The document describes a laboratory exercise for students to analyze fingerprint patterns, total ridge counts, and angles of triradii deviation (ATD) among classmates and individuals with Down Syndrome to study the genetics underlying these dermatoglyphic traits. Students will take fingerprints and palm prints, classify patterns, count ridges, measure ATD angles, and compare results within and between groups to explore polygenic inheritance and developmental influences on these quantitative traits.

1. Chapter 8
Using Dermatoglyphics
from Down Syndrome and Class Populations
to Study the Genetics of a Complex Trait
Thomas Fogle
Department of Biology
Saint Mary's College
Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
Thomas Fogle is Associate Professor and Chair of the Department of Biology
at Saint Mary's College. He received his B.A. in Biology from Thiel College,
M.A. in Zoology from Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, and Ph.D. in
Genetics from North Carolina State University. He teaches introductory
biology, genetics, and human genetics. His research interests include human
cytogenetics, the cytogenetics of exotic zoo animals, science education, and the
philosophy of science.
Reprinted from: Fogle, T. 1990. Using dermatoglyphics from down syndrome and class populations to study the
genetics of a complex trait. Pages 129-150, in Tested studies for laboratory teaching. Volume 11. (C. A. Goldman,
Editor). Proceedings of the Eleventh Workshop/Conference of the Association for Biology Laboratory Education
(ABLE), 195 pages.
- Copyright policy: http://www.zoo.utoronto.ca/able/volumes/copyright.htm
Although the laboratory exercises in ABLE proceedings volumes have been tested and due consideration has been
given to safety, individuals performing these exercises must assume all responsibility for risk. The Association for
Biology Laboratory Education (ABLE) disclaims any liability with regards to safety in connection with the use of the
exercises in its proceedings volumes.
© 1990 Thomas Fogle
129
Association for Biology Laboratory Education (ABLE) ~ http://www.zoo.utoronto.ca/able

2. 130 Dermatoglyphics
Contents
Introduction....................................................................................................................130
Materials ........................................................................................................................130
Notes for the Instructor ..................................................................................................131
Student Outline ..............................................................................................................133
Literature Cited ..............................................................................................................140
Appendices A to C.........................................................................................................141
Introduction
All too often when we teach genetics we limit ourselves to the "tried and true" single gene traits
and "shy away" from more complex forms of genetic inheritance. After all, it is difficult enough to
explain Mendelian Laws without the added complexity of quantitative variation. Ironically,
understanding the relationship between genetic information and phenotypic expression at the
organismal level has more to do with the interaction of many genes than it does to any one gene in
isolation. Dermal ridges are an example of a trait that shows quantitative variation, is inherited, and
is easily analyzed in the teaching laboratory. Further, sophisticated mathematical treatments need
not be applied to teach the relationship between polygenic inheritance and expression.
The Student Outline is intended for students in an introductory genetics course. However, the
exercise is easily adaptable to a beginning biology course and could even be shortened to less than
one full laboratory period. The adaptability is possible by selectively eliminating one or more
aspects of the laboratory experience. As written here, this exercise requires about 2–3 hours to
complete. By deleting the statistical analysis of palm prints and using the Down Syndrome prints as
demonstration, the exercise can be completed in less than 1 hour.
Materials
There are two methods for obtaining prints both of which will work adequately. This exercise is
written for use with the inking method. Porolon ink pads can be obtained from: Sirchie Finger Print
Laboratories, Umstead Industrial Park, P.O. Box 30576, Raleigh, NC 27612, (919) 781-3120. The
cost, as of July 1989, is $19.50 US each (catalog no. FPT267). An alternative would be to purchase
ink ($5.75/4 oz), a roller (FPT262A, 3 inches wide, $8.95), and supply your own surface (glass or
steel); 2- and 4-inch rollers are also available.
I do not recommend using office-type ink pads. The ink is too thin and does not consistently
yield high quality prints. Also, it is very difficult to remove from your hands once it has dried.
An alternative method is to use three-quarter inch clear plastic tape for fingerprints and 4-inch
wide clear plastic tape for palm prints. Graphite powder (available from many chemical supply
companies) is rubbed over the area to be printed and the tape is gently pressed against the surface.
When the tape is peeled off an image of the print will be transferred to the tape which can then be
pressed onto a sheet of paper. The 4-inch tape, known as Book-Lock, can be obtained in 20-yard
rolls from: Library Store, P.O. Box 964, 112 E. South St., Tremont, IL 61568, (800) 548-7204. One
roll will service about 40 students and costs $7.99 US (or less if purchased in bulk).

3. Dermatoglyphics 131
Other supplies for each student include a protractor (to measure the ATD angle) and a dissecting
microscope (for making ridge counts). Also, the master copies of the Down Syndrome prints can be
attached to clear plastic sheets so that students can mark them using felt-tip pens.
Notes for the Instructor
Dermatoglyphics and Development
Dermal ridges originate from fetal volar pads composed of mesenchymal tissue starting at the
sixth to seventh week of development. The size and position of the volar pads are largely
responsible for ridge patterns observed. In general, small pads produce arches and larger pads
produce loops or whorls. Lateral displacement of the volar pad creates asymmetry of the pattern.
Ridges become visible at about 3 months and are completed by the sixth month of prenatal
development.
It has been postulated (see Schaumann and Alter, 1976) that ridges are influenced by blood
vessel-nerve pairs at the border between the dermis and epidermis during prenatal development.
Features such as inadequate oxygen supply, abnormal nerve growth, unusual patterning or
distribution of sweat glands, alterations of epithelial growth, or other features could influence ridge
patterns. Because growth is a dynamic process, one in which many components contribute and can
mutually interact, there must be many genes involved.
Holt (1968) has demonstrated a very close correspondence between the observed and predicted
correlation for total ridge count (TRC) and the degree of genetic relatedness. That is, TRC acts as
an additive genetic trait with little dominance deviation. TRC is a near perfect fit to the classic
polygenic model in which one assumes that each gene "adds" in some small way to the total
observed variability. But what is being "added"? Clearly, a phenotypic expression which requires a
multitude of tissue types, all simultaneously growing and changing as development proceeds, is at
odds with a simplistic image of genes being somehow "additive." The resolution to this dilemma is
to recognize that the additive model was never intended to be physically real to any organism. It is
simply a functional mathematical tool that relates genotype to phenotype in a global sense. Put
another way, understanding additive genetic variability gives you predictive ability about the
phenotypes you might see in future generations but does not tell you anything about the underlying
biology. Why is this distinction important? Because it is critical that undergraduates understand the
context and the complexity of the genotype-phenotype relationship beyond just focusing on the
statistical aspects of quantitative inheritance.
For another example of teaching applications using dermatoglyphics see Mendenhall et al.
(1989). A good overview of dermatoglyphics with clinical interpretations can be found in Reed
(1981).
Thought Questions for Use in Class
1. Since dermal ridge patterns are fixed for life, does that mean there is no environmental effect?
Depends on what you mean by the environment. Although the basic pattern and ridge count
does not change as you age, scars can distort a pattern and heavy manual labor can wear them down.
2. If all 10 fingers derive by mitosis and share a common set of genetic information (totipotency),
why don't they all look the same?

4. 132 Dermatoglyphics
Prenatally, there appears to be several components influencing growth fields of ridge counts.
Roberts (1979) argues for at least four major induction factors: (1) some feature which influences
the overall ridge count, (2) another that increases ridge counts more on the radial than the ulnar side
of the finger, (3) an increase in ridge counts more on the radial than ulnar side of the hand, and (4)
an additional positive radial effect for the index finger and to a lesser extent on the thumb. Roberts
(1979:488) concludes that "each finger [acts] as a different point in relation to others in the
multidimensional space produced by these factors." Put another way, each finger is a different
microenvironment of development.
3. If the left and right hands are both the products of a common genotype, why is there often a
different ridge pattern for the same finger of each hand?
Although there is a genetic component to ridge patterns, it is not purely deterministic. There
must be stochastic effects during development that influence ridge patterns.
4. If we were to look at the dermatoglyphic patterns and ridge counts of identical twins would they
be absolutely identical?
Identical twins share extremely similar dermatoglyphic patterns. However, there are usually
small, but detectable differences between them. This is a further confirmation that dermatoglyphic
patterns and counts are under genetic control and also influenced by stochastic effects.
5. What effect does the maternal environment have?
Correlations between mother/child and father/child for TRC are similar suggesting that maternal
the environment is not influential.
6. Why are dermatoglyphic patterns altered with Down Syndrome?
The presence of the extra chromosome dramatically alters prenatal development and can have
varying effects on each organ system. Generally, the nervous system is the most sensitive of the
organ systems during prenatal development and characteristically leads to mental retardation for
those with Down Syndrome. Not surprisingly, a trait such as ridge patterning which is influenced
by induction fields, positioning of the volar pads, and nerve-vessel pairing would be affected in
some complex, perhaps mutually interacting, fashion.
7. If Down Syndrome is a genetic trait caused by an extra chromosome 21, why is there individual
variation in the ridge pattern and ATD angle?
One would not expect an identical phenotypic outcome because each individual inherits a
unique set of genetic information that also influences expression in addition to the overall effect
produced by the extra chromosome.
8. Given that Down Syndrome affects many organ systems during prenatal development, should
not other chromosomal defects alter dermal ridges for the same reason?

5. Dermatoglyphics 133
Yes. Altered patterns are known, for example, for trisomy 18, trisomy 13, XXX, XXY, and an
assortment of duplications and deletions to name just a few.
9. If nerve-vessel pairing influences ridge patterning, should not abnormalities of these specific
tissues affect dermal ridges?
Ridge aplasia is a rare autosomal dominant condition. No dermal ridges are formed on the
hands or feet, a condition probably caused by a failure of nerves to grow into the epithelium during
prenatal development. Many serious congenital defects result in abnormal dermatoglyphic patterns
termed ridge dysplasia (perhaps caused by deviations in the normal nerve branching) or ridge
distortion (likely the result of a disturbance in the spatial arrangements of nerves). These clinical
cases serve to demonstrate the multiplicity of effects (pleiotropism) a genetic condition can produce.
Student Outline
The study of ridged skin, dermatoglyphics, was pioneered by Sir Francis Galton in the late 19th
century. Since that time, extensive work has been carried out on the biology and genetics of skin
patterns. You will analyze fingerprint patterns, the total ridge count, and ATD angles among
members of the class and investigate dermatoglyphic differences found on individuals having Down
Syndrome (trisomy 21).
Fingerprint Patterns
Dermatoglyphic patterns are due to the convoluted layers of cells of the epidermis. At the peak
of the ridges are found the pores of the sweat glands (see Figure 8.1). Ridges are laid during
embryonic growth and remain unchanged during postnatal development. However, extensive
physical labor can wear them down and scars can distort the pattern.
Figure 8.1 The detailed structure of dermal ridges.

6. 134 Dermatoglyphics
There are three major classes of fingerprints: arches, loops and whorls (see Figure 8.2). Loops
can be defined as radial or ulnar. Ulnar loops open towards the little finger and radial loops open
towards the thumb. A useful descriptive term in dermatoglyphics is the triradius. A triradius is a
point of convergence for three regions that separate almost parallel ridges. Loops have one triradius
(on the thumb side if ulnar and towards the little finger if radial) and whorls have two. Arches lack
a triradius.
Figure 8.2. The three main types of fingerprint patterns. Whorls have two triradii, loops have
one, and arches none.
The genetics of fingerprint patterns is not well established. Based on one large pedigree, single
gene control was deduced for certain patterns (Slatis et al., 1976). The lack of confirmation from
other investigators and the cautious presentation of these results by the authors suggests that this
scheme is tentative and awaits the test of time. Slatis and his colleagues suggest that all ulnar loops
are the baseline pattern and that certain genes modify this phenotype. They also suggest that
epistasis between loci may play a role. Table 8.1 is adapted from the work of Slatis et al. (1976).
Total Ridge Counts
A ridge count is made by drawing a line from the triradius to the center of the pattern and
determining the number of intersected ridges between these two points (see Figure 8.3). Arches are
defined as having a ridge count of zero. The ridge count of a whorl consists of the higher of the two
counts. A total ridge count (TRC) is the summation of the ridge count for all 10 fingers. Other
important considerations are quoted from Holt (1968:40):
"The triradius is not included in the count, nor is the final ridge when it forms the center of the
pattern. Ridges which run close to the line without meeting it are excluded, but two ridges resulting
from a bifurcation are both counted. It is usual to exclude from the count the fine secondary
intervening ridges which occur occasionally, chiefly on thumbs. These secondary intervening
ridges do not carry sweat gland pores. Furthermore, they are not as high as other ridges and whether
or not they appear on a print depends on the degree of pressure exerted when the print is made. It is
possible, therefore, to have two prints of the same finger, one showing secondary ridges and the
other not. Islands, on the other hand, are always counted."

7. Table 8.1. The inheritance of fingerprint patterns.
Effect Inheritance Genotypes Phenotypes
Thumb Semidominant AA whorls, both thumbs
Aa 2 ulnar loops or
1 ulnar loop and 1 whorl
aa ulnar loops, both thumbs
Thumb Dominant B- arches on thumbs and
often other fingers
Index finger Dominant C- radial loops on index
finger, often associated
with an arch on the
middle finger
Ring finger Semidominant CC whorls, both fingers
Cc 2 ulnar loops or
1 ulnar loop and 1 whorl
ulnar loops on both fingers
Ring or little finger Recessive dd radial loops
All fingers Dominant E whorls on all fingers except for
an ulnar
loop on middle finger
All fingers Dominant F–* arches on fingers
* may be more than one gene involved
The genetics of total ridge counts has revealed that there is considerable variation among
unrelated individuals, but there is a statistically significant positive correlation among relatives.
This means that closely related individuals are more likely to be similar than distantly related ones
due to the degree of shared genetic heritage. Detecting positive correlations among relatives is a
common approach for analyzing the genetic component of complex phenotypic traits. With this
method it is very difficult, if not impossible, to determine the number of contributing genes. It is
usually presumed that there are many genes controlling the overall phenotype (polygenes). Traits
such as total ridge count which have a range of phenotypic expression are called quantitative traits.
They are generally described in statistical terms (such as correlations) since the genotype is not
known. However, in one study of total ridge counts, it has been suggested that half of the variation
is controlled by a single locus (Spence et al., 1973). Possibly a number of other genes have some
small effect on the phenotype also.

8. 136 Dermatoglyphics
Figure 8.3 . The technique of ridge counting. This loop has a ridge count of 13.
Palm Prints
At the base of the palm, there are usually four triradii: a, b, c, and d (see Figure 8.4). An axial
triradius (t) is usually located near the point where the palm is connected to the wrist. Two percent
of normal individuals have this triradius positioned near the center of the palm (termed t′′). A
triradius found halfway in between these two positions (t′) is found on 21% of the normal
population. Approximately 11% of the population will have some combination of more than one
axial triradius.
A useful descriptive measure is the ATD angle formed by drawing a line from a to t and from d
to t. If there are multiple axial triradii, only the largest angle is considered. The ATD angle
averages 48° among normal individuals. People with Down Syndrome have an ATD angle
averaging 81°. Elevated ATD angles are also found on individuals with other forms of
chromosomal abnormalities including trisomy 18, trisomy 13, Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY), and
Turner Syndrome (XO). A wide range of unusual dermatoglyphic features other than the ATD
angle are also useful for recognizing genetic abnormalities. Dermatoglyphics is an especially quick
and simple diagnostic tool for newborns. It is important to point out that many anomalies produce
similar skin patterns so that corroboration with cytogenetic analysis or other appropriate tests is
essential.
Dermatoglyphics of Down Syndrome
In addition to the elevated ATD angle described above, several other features are also useful in
the diagnosis of Down Syndrome. These include:
1. Fingers with mostly ulnar loops (especially the index finger); radial loops on the ring and index
fingers.

9. Dermatoglyphics 137
Figure 8.4. A palm print showing the triradii and ATD angle.
2. A single flexion crease on the little finger. A flexion crease is the skin fold that occurs when
you bend your fingers.
3. Simian crease.
4. A loop between the base of the index and middle finger and/or the middle and ring fingers. The
loop opens to the inter-digital space.
5. Hypothenar ulnar loops, whorls, or carpal loops. The palm is roughly divided into two halves.
The thenar region on the thumb side and hypothenar on the little finger side. Carpal region refers to
the very base of the palm.
No one feature is diagnostic and many of these patterns are found in the normal population.
However, when several are present together, they are indicative of Down Syndrome. On the print
given to you look for the above mentioned traits. Because the Down prints vary in quality, it is not
possible to determine if all of these traits are present on any one individual.
How to Make Fingerprints and Palm Prints
To make good fingerprints, touch the ink with your finger on its side and roll smoothly across
the ink l80° to the opposite side of the finger and lift. Repeat the motion on paper, transferring the
print. It is easiest if you place the paper at the edge of the table to give your hand space to rotate.
You will find that sometimes the second or third print after inking yields a clearer image of the
ridges. Check the print to see if it is smudged. The triradii of loops and whorls must be visible.
Repeat as necessary.
Palm prints require a similar procedure. The palm needs to be slowly rolled to transfer the
edges. The a, t, and d triradii need to be visible. Remove ink from your hands with soap and water.

10. 138 Dermatoglyphics
Students' t test
The t test is a statistical procedure for comparing two means and will be used to detect a
difference, if any, between the ATD angles of the normal (classroom) population and that of the
Down population. Simply taking the difference between two means does not convey enough
information. A mean can be composed of numbers that are clustered together or very dispersed.
To make a comparison, there must be a measure of dispersion around the mean. This is
reflected in the variance—a value which is the average squared difference from the mean. In the
case of ATD angles, the variance is a pooled estimate of both the normal (classroom) and Down
Syndrome population. It is presumed that the variance is the same for both. Keep in mind that the
mean and variance are estimators; that is, they give an approximate value of the true population
mean and variance from the data at hand.
The variance, s2, is:
Σ (x1i - 1)2 + Σ (x2i - 2)2
s2 = (n = sample size)
n1 + n 2 - 2
By rearrangement, the variance can be put in a form that is easier to use computationally:
Σ x1i2 - (Σ x1i)2/n1 + Σ x2i2 - (Σ x2i)2/n2
2
s =
n1 + n 2 - 2
The square root of the variance (termed the standard deviation) is used in the calculation of the t-
value.
x1 - x 2
t =
s (1/n1 + 1/n2)1/2
Notice that the difference between the means (numerator) is adjusted by the degree of variation
around the mean (denominator). If the denominator is small then division by a small number makes
the t-value large. Statistical differences are detected when the calculated t-value surpasses the
critical t-value in Table 8.2. The critical values establish a rejection level at P < 0.05 for the
appropriate degrees of freedom (degrees of freedom = n1 + n2 - 2).
If larger samples were available, the ability to detect a difference between two populations
would be improved. Inspection of the formula for the t-value reveals that as n1 and n2 become
larger, 1/n1 and 1/n2 become smaller. This has the effect of inflating the t-value and therefore
enhances the ability to detect small differences between means.
Drawing conclusions with a t test requires a probability statement. There is no assurance that
the conclusion is true; rather one argues that the statistical analysis supports a given outcome at a
particular probability level.

11. Dermatoglyphics 139
Table 8.2. Critical values of t.
Degrees of freedom Value of t Degrees of freedom Value of t
1 12.706 16 2.120
2 4.303 17 2.110
3 3.182 18 2.101
4 2.776 19 2.093
5 2.571 20 2.086
6 2.447 21 2.080
7 2.365 22 2.074
8 2.306 23 2.069
9 2.262 24 2.064
10 2.228 25 2.060
11 2.201 26 2.056
12 2.179 27 2.052
13 2.160 28 2.048
14 2.145 29 2.045
15 2.131 30 2.042
Procedure
1. Obtain a fingerprint pad and practice getting clear prints on a piece of scrap paper.
2. When you feel you have got the knack, make a set of prints on the data sheets.
3. Practice, then prepare palm prints on the data sheet.
4. To determine your genotype, classify your fingerprints according to the scheme by Slatis et al.
(1976).
5. Draw a line from the triradii to the center of the pattern and use a dissecting microscope to
determine the total ridge count (TRC).
6. Obtain class data for total ridge counts and make a histogram with 10 ridge intervals. A
quantitative trait often demonstrates a bell-shaped distribution if sufficient data points are available.
Is there a trend towards such a distribution?
7. Draw lines on your palm prints to form an ATD angle and determine the angle.
8. Obtain the class data for ATD angles. Your instructor will provide palm prints from Down
Syndrome individuals; determine the ATD angles and pool the class results. Do not write directly
on these prints; lay clear plastic over them and use the felt-tip pens provided.
9. Using only the data for the right hand, calculate the class mean and the mean for Down
Syndrome individuals. Use the left had print of Down Syndrome individuals if the right hand print
is not measurable. Perform a t test and determine if claims for a difference exist. Have your
analysis checked by your instructor.

12. 140 Dermatoglyphics
Literature Cited
Holt, S. B. l968. The genetics of dermal ridges. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, 195 pages.
Mendenhall, G., T. Mertens, and J. Hendrix. 1989. Fingerprint ridge count. American Biology
Teacher, 51:203–207.
Reed, T. 1981. Dermatoglyphics in medicine: Problems and use in suspected chromosome
abnormalities. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 8:411–429.
Roberts, D. 1979. Dermatoglyphics and human genetics. Pages 475–494, in Dermatoglyphics –
Fifty years later (W. Wertelecki and C. C. Plato, Editors). Birth Defects: Original Article
Series, Vol. 15, No. 6, Alan R. Liss, New York, 800 pages.
Schaumann, B., and M. Alter. 1976. Dermatoglyphics in medical disorders. Springer-Verlag, New
York, 258 pages.
Slatis, H. M., M. B. Katznelson, and B. Bonne-Tamir. l976. The inheritance of fingerprint patterns.
American Journal of Human Genetics, 28:280–289.
Spence, M. A., R. C. Elston, K. K. Namboodiri, and W. S. Pollitzer. 1973. Evidence for a possible
major gene effect in absolute finger ridge count. Human Heredity, 23:414–421.

13. Dermatoglyphics 141
APPENDIX A
Data Sheet for Finger Print Patterns and Counts, and Palm ATD Angles

14. 142 Dermatoglyphics
APPENDIX B
Statistical Analysis Sheet
for Conducting t test Using Class and Down Syndrome Population Data

15. Dermatoglyphics 143
APPENDIX C
Left and Right Palm Prints from Six Down Syndrome Adults
Showing the Position of the ATD Angle
The figure on the following page serves as the instructor key to go along with the six full-size
prints provided on the succeeding pages. Above each hand is the fingerprint pattern established
from prints that were taken at the same time (UL = ulnar loop; RL = radial loop; and W = whorl).
Two fingerprints from the 28-year-old female were unreadable.
An adjunct to the Down Syndrome exercise would be to compare the frequency of pattern types
between the class and the Down Syndrome individuals, the latter typically showing a higher
frequency of ulnar loops.

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