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- 1. Functionalistic and Associationistic Theories Presentation on Clark Leonard Hull & William Kaye Estes Debi Briggs, Karen Fultz, Tina Hankins-Mines, Nikki Pascocello, and Britt Stieferman PSY/390 Learning and Cognition Instructor Elizabeth Schnobrich September 08, 2014
- 2. Introduction Clark Leonard Hull (1884-1952) • Aptitude Testing • Hypnosis and Suggestibility • Principles of Behavior William Kaye Estes (1919-2011) • Conditioned Suppression Technique • Statistical Learning Theory • Stimulus Sampling Theory
- 3. CONTRIBUTIONS TO LEARNING & COGNITION Clark Leonard Hull Drive Reduction Theory Behaviorist Pioneer Contributor to Mathematical Psychology
- 4. CONTRIBUTIONS TO LEARNING & COGNITION William Kaye Estes Stimulus Sampling Theory Started Mathematical Psychology Behaviorist
- 5. Hull’s Drive Theory http://www.teachpe.com/sports_psychology/motivation.php http://truthalliance.net/Archive/News/tabid/67/ID/9146/Sugar-can-make-you-dumb-US-scientists- warn.aspx Arousal (St imul i ) + Need (Mot ivat ion)= Learning (Performance)
- 6. Estes’s Stimulus Sampling Theory http://www.photos-public-domain.com/2011/09/02/gradual/ http://www.jumpstartmd.com/part-1-thought-distortions-thinking-mistakes- that-de-rail-our-diets/ That is the question to be researched
- 7. THEORETICAL CONCEPTS OF THE HULL DRIVE THEORY • General Theory of Learning • Quantitative Equation on Human Performance • Books, “A Behavior System” and “Principals of Behavior.”
- 8. THEORETICAL CONCEPTS ASSOCIATED WITH SST • Pair Association Learning • Learning to Learn • Response Outcome Theory • Development of Quantitative Cognitive Science • The Environment and Internal Factors can cause Variability in the Learning Process • The Learning Process is Gradual and Cumulative
- 9. CLARK LEONARD HULL MODERN-DAY RELEVANCY The Scientific Method which is a system used by testing a hypothetical answer. It is used by formulating a question, collecting data through observation and experiment, and testing hypothetical answer.
- 10. WILLIAM K. ESTES MODERN-DAY RELEVANCY William K. Estes theory has helped psychological research become more scientific and more cognitive orientation.
- 11. Conclusion (Society of Experimental Psychologists) • Clark Leonard Hull was awarded the Howard Crosby Warren Medal from the Society of Experimental Psychologists in 1945 (Olson, 2001, p. 116) (National Science Foundation) • William Kaye Estes was awarded the Medal of Science from the National Science Foundation in 1997 (Olson, 2001, p. 215)
- 12. REFERENCE SLIDE Hergenhahn, B. R., & Olson, M. H. (2001). An introduction to theories of learning. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hovland, C. I. (1953). Clark Leonard Hull, 1884-1952. Psychological Review, 59(5). Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/10.1037/h0056239 Mishra, S., Sukhdial, A., & Singh, S. N. (1995). Estes' stimulus sampling theory and massed versus spaced advertising schedules. Marketing Letters. doi:10.1007/BF00996193 Olson, M. H., & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An Introduction to Theories of Learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Schrock, J. (1999). Clark Hull (1884-1952). Retrieved from http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/hull.htm Weibell, C. J. (2011). Principles of learning: 7 principles to guide personalized, student-centered learning in the technology-enhanced, blended learning environment. Retrieved from http://principlesoflearning.wordpress.com Gondra, J. M. (2008). Hull, Clark Leonard. In Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography (Vol. 21, pp. 405-410). Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX2830905773&v=2.1&u= uphoenix&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
- 13. Image References AFP. (15 May, 2012). Rat In maze. Retrieved from http://truthalliance.net/Archive/News/tabid/67/ID/9146/Sugar-can-make-you- dumb-US-scientists-warn.aspx Teach PE. n.d. No Title. Retrieved from http://www.teachpe.com/sports_psychology/motivation.php Perez, J. (2013). All or Nothing. Retrieved from http://www.jumpstartmd.com/part-1-thought-distortions-thinking-mistakes-that- de-rail-our-diets/ Photo Public Domain. (2011) Gradual. Retrieved from http://www.photos-public- domain.com/2011/09/02/gradual/ http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesal/p/clark-hull.htm http://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Learningtheories/behaviorism/Estes.html
Editor's Notes
- Discuss the contributions that your selected theorists made to the field of learning and cognition. - Nikki Pascocello Describe the models associated with your selected theorists. – Tina Hankins-Mines Describe the major theoretical concepts associated with the models.- Karen Fultz Analyze the modern-day relevancy of the models, such as in media advertisements or education- Debi Briggs Introduction and Conclusion – Britt Stieferman
- Clark Leonard Hull (1884-1952) was a major functionalist psychologist that hand a vast influence on psychology today. Hull was intensely invested in the explanation of learning; he received the Warren Medal from the Society of Experimental Psychology in 1945 (Olson, 2001, p. 116). “Hull's scientific work comprised three different phases. His first career was concerned with aptitude testing. The second research career began when he became interested in the phenomena of hypnosis and suggestibility. His third career was in the field of learning and behavior theory” (Hovland, 1953). Hull suffered from partial paralysis that he had after contracting polio as a child (Olson, 2001, p. 116). William Kaye Estes (1919-2011) worked closely with B.F. Skinner during the 1940s and together they developed the conditioned suppression technique (Olson, 2001, p. 215). Estes received the Medal of Science from the National Science Foundation in 1997 “for fundamental theories of cognition and learning that transformed the field of experimental psychology and led to the development of quantitative cognitive science” (Olson, 2001, p. 216). One of Estes major theoretical concepts is the statistical learning theory that he based off of Edwin Ray Guthrie’s theory of learning in an attempt to expand the idea and offer better explanation (Olson, 2001, p. 216). Estes introduced the stimulus sampling theory that is still used today in business models and by psychology students across the globe (Mishra, Sukhdial, & Singh, 1995). Hergenhahn, B. R., & Olson, M. H. (2001). An introduction to theories of learning. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hovland, C. I. (1953). Clark Leonard Hull, 1884-1952. Psychological Review, 59(5). Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/10.1037/h0056239 Mishra, S., Sukhdial, A., & Singh, S. N. (1995). Estes' stimulus sampling theory and massed versus spaced advertising schedules. Marketing Letters. doi:10.1007/BF00996193
- “Hull’s drive reduction theory served as a general theory of learning that helped inspire further work by other researchers.” (http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesal/p/clark-hull.htm) Other people were able to use his work as starting point for them to start their own theories. Clark Leonard Hull’s Drive Reduction Theory was an attempt to express learning and behavior as a mathematical equation with many variables that represent different aspects of behavior and stimuli. The theory hinged on an organism attempting to achieve homeostasis and reduce internal pressure to achieve some kind of survival or psychological need. Hull’s theory was one of the first of behaviorism and was toted as the in theory in mid ’40s. Now, this theory has fallen by the way side but many of the principles in Drive Reduction Theory are used present day theories. In 1940 Hull developed the Mathematico-Deductive Theory of Rote Learning (Gondra, 2008). This theory suggest that behavior is driven by needs. Those needs consist of food, water, shelter, etc. When those needs are met the drive decreases momentarily until another need persists. The need is what drives one to learn. It is what forces one to understand what is needed for survival. Entering a state of need will only be eliminated by a particular sequence of movements (Gondra, 2008). This process is known as adaptive behavior. In 1943 Hull wrote the Principles of Behavior. In this work, Hull gave a detailed account of reinforcement in terms of drive reduction. He elaborates on his earlier theory by providing mathematical explanations to support his predicted outcomes for behavior. He went on to make more contributions to the behavioral phenomena. However, these two will remain as his most proclaimed. His work thereafter would consist of extensions from The Deductive Theory and the Principles of Behavior that would focus on individual and social behavior (Gondra, 2008).
- “Estes' theory is a statistical learning theory; In all statistical learning theories, the dependent variables are the probability of various responses occurring.” (http://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Learningtheories/behaviorism/Estes.html) William Kaye Estes was a behaviorist who, like Hull, felt learning and behavior could be expressed in mathematical form. He initiated a branch of psychology known as mathematical psychology. He devised the Stimulus sampling theory which was similar to Hull’s but differed in that in his theory an organism desires to sample different stimuli or try to alter the response slightly and thus will come up with slightly different responses, explaining why organisms do not always adhere to the same exact response to the same stimulus. The scanning model of decision making suggested in which an individual could scan out a situation in order to determine which responses are possible and if they are able to remember the probable outcomes from the individual’s memory. After that the individual can pick a response that yields the best valuable outcome. According to Estes the individual learns the value of every response then the information gathered is stored in memory. Then when the opportunity to respond is given, the individual will look at the situation to see what responses are more likely and then recall what the outcomes would be. With this information the individual will pick which response yields the most valuable outcome.
- One of Hull’s most infamous theories in learning, that is still relevant in various settings, is the Hull Drive Theory, which is formulated through 16 postulates in which arguably the last three are the most relevant to learning. Originally Hull named this theory drive reduction, but later, in accordance with his research, renamed the theory drive stimulus reduction theory (Olson & Hergenhahn 2013). The reason for this chance is due to Hull noting that during his experiments the reinforcement took too long to satisfy the animal, therefore the it did not properly display the learning taking place. “What was needed to explain learning was something that occurred soon after the presentation of a reinforcer, and that something was the deduction of drive stimuli,” (Olson & Hergenhahn 2013, p. 126). At the root of Hull’s theory is that an organism learns through the stimuli of its environment or the amount of involvement in which an organism participates within the world around it. From this involvement the organism is able to differentiate between wanted and unwanted outcomes, or learns what to do or how to react. Or that the stimulus – response relationship is linked to learning, but that there are many variables that could also interfere with this link, such as illness, fatigue, distraction, motivation, etcetera (Olson & Hergenhahn 2013). However, as Schrock (1999) quotes Hull as saying, "when survival is in jeopardy, the organism is in a state of need (when the biological requirements for survival are not being met) so the organism behaves in a fashion to reduce that need,“ therefore showing a hierarchy of needs and motivational factors. For instance, when a hungry rat is placed in a maze in which the reward (or reinforcement of solving the maze) is food the rat will learn how to conquer the maze. Simply put the food (the actual stimuli) spikes an arousal within the organism causing the hungry organism to start the search for the food it smells (the hierarchy of need or motivation) to obtain the goal of eating (the reinforcement or prize so to say). With enough exposure to this activity the animal will become quicker at conquering the maze, which shows learning has taken place (or an observable performance) to fulfil a basic need. However, Hull also recognized there are aspects of this learning that are unaccounted for because the learning is actually taking place within the brain, and firing neurons, of the rat; such as the way the rat remembers where it has or has not been, the smell of the food, the urge to get to the food, and how it breaks down every wrong turn. Such aspects are variables Hull tried to account for in his drive theory. In an effort to account for them and according to Olson & Hergenhahan (2013) “there are three variables that can summarize Hull’s theory: 1. Independent variables, which are stimulus events systematically manipulated by the experimenter. 2. Intervening variables, which are processed thought to be taking place within the organism but that are not directly observable…. 3. Dependent variables, which are some aspect of behavior that is measured by the experimenter in order to determine whether the independent variables had any effect,” (pg. 131). In other words, in a laboratory atmosphere there are three things to take into account when researching how organisms learn, how an organisms environment is manipulated to invoke response through stimuli is going to also trigger unseen activities within the organism, such as thinking, that may or may not elicit a response that will lead to learning, which will tell the researcher if the stimuli actually had any effect on the organism to begin with; which ultimately shows in action and in turn can be interpreted as learning. In the physical world around each person similar variables are to be accounted for in regards to how one will learn; as fore mentioned illness, distraction, fatigue and so on. Essentially, Hull wanted to prove provided a stimulus paired with the correct reinforcement an organism will learn, if anything to ensure its own survival, and there are some aspects of learning that are unobservable, which is the motivational or drive aspects of learning.
- Estes’s ideology on learning is based upon several assumptions, and like Hull’s mathematical formulations called postulates, lead to Estes’s base theorems called assumptions. These assumptions begin with a belief that first “the learning situation involves a large but finite number of stimulus elements, which are many things that the learner might experience at the onset of a learning trial,” (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013, p. 217). In other words, the stimulus that may bring about the learners attention can be more than just one element of the environment and can include secondary stimuli. Secondly, his assumptions state that any and all responses made by the organism will fall into either a category that is seen as wanted or unwanted (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Another assumption made by Estes was that the break down of the stimulus is linked to either the wanted or the unwanted response, and further more in another assumption Estes theorized is that “the learner is limited in its ability to experience S,” (p. 217) or stimulus. In other words, during experimentation the learner is only allotted certain elements of the stimuli, hence the sampling within Estes’s experiments. The last two assumptions made by Estes are dealing with the response and the response ending the trial and the results will then determine whether or not the wanted learning occurred or the unwanted state of not learning occurred (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). At the core of Estes’s research the stimuli the organism is exposed to is more important than the response. “Even more important than his definitions of response is Estes’ interpretation of the stimulus, for it is this interpretation that forms the defining core of his model, and from which it gets its name,” (Weibell, 2011). In other words, dependent upon the stimuli, controlled and manipulated by the experimenter, introduced into the organism’s environment or to the organism itself, the stimuli will affect the learning of the organism. It is worth noting, with in Estes’s experimentation there were only samples of stimuli utilized by the experimenter to control the organism’s environment to measure the learning taking place. According to Weibell (2011) these introduced stimuli were experienced by the organism during experimentation, however not all the stimuli are presented to the organism at once during any given trial. It was through the use of multiple stimuli that Estes was able to determine if learning was an all or nothing or gradual process. From Estes’s experimentation he found that learning is neither an all or nothing response or a gradual condition but both, taking into account the theories of both Guthrie and Thorndike (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013).
- Hull meant for the Drive Theory to be a general theory of learning. Drive is essential in order for responses to occur. Stimuli and responses must be detected by the organism in order for conditioning to occur. Response must be made in order for the conditioning to occur. Conditioning only occurs if the reinforcement satisfied a need. (Hull, C. 1933). One of the most important concepts in Hull’s Drive Theory was that for a given stimulus and organism can respond in a number of ways which is habit strength hierarchy. There is a probability that a specific response can be changed by reward and can even be affected by other variables. Hull, C. (1943). Principles of Behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
- Research on SST was conducted using probability and verbal learning experiments. Estes theory is one of statistical learning. The dependent variables are the probability of the time that various responses occur. Learning to learn is an example of what Estes was trying to get across with his theory. How to learn and the fact that learning is something that we need to learn to do. (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). William Estes developed the Stimulus Sampling Theory (SST). Within this theory, Estes had six assumptions. Assumption I involved the number of stimulus elements in a learning situation. He symbolized the stimuli as S. Assumption II explained responses. Estes stated that all responses fell into one of two categories (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). The response emitted was either one the experimenter wanted to see or did not want to see. He symbolized these responses as A1 (what was wanted) or A2 (what was not wanted). Assumption III stated that all elements included in the stimulus elements are attached to either the “correct” response (what was wanted) or the “incorrect” response (what was not wanted). This means that the stimulus is either conditioned to the response or are incorrect and not what the experimenter wanted. Assumption IV states that a learner is limited when it comes to experiencing stimuli (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). Estes theory is based upon sampling with replacement. The constant proportion of stimuli experienced in a trial is symbolized with theta (Θ). Assumption V states that a learning trial ends when a response occurs (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). If the “correct” response occurs, then the stimulus elements are conditioned to the response. In Assumption VI, Estes explains the proportion of elements in a study. For example, if 40% of stimuli elicit the correct response from the learner, then 40% of the stimuli are conditioned to the response.
- Clark Leonard Hull is a psychiatrist that conducts research demonstrating that his theories could predict and control behavior (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). He has a theory known as Drive theory where it focus on how organisms suffer deprivation, deprivation creates needs, needs activates drives, and drives activates behavior (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). He also created the “hypothetic-deductive” systematic. He begun the modern study of hypnosis, using statistical and experimental analysis, which is still relevant today. Today many theories are studied using the scientific method which is a system used by testing a hypothetical answer. It is used by formulating a question, collecting data through observation and experiment, and testing hypothetical answer.
- William K. Estes is known for his Stimulus Sampling theory. It is a statistical learning theory where the dependent variables are the probability of various responses occurring (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). His theory became incorporated with cogitative elements. Estes theory has helped psychological research become more scientific and more cognitive orientation. Mathematical models have made a huge impact on learning in science and psychology.
- Through their great endeavors in the field of Psychology, functionalist Clark Leonard Hull and Associationistic William Kaye Estes were awarded medals from the Society of Experimental Psychologists and the National Science Foundation respectively. Hull introduced the drive reduction theory, and has been an exceptional contributor to mathematical psychology. Estes pioneered the stimulus sampling theory and started mathematical psychology. Both theories prove to be still relevant today both in the classroom and the workforce, and both notable psychologists will be remembered in psychology’s history for their great advances in science. Society of Experimental Psychologists. (n.d.). SEP, Society of Experimental Psychologists Founded in 1904 [webpage banner]. Retrieved from http://www.sepsych.org/nav/images/SEP-header.gif National Science Foundation. (n.d.). NSF National Science Foundation Where Discoveries Begin [webpage banner]. Retrieved from http://www.nsf.gov/