinking, he grasped the importance of a generalto critical thinking, he grasped the importance of a general
education and intellectual traits in the development of the mind.education and intellectual traits in the development of the mind.

24. I want to oppose the idea that the school has to teach directly thatI want to oppose the idea that the school has to teach directly that
special knowledge and those accomplishments, which one has tospecial knowledge and those accomplishments, which one has to
use later directly in life The demands of life are much too manifolduse later directly in life The demands of life are much too manifold
to let such as specialized training in school appear possible. ..Theto let such as specialized training in school appear possible. ..The
school should always have as its aim that the young man leave it asschool should always have as its aim that the young man leave it as
a harmonious personality, not as a specialist…The development ofa harmonious personality, not as a specialist…The development of
general ability for independent thinking and judgment shouldgeneral ability for independent thinking and judgment should
always be placed foremost, not the acquisition of specialalways be placed foremost, not the acquisition of special
knowledge. If a person masters the fundamentals of his subject andknowledge. If a person masters the fundamentals of his subject and
has learned to think and work independently, he will surely find hishas learned to think and work independently, he will surely find his
way and besides will better be able to adapt himself to progress andway and besides will better be able to adapt himself to progress and
changes than the person whose training principally consists in thechanges than the person whose training principally consists in the
acquiring of detailed knowledge.. It is essential that the studentacquiring of detailed knowledge.. It is essential that the student
acquire an understanding of and a lively feeling for values. He mustacquire an understanding of and a lively feeling for values. He must
acquire a vivid sense of the beautiful and of the morally good.acquire a vivid sense of the beautiful and of the morally good.

25. Einstein’s significance to Critical ThinkingEinstein’s significance to Critical Thinking
 Einstein was a scientist in the highest sense of the word. FarEinstein was a scientist in the highest sense of the word. Far
from being locked into the details of his field, Einsteinfrom being locked into the details of his field, Einstein
recognized that every human discovery and invention hasrecognized that every human discovery and invention has
implications and consequences, some of which are negative orimplications and consequences, some of which are negative or
harmful. His horror at the use of the atomic bomb on humansharmful. His horror at the use of the atomic bomb on humans
and his attempt to curtail nuclear proliferation do him credit.and his attempt to curtail nuclear proliferation do him credit.
 In arguing for the development of traits and a general education,In arguing for the development of traits and a general education,
Einstein comes very close to describing a strong sense criticalEinstein comes very close to describing a strong sense critical
thinker.thinker.
 Einstein was a consummate specialist, yet he applied hisEinstein was a consummate specialist, yet he applied his
intellectual skills to many subject areas and to human problemsintellectual skills to many subject areas and to human problems
as well.as well.

26. Emma Goldman (1869 – 1940)Emma Goldman (1869 – 1940)
 Key Ideas: Goldman critiqued establishedKey Ideas: Goldman critiqued established
governments as not living up to the valuesgovernments as not living up to the values
which they professed to uphold. She waswhich they professed to uphold. She was
especially critical of the U.S. government andespecially critical of the U.S. government and
was imprisoned for vocalizing her thoughts.was imprisoned for vocalizing her thoughts.

27. It has often been suggested to me that the Constitution of
the United States is a sufficient safeguard for the freedom
of its citizens. It is obvious that even the freedom it
pretends to guarantee is very limited. I have not been
impressed with the adequacy of the safeguard. The nations
of the world, with centuries of international law behind
them, have never hesitated to engage in mass destruction
when solemnly pledged to keep the peace; and the legal
documents in America have not prevented the United
States from doing the same…Far from the Constitution
playing any liberating part in the lives of the American
people, it has robbed them of the capacity to rely on their
own resources or do their own thinking. Americans are so
easily hoodwinked by the sanctity of law and authority. In
fact, the pattern of life has become standardized,
routinized, and mechanized like canned food and Sunday
sermons.

28. Goldman’s Significance to Critical ThinkingGoldman’s Significance to Critical Thinking
 Goldman’s contributions to critical thinking lie in herGoldman’s contributions to critical thinking lie in her
unwavering devotion to human rights and herunwavering devotion to human rights and her
willingness to critique governments which do notwillingness to critique governments which do not
protect those rights.protect those rights.
 She was a living example of intellectual autonomy andShe was a living example of intellectual autonomy and
courage, not backing down from her views even in thecourage, not backing down from her views even in the
face of oppression and imprisonment.face of oppression and imprisonment.
 Writing at a time when women had very little legal orWriting at a time when women had very little legal or
social power or recognition, she is also an example ofsocial power or recognition, she is also an example of
someone who was able to develop her mind largelysomeone who was able to develop her mind largely
independently of outside help.independently of outside help.

29. Bertrand Russell (1872 – 1970)Bertrand Russell (1872 – 1970)
Key Idea: A philosopher/logician/mathematicianKey Idea: A philosopher/logician/mathematician
who, after making seminal contributions towho, after making seminal contributions to
professional philosophy, shifted more and more toprofessional philosophy, shifted more and more to
addressing virtually every major human problem inaddressing virtually every major human problem in
a series of publications and public addresses. Thea series of publications and public addresses. The
extent of his influence is suggested by the fact thatextent of his influence is suggested by the fact that
he published nearly 100 books and was the recipienthe published nearly 100 books and was the recipient
of the Nobel Peace Prize.of the Nobel Peace Prize.

30. Russell’s Significance to CriticalRussell’s Significance to Critical
ThinkingThinking
He demonstrated command of the complexity of theHe demonstrated command of the complexity of the
major problems of the 20th century world, butmajor problems of the 20th century world, but
illustrated at the same time how a careful criticalillustrated at the same time how a careful critical
analysis of those problems lent themselves to theanalysis of those problems lent themselves to the
possibility of practical solutions. Virtually to the end ofpossibility of practical solutions. Virtually to the end of
his life, he demonstrated the power of critical thoughthis life, he demonstrated the power of critical thought
to cut through propaganda and modern sophistry andto cut through propaganda and modern sophistry and
to highlight the potential of intellectually disciplinedto highlight the potential of intellectually disciplined
integrity. He was a 20th century paradigm of criticalintegrity. He was a 20th century paradigm of critical
thought in the strongest sense.thought in the strongest sense.