6. Contents
Introduction 7
Chronology 11
Background to war
Christendom and Islam in the 11th century 12
Warring sides
Byzantines,Turks, Crusaders and Saracens 18
Outbreak
The First Crusade 23
The fighting
Crusade and jihad; consolidation of Islamic resistance 29
Portrait of a soldier
Brothers in arms; two crusaders; two fursan 55
The world around war
The impact of the Crusades on the Mediterranean and beyond 60
Portrait of a civilian
A saint, a lady, a scholar and a rabbi 73
How the war ended
The rise of the Mamluks and the fall of the Crusader State 76
Conclusion and consequences
81
The failure of an idea and the rebirth of Islamic expansionism
89
Further reading
91
Glossary
94
Index
7. Introduction
The Crusades were among the most against Muslim, Orthodox Christian and
controversial events during a long rivalry pagan neighbours. Astonishing economic
between Christianity and Islam. From growth was accompanied by a major increase
Pope Urban II's preaching of what became in population while the 12th-century
the First Crusade in 1095 to the fall of Acre Renaissance produced a burgeoning of art,
in 1291, and the loss of the offshore island architecture, literature and learning. During
of Arwad 11 years later, they formed part of a the period of the Crusades Western Europe
broader offensive by Western Christendom. also learned a great deal from and about its
This offensive began in the Iberian peninsula Islamic neighbours. New technology, crops,
much earlier, since when Sicily had also patterns of trade, trade-goods and
fallen to Norman adventurers from southern philosophical, medical, scientific and
Italy while Italian mariners were winning geographical knowledge all poured into a
naval superiority throughout most of the Western Europe eager to learn, exploit,
Mediterranean. dominate and conquer.
Before the First Crusade, competition in The significance of the Crusades for the
the Middle East had largely been between Orthodox Christian Byzantine Empire, and
the Byzantine or Late Roman Empire and its for Christian communities within the Islamic
Islamic neighbours, but this had not Middle East, was almost entirely negative.
involved continuous warfare. Peaceful Byzantium was economically and militarily
relations had been the norm, though weakened by Western European pressure as
interrupted by many conflicts. It was the well as by the Muslim Turks. Some Christian
sudden arrival of more fanatical Western communities in Syria, Egypt and elsewhere
Christians - the Crusaders or 'Franks' as they still formed the majority of the population
were known in the Middle East - that under Islamic rule in the 11th century, but
resulted in two centuries of military struggle. declined into harassed minorities by the
Even today the Crusades and the Jihad 14th century.
'counter-Crusade' which they stimulated are Within the Islamic world the Crusades
still seen in a different way by most Western were of only local significance in Syria,
Christians, Orthodox Christians and Egypt, Anatolia (modern Turkey) and to a
Muslims. The historical reality of the lesser extent Iraq. Elsewhere the Crusader
Crusades was also more complex than the conquest of coastal Syria and Palestine was
simplistic views that are still used by discomforting, but of little immediate
political, religious and cultural leaders concern to rulers and ordinary people.
in both East and West. As a result the Certainly the Crusades were never seen as a
Crusades and Jihad remained sources of mortal threat to Islam. Nevertheless they and
misunderstanding and friction for more the Jihad which they prompted undermined
than 700 years. the old culture of toleration which had
During the 12th and 13th centuries the characterised the Middle East from the 7th to
Crusades were of greater historical the 11th centuries. The savagery, intolerance
importance for Christian Western Europe and sheer ignorance shown by Western
than for the Islamic world. This was a period Europeans encouraged intolerance and
of growing confidence in Catholic or 'Latin' conservatism among their victims, and
Western Europe as well as physical expansion among the Sunni Muslim majority this was
8. 8 Essential Histories • The Crusades
The Anglo-Saxons defeat the Danes, shown in an Meanwhile the Islamic Middle East
Anglo-Norman manuscript of c. 1125-50. Both armies had little to learn from the Western
are equipped, mounted and fight in the Norman manner
European 'Franks', who remained inferior in
as fully armoured knights in close-packed conrois
squadrons. (Life of St. Edmund. Pierpont Morgan Library. almost all aspects of culture until the later
Ms. 736. f.7v. New York) 13th and 14th centuries. By that time the
Islamic world was rapidly retreating into a
directed not only against Western European cultural conservatism which made it
'barbarians' but also local Christians, Jews virtually impossible for Muslims to accept
and the Shi'a Muslim minority. lessons from the West. Two centuries of
9. Introduction 9
warfare had, however, created militarily The so-called Mihrab of the Prophet Sulayman (King
powerful states, the greatest of which was Solomon in Judeo-Christian terms) is in the Well of Souls,
beneath the famous rock in the Dome of the Rock
the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt and Syria. Jerusalem. As a mihrab it marks the direction of prayer for
These Mamluks halted the Mongol Muslims, many of whom believe that the souls of all the dead
hordes, who had been a genuine threat to will assemble in this little cave on Judgement Day. The mihrab
Islam, thus enabling Middle Eastern itself is not only one of the oldest in existence, perhaps dating
from at least three centuries before the arrival of the First
Islamic civilisation to survive and then Crusade, but is virtually unique in having a small piece of
absorb its invaders. Meanwhile the meteoric rock embedded in its centre, comparable to the
Mamluks also turned aside to mop up the larger meteoric rock which is embedded in one corner of
remnants of the Crusader States. the Kaaba in Mecca. (David Nicolle photograph)
10. 10 Essential Histories • The Crusades
The Mediterranean Sea
11. Chronology
1071 Byzantine army defeated by Seljuk 1202-04 Fourth Crusade diverted to
Turks at Manzikirt. conquer Byzantine Constantinople;
1081 Alexius I Comnenus becomes Emperor Crusader States in Greece established.
of Byzantium. 1218-21 Fifth Crusade invades Egypt;
1092 Death of Seljuk ruler Malik Shah; defeated.
fragmentation of the Great Seljuk 1220-22 Mongol invasions of eastern
Empire. Islamic lands.
1095 Emperor Alexius I appeals to Western 1229 Jerusalem returned to Kingdom of
Europe for military support; Pope Jerusalem by treaty.
Urban II preaches what becomes the 1229-42 Civil war in Crusader Kingdom of
First Crusade. Cyprus.
1096-99 First Crusade marches east, 1231 Mongol invasion of Iran and Armenia.
conquers Jerusalem and starts to carve 1243 Mongols defeat Seljuks of Rum
out four Crusader States. (Anatolia).
1101 Crusader army defeated by Turks in 1244 Alliance of Crusader States and Syrian
Anatolia. Ayyubids defeated at La Forbie by
1115 Crusaders defeat Saljuq attempt to alliance of Khwarazmian refugees from
retake northern Syria. Iran and Ayyubids of Egypt.
1128 Imad al-Din Zangi of Mosul takes 1250 Crusade of King Louis IX of France
Aleppo. invades Egypt, is defeated; Ayyubid
1144 Edessa falls to Zangi. Sultan of Egypt overthrown by
1146 Zangi succeeded by his son Nur al-Din. Mamluks.
1148 Second Crusade defeated outside 1255-58 Mongols invade Iran and Iraq; civil
Damascus. war in Kingdom of Jerusalem.
1153 Fall of Ascalon to Crusaders. 1260 Mongols defeated by Mamluks at 'Ayn
1154 Nur al-Din takes Damascus. Jalut.
1163-69 Five attempts by Kingdom of 1261 Byzantines retake Constantinople from
Jerusalem to take control of Egypt. 'Latin' Empire.
1169 Saladin takes control of Egypt for Nur 1263-68 Mamluks reconquer much
al-Din. remaining Crusader territory.
1174 Death of Nur al-Din; Saladin takes 1271-72 Crusade of Prince Edward of
Damascus. England to Palestine.
1176 Byzantine army defeated by Seljuk 1275-77 Mamluks ravage Kingdom of
Turks at Myriokephalon. Cilician Armenia, defeat Seljuks and
1183 Reynald of Châtillon's attempt to Mongols.
attack Mecca defeated; Saladin 1277 Crown of Jerusalem sold to Charles of
recognised as overlord of Aleppo. Anjou, ruler of southern Italy.
1187 Saladin defeats Kingdom of Jerusalem 1281 Mamluks defeat Mongols and
at Hattin, reconquers most of the Armenians at Hims.
Crusader States. 1289 Mamluks take Tripoli.
1189-92 Third Crusade retakes Acre but fails 1291 Fall of Acre and other Crusader
to retake Jerusalem. enclaves to Mamluks.
1193 Death of Saladin. 1302 Mamluks take island of Ruad; probable
1197-98 German Crusade achieves little. end of Crusader rule at Jubail.
12. Background to war
Christendom and Islam
in the 11th century
The Crusades were an unusual series of relatively stable relationship with
conflicts because they involved three or more intermittent, small-scale conflict on land and
distinct groups of people: the Western sea. During the late 10th and 11th centuries,
European Christians, generally known as as the 'Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad
'Latins' or 'Franks'; the Muslims of the Middle fragmented, power shifted back to the
East and North Africa; the Byzantine and Byzantines, who launched a series of major
other Orthodox Christians of what are now counter-offensives. Then the Byzantine
Turkey and the Balkans, generally known as Empire called a halt, drastically reducing its
'Greeks' to Western Europeans and as 'Rumi' armed forces after having destroyed the
or 'Romans' to their Muslim neighbours. Armenian military system that had served as
More or less associated with the Orthodox a buffer between Byzantium and the Islamic
Christian 'Greeks' were many other Christian world for centuries.
peoples of the region, most of whom were, in For the ordinary people of these regions,
the eyes of Latin-Catholic Christians, an intermittent struggle between the Empire
schismatics or heretics. Some, such as the and the Caliphate meant merely a change of
Armenians, Georgians and Nubians, had their masters, and even the military elites often
own independent states. Others, such as the came to terms with their new rulers. In fact
Jacobites and Maronites of Syria, the Copts of this centuries-old rivalry had become
Egypt and the Nestorians of Iraq and Iran, political and economic rather than a death-
formed substantial communities within struggle between incompatible cultures.
Islamic states.
The Muslims were similarly divided along
linguistic (mainly Arab, Turkish, Kurdish or Guibert of Nogent's explanation of how the
Persian) and religious lines (Sunni or various Middle East became Muslim; in his history
Shi'a sects). Other minorities included the of the First Crusade, written around 1100:
Jews, Druze, Yazidis, Zoroastrians, Manichaean- "It is the common opinion, if I
Paulicians and others. In the 13th century understand it correctly, that there was a
the Mongols erupted into the Middle East. certain man called Mathomus who drew
Included in their ranks were Buddhists, [those people] away from the belief in
shamanist 'pagans', adherents of various the Son and the Holy Spirit and taught
Chinese faiths, Nestorian Christians and them that in the Godhead there was the
even some Muslims. Father, the Creator, alone. He taught
Some of these peoples had very little that Jesus Christ was a man without sin.
contact with each other before the Crusades, Let me briefly conclude this account of
while others had co-existed for centuries. The his teaching by saying that he
Byzantine Empire and its Islamic neighbours recommended circumcision while
could be called the resident civilisations of completely freeing them [his followers]
the Middle East, and had a long history of from restraining their lusts ... [they] do
both rivalry and peaceful relations. From the not believe that he [Mathomus] is God,
7th to the 10th centuries Islam had been as some people claim, but was a good
dominant, though its attempts to conquer man and a benefactor through whom
the Byzantine Empire ended at an early date. they received the Divine Laws."
Instead these two power blocs reached a
13. Background to war 13
The coming of the Seljuk Turks changed
this situation although those Seljuks who A description of the citizen militia of
overran most of Anatolia (Rum or present- Syria in the 1080s, by the chronicler Ibn
day Turkey) remained something of a Abu Tayyi', who was writing about his
sideshow as far as the rest of the Islamic father's lifetime:
world was concerned. Of course the "There was no person in Aleppo who
Byzantine perspective was very different. It did not have military attire in his house,
was the loss of Anatolia to these Turks which and when war came he would go out at
prompted Emperor Alexius I to request once, fully armed."
military help from the West - help which
arrived in the unexpected form of a massive
Crusade to the Holy Land rather than as prove to be very important. They not only
pliant mercenaries willing to accept re-established centralised authority, which
Byzantine authority. was inherited by small but still potent
Nevertheless, the impact of the Seljuk successor states, but encouraged a Sunni
Turks upon the Islamic Middle East would cultural and religious revival. These Seljuk
Turks had not, however, taken full control of
Stucco roundel of a seated Islamic ruler with his the Middle East when the First Crusade
attendants and guards, 11th century. This form of
iconography, with a ruler seated cross-legged on his
arrived. In Egypt and parts of the Palestinian-
throne surrounded by members of his court, was Syrian coast the Shi'a Fatimid Caliphate of
traditional in the Islamic world but was rapidly adopted Cairo remained a rich and culturally brilliant
by the Turkish Seljuks, who took control of virtually the state. Its relations with the Byzantine Empire
entire Middle East in the 11th century. Such stucco and those Italian merchants who were as yet
roundels were used as architectural decoration in many
the only Westerners present in the Eastern
palaces though this example comes from Rey in Iran.
(Museum of Islamic Art and Archaeology, Tehran, Iran. Mediterranean in any numbers were
David Nicolle photograph) generally good. Certainly the economic links
14. 14
Essential Histories • The Crusades
Europe and the Islamic world at the end of the 11th century
15. Background to war 15
between Fatimid Egypt and Italy were The ruins of the abandoned city of Fustat still sprawl
already significant. across parts of southern Cairo. Fustat was the main
commercial and residential part of the Egyptian capital
The relationship between the Byzantine
during the Fatimid period, in the 11th and 12th centuries.
Empire and its Western, Latin-Catholic, Though devastated by fire during one of the civil wars
fellow Christian neighbours was complex that characterised the late Fatimid period, part of it was
and sometimes unfriendly. The Great Schism clearly recolonised after Saladin brought stability back to
(the separation between the Eastern and Egypt. The building shown here might have been a mill,
perhaps using water which drained into what is now a
Western Churches) started in 1054 and was
reed-covered marsh. (David Nicolle photograph)
becoming increasingly serious. At first it had
meant nothing to ordinary men and women
and little to the ruling elites but as the Subsequently competition moved to the
Schism deepened, so people's perceptions of western Balkans where the Norman, then
each other grew more hostile. By the 13th French and finally Spanish rulers of southern
century many people in Western Europe Italy sought to extend their authority. In
maintained that 'Greeks' were worse than economic terms the Byzantine Empire was
'Saracens'. A century or so later there were also declining in the face of Italian
those in the Byzantine. Empire who preferred economic, commercial and maritime
domination by Muslim Turks to domination expansion. Italian merchant republics such
by Western Catholics. as Venice and Genoa certainly took full
In political and military terms the main advantage of Byzantium's weakness.
arena of conflict between Byzantium and its Before the First Crusade, most Western
western neighbours lay in southern Italy, European states had at best a distant
much of which formed part of the Byzantine relationship with the Muslims of the Eastern
Empire until its conquest by the Normans. Mediterranean, the only exceptions being
16. 16 Essential Histories • The Crusades
some Italian merchant republics plus the Carving of sleeping guards at the Holy Sepulchre, on a
Norman kingdom of southern Italy and central French capital, early 12th century. This figure is of
special interest because the aventail of his crudely carved
Sicily. For the merchants of both sides such mail coif is unlaced, making it fall into a loose triangular
links were purely commercial. For the shape on his chest. (in situ church, Mozac. France. David
Norman elite of southern Italy, however, a Nicolle photograph)
different relationship arose after they
conquered Sicily. Here a large, highly Holy Land. The proportion of Westerners
cultured and militarily important Arab- who actually made such a pilgrimage was
Islamic minority remained to serve their new tiny, but their experiences and the
Norman Christian rulers. It seems to have significance of travel to the Holy Land gave
maintained cultural links with both Islamic them considerable influence. Given the
North Africa and with Fatimid Egypt, links confused notions of geography and distance
which would influence the Siculo-Normans' held by most people in Western Europe, the
relations with the Islamic world. other point of direct contact between
Another important form of contact Western Christian and Islamic civilisations -
between Western European society and that namely the Iberian peninsula - must not be
of the Islamic Middle East resulted from ignored. Here Christians and Muslims had
Christian pilgrimages to Jerusalem and the been competing for domination for
17. Background to war 17
centuries. Although the military struggle special set of circumstances in a Byzantine
remained largely political, a religious or Empire that was under pressure from the
'crusading' element was increasingly Seljuk Turks. Nevertheless, Byzantium's call
important in what became the Spanish for help did result in a widespread and
Reconquista. It is also interesting to note virtually uncontrolled mobilisation of
that recent Christian victories in Iberia had Western military might. In such
resulted from a temporary fragmentation of circumstances Western confidence, recent
power in the Islamic region known as military successes, overpopulation among
Andalus (Andalusia). Such successes the military elite and a wave of religious
strengthened the confidence of the Western enthusiasm if not outright hysteria probably
military elite, particularly in France since played their part. Although there was
French knights had played an important role widespread ignorance of the realities of the
in the Iberian struggle. Similarly Norman- task to be attempted, there was surely an
French and other knights had recently element of economic opportunism on the
conquered Byzantine southern Italy and part of some better informed Italian
seized Sicily from the Muslims. participants.
Whether or not such Western European Such factors might explain the fact that
and above all French military, economic and the First Crusade or 'armed pilgrimage'
even cultural confidence made the Crusades remained a unique historical phenomenon.
inevitable is an unanswerable question. After Different factors led to the wars of the
all, the First Crusade was prompted by a Crusades continuing for two centuries, or
more if the so-called 'Later Crusades' are
included. For a start the First Crusade was an
Nizam al-Mulk, a wazir or chief minister of astonishing success. No subsequent
the Seljuk sultan Malik-Shah, described in expedition succeeded to anything like the
his Siyasat Nama treatise on government same degree, and all, except for the Fourth
written in 1091 the ideal training Crusade which was diverted against
programme for ghulam or mamluk soldiers Byzantium, were more or less failures.
after they had been purchased as slaves: Indeed it took a century for Western
"One year on foot at the stirrup of a political, military, religious and cultural
rider, wearing a [plain] Zandaniji cloak leaderships to accept the fact that the First
... Next given a small Turkish horse, a Crusade was a 'one off. Enthusiasm for the
saddle covered in untanned leather, a concept of Crusade steadily declined, first
plain bridle and stirrup leathers. In this among ordinary people, then among the
manner to serve one year with a horse military aristocracy and cultural
and whip. In the third year they are elite. Finally even the Church recognised this
given a belt. In the fourth year they are reality.
given a quiver and bowcase which is On the other side of the religious frontier,
attached to the belt when they are enthusiasm for Jihad or counter-Crusade
mounted. In the fifth year they are given increased, and after the Mamluks finally
a better saddle and a decorated bridle, expelled the descendants of the Crusaders
plus a handsome cloak and a mace from Palestine and Syria in the late 13th
which he hangs in a mace-ring." century the torch of Jihad was passed to the
Subsequent promotions concern duties rather Ottoman Turks. Their subsequent wave of
than appearance or equipment, except in the conquest took them into southern Russia, to
eighth year, when they were given a black the gates of Vienna, to Arabia, North Africa
felt hat decorated with silver wire, and a and even further afield. In fact it could be
fine cloak from Ganja. claimed that by preaching the First Crusade,
Pope Urban II sowed the wind, and that his
successors reaped the whirlwind.
18. Warring sides
Byzantines, Turks,
Crusaders and Saracens
Crusader armies
Most of those involved in the First Crusade
were relatively prosperous and the idea that
Crusading was a means of escape for poor
knights seeking their fortune overseas is
largely a myth. The bulk of the cavalry were
knights (or were from that minor military
elite which would become knights in the
12th century), while the infantry appears
to have been largely drawn from
professional soldiers, prosperous peasants or
townsmen. Meanwhile the role of women
was largely as financial backers rather than
active participants.
Military recruitment within the Crusader
States, once these had been established,
differed considerably from that of Crusading Statuette of knight. French 11th— 12th centuries. A large
expeditions. The majority of the nobility were number of such statuettes, often designed for use as
wine or water-pouring containers, survive from the 13th
also from modest knightly families rather and 14th centuries. This, however, is one of the few
than the great aristocracy of Western Europe. which dates from the 12th century or even earlier
The number of knights available to the Bronze statuettes, being three-dimensional, provide
Crusader States was correspondingly small, better details of the way in which sword-belts were
worn and shields carried by the early Crusader military
while a lack of agricultural land meant that
elite. (inv. O.A. 9103. Musée du Louvre, Paris. France)
the bulk of the military aristocracy were urban
based like those of northern Italy. Non-
knightly troops included professional infantry
and cavalry sergeants paid by towns or the Part of a letter from Pope Celestine III
Church. In an emergency a general feudal written in 1195, urging Christians to go on
levy or arrière ban added local Arabic-speaking Crusade, as included in the chronicle of
Christians and Armenians to the existing Ralph of Diceto:
urban militias. Nevertheless, professional "We should not be amazed at those,
mercenaries remained an essential element including several of the world's princes,
and governments generally preferred a steady who have so far set out to fight the
supply of such men to the temporary Saracen heathen with spear and sword,
appearance of over-enthusiastic Crusaders. even though they have accomplished
The Crusader States would not accept nothing wholly successful ... Let those
defeated Muslim troops into their service who have carried military arms among
unless they converted to Christianity. Such Christian folk now take up the Sign of
converts played a significant role as the Cross and let them neither despair
turcopoles, mostly serving as light cavalry and for their small numbers nor glory in
some horse-archers. As the power of the their multitude."
Crusader States declined, so the importance
19. Warring Sides 19
of the Military Orders grew. Initially their By the 13th century major offensive
recruits needed only to be free men, but later operations had to await the arrival of a
those becoming 'brother knights' were of Crusade from the West. These never lost a
knightly origin while 'brother sergeants' were broader strategic vision, with the conquest of
mostly of free peasant or artisan families. Egypt being a common objective.
Most early Crusading expeditions were Nevertheless, most Crusades were reactive
organised around the most senior barons rather than proactive. The precise function
taking part, though ordinary infantry often of Crusader castles remains a matter of
fought in groupings that reflected their
country of origin. By the 13th century Battle scene on a painted paper fragment, Egypt 12th
Crusading expeditions were more structured, century. This well-known picture was found in the ruins
even to the extent that knights of differing of Fustat and clearly shows a battle outside a fortified
status were expected to have different city or castle between the Muslim garrison and a force of
Western Europeans including knights. The latter are
numbers of horses and followers. Meanwhile
probably Crusaders and the fortification might represent
the military organisation of the Crusader Ascalon, which the Fatimid Egyptians held against
States was essentially the same as that in constant Crusader attack for several decades. The
Western Europe. The command structure of Muslims include a fully armoured horseman in a mail
such armies remained essentially amateur, hauberk, but with a bulky turban rather than a helmet.
though the king, as overall commander, The archers on the walls are similarly protected whereas
two Muslim foot soldiers are protected only by their
clearly consulted his leading barons and the larger shields. The presumed Crusaders include a knight
Masters of the Military Orders. As the secular in typical and accurately illustrated 12th-century armour
armies of the Crusader States declined, those mail hauberk, shield, and riding an unarmoured horse.
of the Military Orders increased in Only part of the attacking foot soldier in the top right
effectiveness, with each Order providing corner survives, and he is more problematical, being
equipped with a round shield, a sword and a helmet.
what was effectively a regiment of (Department of Oriental Antiquities. British Museum,
professional soldiers. London, England)
20. 20 Essential Histories • The Crusades
debate. They could not really 'plug' an authority though no apparent legal status.
invasion route and their usefulness as refuges After the Fourth Crusade conquered
was limited. However, even in the defensive Constantinople (Istanbul) and large parts of
environment of the 13th century such secure the Empire's Greek heartland, the
bases enabled garrisons to raid enemy fragmented Byzantine successor states had
territory and harass invaders. much reduced sources of recruitment.
Remarkably little is known about the Nevertheless, the 'Empire' of Nicea (Iznik)
training of Western European armies at the continued to enlist Western mercenaries.
time of the Crusades. For cavalry the primary Byzantine armies of the 12th and 13th
emphasis was on the lance as used in close- centuries inherited one of the most ancient
packed conrois formations. Another very military organisations in the medieval world,
important aspect of Western European but they were rarely in a position to take full
military training concerned the crossbow, advantage of it. The armed forces basically
which was the most effective weapon consisted of two armies - one in the western
available to European infantry.
AI-Tarsusi, in the section of his military
Byzantine armies training manual dealing with archery
(late 12th century drawing on an 8th-9th
The Byzantine Empire's loss of much of century original):
Anatolia deprived it of its most important "When shooting at a horseman who
source of military manpower, and at the end is not moving, aim at his saddle-bow so
of the 11th century foreign troops probably that you will hit the man if the arrow
outnumbered domestic recruits. Attempts to goes high, or the horse if it goes low. If
rebuild a 'national' army were only partially his back is turned, aim at the spot
successful and foreign mercenaries continued between his shoulders. If he is charging
to play a major role. The long-established with a sword, shoot at him but not from
Byzantine practice of enlisting prisoners-of- too far away, for if you miss him he
war also continued. By the late 12th and might strike you with his sword [before
13th centuries a provincial elite known as you can shoot again]."
archontes emerged, having clear military
21. Warring Sides 21
Above and opposite: Warriors on carved ivory box, disciplined ranks by command. During the
Byzantine 11th-12th centuries. Most Byzantine 12th century the apparent success of Western
representations of warriors, particularly those in a
religious context, give the men archaic pseudo-Roman
European Crusading armies also led to an
equipment that probably did not reflect current reality. emphasis on Western military skills.
On this ivory box, however, three panels seem to be
more realistic and only the naked man can be dismissed
as an ancient artistic convention. The kneeling warrior Islamic armies
with a helmet, bow, spear shield and sword with a
curved sabre-style hilt seems especially contemporary.
(Hermitage Museum. St Petersburg, Russia. David The armies of the Islamic Middle East were
Nicolle photographs) remarkably varied. Recruitment reflected
whatever suitable manpower was available,
or European provinces and one in the plus as many Central Asian Turkish mamluk
eastern or Asian provinces — plus a small or ghulam slave-origin professional soldiers
fleet. In reality the Byzantines never as could be afforded. The rest of a jund army
recovered from the disasters of the later usually consisted of local Turks, Kurds, Arabs,
11th century. The army also adopted Persians, Armenians and others. Many cities
organisational structures, equipment and had their own militia, sometimes called an
tactics from its Western European rivals and ahdath. Numerous religiously motivated
its Turkish neighbours. After western volunteers or mutatawi'ah also took part in
Anatolia was regained in the early 12th campaigns against the Crusaders.
century the territory was secured by a The armed forces of Fatimid Egypt were
broad strip of depopulated no-man's-land different. They were based upon a classical
dotted with powerful fortresses and model provided by the 9th-century 'Abbasid
supported by field armies from the centre Caliphate. Infantry regiments consisted of
of the Empire. black African slave-soldiers, many Christian
More is known about training in the Armenians and some Iranians. The cavalry
period before the Crusades than during the included Syrian Arabs, Turkish ghulams,
12th and 13th centuries. By the 11th century Europeans of slave and perhaps mercenary
horse-archery had been added to traditional origin, Armenians and perhaps Iranians. The
skills with other weapons. Infantry archers Fatimids also had a substantial navy. These
were still theoretically trained to shoot in military systems were inherited by Saladin.
22. 22 Essential Histories • The Crusades
His army was largely Turkish, with its supply train and the suq al-'askar mobile
halqa elite consisting of mamluks. The army 'army market'.
of the subsequent Mamluk Sultanate was Strategy and even tactics in the Islamic
essentially the same as those of the Middle East were greatly influenced by
preceding Ayyubid states, though Turkish ecological factors such as summer heat,
mamluks now formed the ruling as well as winter rain, the availability of water and
military elite. The Seljuks of Rum or Anatolia pasture and the need to harvest crops.
tried to model their army on that of their The Islamic states also learned that the only
great Seljuk predecessors. Slave-origin way to overcome the Crusader States was by
ghulams formed a core around which tribal the steady reduction of their fortified towns
Turks, assimilated Greeks, Armenian and and castles. Training in larger armies seems to
others, plus a remarkable assortment of have relied on written textbooks to a greater
mercenaries assembled. extent than anywhere else, except perhaps
The success of Islamic armies in China. For cavalry this involved individual
containing and then expelling the skill with numerous weapons plus a variety of
Crusaders reflected their superior unit manoeuvres. Infantry were expected to
organisation, logistical support, discipline practise archery, avoid and harass enemy
and tactics. They, like the Byzantines, were cavalry, and know the skills of siege warfare.
heirs to a sophisticated military tradition
where the 'men of the sword' or soldiers A less well-known fragment of a Fatimid drawing on
were supported by the 'men of the pen' paper, again from Fustat, shows the head of an
or civilian administrators, government infantryman armed with two javelins. His head is
protected by a bulky turban with the ends of its cloth
officials and bureaucrats. Large armies such pulled up into a sort of point. He also carries a round or
as that of the Ayyubids were divided into perhaps kite-shaped shield. Egypt 11th-12th centuries.
units, often with specific functions, but (Ms. inv. 13801. Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo. Egypt,
equally important were the atlab al-mira David Nicolle photograph)
23. Outbreak
The First Crusade
In 1071 the Byzantine army was was now fragmenting. Seljuk and other
catastrophically defeated by the Seljuk Turks Turkish amirates in Anatolia and Armenia
at the battle of Manzikirt, after which the were effectively independent, as were the
Byzantine Empire endured political chaos, atabeg statelets of Syria and northern Iraq.
civil war and the loss of virtually the whole Most still acknowledged the suzereinty of the
of Anatolia. This was the real background to Great Seljuk Sultan but in reality the First
the First Crusade. In 1081, a general named Crusade, supported by the Byzantines, faced
Alexius Comnenus seized the throne and a chronically divided Islamic world. This
reimposed government control across what fragmentation was most acute in Syria and
was left of the Byzantine Empire, despite Palestine, the Crusaders' destination.
attacks by the Seljuk Turks, the pagan Meanwhile the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt
Pecheneg Turks and the Normans of was enjoying a modest revival. It had never
southern Italy. In 1095 Alexius sent a accepted the loss of Palestine and western
message to Pope Urban II asking for Western Syria to the Seljuk Turks and would take
mercenary troops. advantage of the approaching Crusade to
Quite why this simple request resulted in regain Jerusalem.
a massive Crusade remains unclear, but the All these Islamic states, Sunni and Shi'a,
basic facts are known. Pope Urban II were, however, preoccupied with their own
preached a sort of armed pilgrimage which rivalries. Confident of their military
would help the Byzantines and also retake superiority over the Byzantines, and secure
the Holy Land. This idea caught on and in in their superior wealth, science, technology,
November 1095 Pope Urban called upon the material culture, great cities and far-ranging
military elite of Western Christendom to trade networks, the Islamic peoples never
'liberate' Jerusalem from the 'infidels'. The seem to have expected that a horde of
subsequent wave of enthusiasm was most heavily armed religious fanatics would
notable among the lower levels of a military descend upon them from Western Europe.
elite that was evolving into what became the For the Islamic Middle East, if not for
knightly class. Many ordinary people were Andalus and North Africa, Western Europe
also caught up in the religious hysteria, was a cultural and military backwater.
though the ruling class tended to be less Such a judgement was seriously out of
enthusiastic. date. The Ifranj or 'Franks' may still have
The moment seemed appropriate. been relatively primitive compared to
Emperor Alexius was well aware of Byzantines or Muslims, but they were no
conditions within the neighbouring Islamic longer the unwashed barbarians of a century
states while the Papacy in Rome probably or so earlier. In military terms Italy, Spain
had comparable information. The idea that and much of France and England were on a
the First Crusade marched eastward with similar level to the Byzantine Empire.
little knowledge of their destination is Indeed, France would become the power-
probably a myth, at least as far as those who house of the Crusading movement. For their
were directing the movement. Within the part the Armenians, previously crushed
Middle East the once mighty Seljuk between Byzantines and Muslims, were now
Sultanate, which had permitted a small army taking control of large areas of south-central
to attack the Byzantines back in the 1070s, Anatolia, to become a major military
24. 24 Essential Histories • The Crusades
presence when the First Crusade burst upon extraordinary expedition was collective, with
the scene. each regional or linguistic contingent
Pope Urban II and the Emperor Alexius I following the senior lord within its ranks.
were prime movers but neither actually led During the course of the campaign some
the Crusade. Similarly the commanders of showed greater capabilities than others, such
the First Crusade often found themselves as Bohemond of Taranto, and they were
responding to what the mass of participants temporarily recognised as senior - but only
demanded. In fact military leadership of this while a crisis existed. Others, such as
25. Outbreak 25
Raymond of St Gilles and Robert of religiously excited horde of armed men and
Normandy, tried to assume superiority their followers turned upon the Jews of
through their status, wealth or the size of Germany. As the Crusades continued various
their military contingent. The result was a Crusader contingents reached what was for
division of command at crucial moments. them alien territory in Catholic Hungary and
Indeed the success of the First Crusade, even more so in the Orthodox Christian
despite such drawbacks, seemed virtually Balkans. As a result many local people came
miraculous, 'Favoured by God' in the eyes of to view them as little better than bandits.
most Christians. Godfrey of Bouillon, who When the Crusaders reached the Byzantine
became titular leader with the re- capital of Constantinople further trouble was
establishment of Christian rule in Jerusalem, avoided by the diplomatic skill of Emperor
reflected the paradox of leadership in this Alexius, while Crusader leaders from Norman
'Divinely inspired' movement, refusing to Italy generally maintained tighter control
wear a king's crown in the city where Christ over their troops than did other leaders from
wore a crown of thorns. France or Germany.
There was a similar lack of cohesive The first major clash between Crusaders
leadership on the Islamic side. In Iran the and Muslims was a disaster for the Christians.
Great Seljuk Sultan Berk Yaruq was It happened when the so-called Peasants'
preoccupied with the fragmentation of his Crusade, which marched a year ahead of the
own realm. Resistance was left to local rulers main Crusade, entered Seljuk Turkish territory
and governors. Many fought hard but were in Anatolia. There it was virtually
individually overwhelmed by the armoured exterminated on 21 October 1096. The first
horde from the west. Other local leaders came units of the First Crusade proper reached
to terms or even tried to form alliances with Constantinople two months later, but it was
these fearsome newcomers, and the fact that not until early April the following year that
some Muslim leaders thought the invaders the assembled contingents of the First Crusade
could be used in this way illustrates their lack were ferried across to the Asian shore in
of understanding of what the First Crusade Byzantine ships. On 14 May 1097, they and
was all about. Such a lack of mutual support their Byzantine allies attacked the Anatolian
among local Muslim rulers shocked some of Seljuk capital of Nicea. (This surrendered to
their own people, though it would take a long the Byzantines rather than the bloodthirsty
time for their successors to overcome the Crusaders on 26 June, much to the annoyance
chronic political, ethnic and religious of the latter.) From then on relations between
divisions within Middle Eastern Islam. Crusaders and the Byzantine authorities, never
As the Crusaders made their way east by very good, gradually deteriorated.
land and sea, the first blood to be spilled in The Crusaders' first full-scale battle took
large quantities was not Muslim but Jewish. place on 1 July 1097 and, although it was a
In what has been called 'the first Holocaust' close run thing, it ended in total victory for
some sections of what was clearly a the Christians. Hunger, hardship and the
seizure of cities, some of which were then
Infantryman with tall shield on a lustreware ceramic plate, garrisoned by Emperor Alexius' troops and
Iran or Egypt 12th century. The foot soldier on this some of which were retaken by the Seljuks,
magnificent ceramic has a straight sword with the kind of
marked their subsequent march across
hilt which appears in several Islamic manuscripts from this
period. The hilt was probably of cast bronze. His tall shield Anatolia. The Crusaders' next major military
with its flattened base and chequerboard pattern is a obstacle was the great Syrian city of Antioch
januwiya. a form of infantry mantlet whose name suggests (now Antakya in Turkey). Here the Crusaders
that it was of Italian origin. Genoa, from which the name not only conducted an epic siege but also
derives, became one of the main Italian merchant
defeated two largely Turkish armies. One was
republics through which military equipment and strategic
materials were illegally sold to the Islamic states during
attempting to relieve the city, the other to
the Crusader period. (De Unger Collection, London) retake Antioch, which had fallen to the
26. 26 Essential Histories • The Crusades
invaders just over three weeks previously on The Church of St Peter a short distance from the city of
3 June 1098. Antakya (Antioch), was the most sacred site in the
Crusader Principality of Antioch. The apostle Peter and
Reinforcements also reached the Crusaders
the first Christians are believed to have used the cave as
in the form of fleets from Italy, England and a church. The present simple structure incorporates
elsewhere. These not only enabled the elements built across the front of what is largely a man-
made cave in the side of the mountain during the
Crusader occupation in the 12th and 13th centuries.
(David Nicolle photograph)
Fulcher of Chartres on the appalling
conditions endured by the Crusaders
outside Antioch: invaders to re-establish contact with Western
"We felt that misfortunes had befallen Europe and bring supplies as well as men, but
the Franks because of their sins and for also more than compensated for the presence
that reason they were not able to take of a Fatimid Egyptian fleet in the Eastern
the city for so long a time. Luxury and Mediterranean. Not that the Fatimid
avarice and pride and plunder had government had been idle. Taking advantage
indeed weakened them. Then the of the Seljuks' difficulties in northern Syria,
Franks, having consulted together, its army retook Jerusalem and most of
expelled the women from the army, the Palestine while reinforcing the garrisons of
married as well as unmarried, lest defiled several coastal ports. The Fatimids even tried
by the sordidness of riotous living they to negotiate an anti-Seljuk alliance with the
should displease the Lord." Crusaders, presumably still mistaking them
for an offshoot of the Byzantine Empire with
27. Outbreak 27
which the Fatimid Caliphate had often
enjoyed good relations. Of course the Extract from a letter, found in the Cairo
Crusaders, so close to their goal of Jerusalem synagogue, written by Yesha'ya ha-Kohen Ben
and in a high state of religious enthusiasm, Masliah, concerning Jewish prisoners taken by
were not interested. The result was the siege the First Crusade:
and capture of the Holy City, which fell on "News still reaches us that amongst
15 July 1099, followed by the first of several those who were redeemed from the Franks
major battles between Fatimid armies and and remain in Ascalon some are in danger
Crusader forces on the coastal plain near of dying of want. Others remained in
Ascalon. The First Crusade had been crowned captivity, and yet others were killed before
with what was even then regarded as an the eyes of the rest... In the end all those
almost miraculous success - a success which who could be ransomed from them were
would not, however, be repeated. liberated, and only a few whom they kept
remained in their hands ... To this day
these captives remain in their hands, as
The so-called Tower of David in Jerusalem stands against
the western wall of the Old City. This was the city's Citadel
well as those who were taken at Antioch,
in medieval times and the highest point of the fortifications but these are few, not counting those who
which were also the most vulnerable. There had been a abjured their faith because they lost
citadel here since Herodian or Roman times, but this fell patience as it was not possible to ransom
into decay during the peaceful early Islamic Arab era. It was
them and because they despaired of being
rebuilt during the Crusader occupation, thereafter being
maintained and perhaps strengthened under the Mamluks
permitted to go free."
and Ottomans. (David Nicolle photograph)
28. 28 Essential Histories • The Crusades
Ibn al-Qalanisi describing the defence of Tyre
against Crusader attack in 1111-12:
"A long timber beam was set up on the
wall in front of the [enemy] siege-tower.
On top of it, forming a T-shaped cross,
another beam forty cubits long was swung
on pulleys worked by a winch in the
manner as a ship's mast... At one end of
the pivoting beam was an iron spar and at
Carving of St George helping the First Crusaders outside the other end ropes running through
Antioch. English early 12th c e n t u r y . The story was pulleys by means of which the operators
popular throughout most of Latin Western Europe
could hoist buckets of dung and refuse
during the period of the Crusades, but this is one of the
earliest and best preserved carved reliefs. At this date and empty them over the Franks ... Then
the only item of military equipment which differentiates this sailor (who had designed the device)
the Crusaders praying on the left, from the Muslims had panniers and baskets filled with oil,
being slaughtered by St George on the right, is the
pitch, wood shavings, resin and cane-bark
latters' round s h i e l d s . The round shield became, in fact,
the most common iconographic method of identifying
set on fire and hoisted up in the manner
'infdel' troops in medieval European art. described to the level of the Frankish
(in situ parish church of St George, Fordington, England. tower (which was then burned down)."
David Nicolle photograph)
29. The fighting
Crusade and jihad; consolidation
of Islamic resistance
The so-called Peasants' Crusade had been ranks, was captured. Later that year Godfrey
wiped out on the frontier of Islamic territory. of Bouillon, ruler of Crusader Jerusalem, died
The second wave, or the First Crusade proper, and was succeeded by Baldwin of Boulogne,
had achieved an almost miraculous success at the Count of Edessa. Meanwhile the Fatimid
Antioch, in defeating two large Islamic armies army, though far past its peak, launched a
and by seizing the Holy City of Jerusalem. A series of campaign which resulted in the
third wave was crushed in eastern Anatolia three battles of Ramla. The Egyptians were
while apparently heading for Iraq. Whether defeated in the first and third, but in the
or not this third wave was hoping to take the second battle they virtually exterminated a
great city of Baghdad, which Western Crusader army, causing losses which the
Christians regarded as the 'capital' of the Christians could not afford.
Islamic world, has never been established. In the north the fortunes of war were
The result was, however, a catastrophe and similarly divided and although the Crusaders
never again would Crusading armies have a won notable victories, their glory days were
clear passage through Muslim-Turkish soon over. Nevertheless, it took several
Anatolia. Instead the Mediterranean became decades for the Western Christians to realise
the main, and eventually the only, link that the clear military superiority they had
between the Crusader States and Western enjoyed during the First Crusade no longer
Europe. existed. From then on the Crusaders were
Those of the First Crusade who remained forced on to the defensive, while the
in the east, plus a steady flow of newcomers Muslims slowly reunited their forces and,
from Europe, joined forces with the
Armenians to carve out four small states in
what are now south-eastern Turkey, Syria, Bohemond of Taranto
Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan. They became Bohemond, born in the mid-1050s,
the Principality of Antioch, the County of eldest son of Robert Guiscard, fought
Edessa, the County of Tripoli and the alongside his father against Emperor
Kingdom of Jerusalem. A fifth state, that of Alexius in the early 1080s. He joined the
the Armenians themselves, emerged in what First Crusade, became its most effective
is now Turkish Cilicia. military commander and subsequently
Fully aware that control of the coast was the ruler of Antioch. Having taken an
essential for their survival, the Christians oath of allegiance to Emperor Alexius,
soon took all the ports except Ascalon, Bohemond refused to recognise the
which remained in Fatimid hands for several Byzantine claim to Antioch, hence there
decades. In fact Ascalon became a 12th- were tensions. He was captured by
century version of the 20th- to 21st-century Danishmandid Turks in 1100 but released
Gaza Strip. Nevertheless, the invaders soon in 1103. After further clashes with the
suffered serious reverses, partly through their Byzantines in Cilicia, he returned to Italy
own overconfidence and partly because their from where he unsuccessfully attacked
Muslim neighbours recovered from the Byzantine Albania in 1107. Bohemond
initial shock of invasion. In 1100 Bohemond did not return to Syria but died in Apulia
of Taranto, Prince of Antioch and perhaps in 1111.
the most skilful military leader in Crusader
31. The fighting 31
12th-century Damascus and the siege of the
city by the Second Crusade in July AD 1148
even more slowly, retook what had been lost
in the early 12th century. Fulcher of Chartres on the role of women in
In strategic terms the Crusader States were the defence of Crusader Jaffa against a
vulnerable, forming an arc of territory from Fatimid naval assault in 1123:
the unclear eastern frontier of the County of "The Arab or Aethiopian [Sudanese] foot
Edessa to the southern tip of the Kingdom of soldiers which they brought with them
Jerusalem. To the north were the similarly together with a body of cavalry, made a
newly established Turkish Anatolian states of heavy assault upon the inhabitants of Jaffa.
the Danishmandids and Seljuks. To the east On both sides men hurled javelins, some
lay the great city of Mosul which would threw stones and others shot arrows.
become the power-house of the first Islamic Moreover those within the city, fighting
counter-Crusade. Tucked inside the curve of manfully for themselves, slew those
Crusader territory was the seemingly outside with oft-repeated blows... The
vulnerable Syrian city of Aleppo which the women of Jaffa were constantly ready with
Christians never took. Further south, and as generous help for the men who were
yet of secondary significance, was another struggling mightily. Some carried stones
great Syrian city - Damascus - which again and others brought water to drink."
the Crusaders never took. Beyond Damascus
32. 32 Essential Histories • The Crusades
As yet the Crusader States largely ignored
Emperor Alexius I the Byzantine Empire's attempts to exert its
Born in 1048 to the powerful own suzereinty over them. Instead an uneasy
landowning Comnenus family, Alexius alliance was formed, though the Byzantines
became a senior general. He seized the continued to try to dominate Antioch. The
imperial Byzantine throne in 1081 during rulers of Damascus were afraid of being taken
the civil wars which followed the Turkish over by their fellow-Muslim rulers of Mosul
invasion of Anatolia. The weakened and so formed occasional alliances with the
Empire was now threatened from all sides Crusader States. In fact King Baldwin I of
but Alexius' diplomatic skill and a small Jerusalem and Tughtagin, the amir of
revival of the Byzantine army enabled Damascus, agreed to share the revenues of
him to defeat the Pechenegs in the territory south of Damascus and east of the
north, the Normans in the West and Jordan. Meanwhile Edessa, where the
and even regain some territory in Crusader military elite were so few that they
Anatolia. But he failed to control the relied on Armenian military support,
Crusaders. Personally orthodox in his survived because the Muslim rulers of Aleppo
religion, Alexius tried to rebuild the felt themselves to be threatened by the other
Byzantine economy and accepted the fact more powerful Crusader States.
that the powerful aristocracy had to some This fragile equilibrium collapsed in the
degree to remain autonomous as the mid-12th century as the fragmented Islamic
backbone of Byzantine military might. states gradually coalesced into fewer realms.
He died in 1118. As the shock of the First Crusade wore off,
the Christians took control of almost all the Imad al-Din Ibn Qasim al-Dawla
agricultural zone, establishing a hazy frontier Zangi, Atabeg of Mosul
with the semi-desert regions. The latter, Zangi was born around 1084. His father
though sometimes recognising the authority was a Turkish mamluk, a senior political
of one or other Islamic ruler, had been figure in the service of the Seljuk Sultan
independent for centuries, the only exception Malik Shah who joined the wrong side in
being the Islamic holy land of the Hijaz in a civil war and was put to death by Malik
Arabia which recognised a distant Seljuk Shah's brother when Zangi was ten years
overlordship. To the west the Sinai desert old. Nevertheless, the boy remained in
nominally formed part of Fatimid territory. the service of the rulers of Mosul and was
Finally there was the Fatimid-held port and eventually appointed governor of Wasit
enclave of Ascalon on the Mediterranean in 1122/23. This was a time of virtual
whose survival largely depended upon the anarchy, but Zangi steadily rose to
Fatimid-Egyptian navy. Only when Italian became atabeg or autonomous governor
naval power became overwhelming did the of Mosul under Seljuk suzereinty in 1127.
Crusaders finally take Ascalon in 1153. This Thereafter he extended his territory,
event also opened the way for Crusader fought both the Crusader States and the
attempts to take control of Egypt, where Byzantines, usually managing to be on
Fatimid power was tottering to its fall. But the winning side during various Seljuk
Egypt's weakness also attracted attempts by civil wars. Politically astute and a fine
Nur al-Din, the increasingly powerful Turkish military commander, Zangi was also
ruler of northern Iraq and Syria, to win ruthless, unscrupulous and sometimes
control of what all sides recognised as a mistreated his own followers, being
potential power-house. It was Nur al-Din and murdered by some of his own mamluks
in particular his governor Salah al-Din while besieging Qal'at Ja'bar in 1146.
(Saladin) who eventually succeeded.
33. The fighting 33
The maristan or hospital of Nur al-Din in the Old City of
Guibert of Nogent on how a doctor Damascus is one of the best preserved medieval hospitals
in the Middle East. Nur al-Din was, of course, a great
proposed treating the injured King Baldwin I
patron of art. architecture and public works as well as
of Jerusalem who had a deep wound in his being perhaps the most significant figure in the Islamic
body: military revival of the 12th c e n t u r y . The maristan itself was
"He proposed a wonderful expedient built to treat those suffering from mental health
... He asked the king that he might order problems, being designed to provide not only secure
accommodation but also a soothing environment in
one of the Saracen prisoners to be
which fountains and a large pool were central features.
wounded in the same position as the The doctors themselves worked and taught in the four
king himself and then order him to be surrounding iwans or tall shaded recesses in each wall.
killed so that the doctor might Today the maristan of Nur al-Din is a museum of Arab-
investigate freely on the dead body and Islamic Science and Medicine. (David Nicolle photograph)
examine certainly from looking at it
what the royal wound was like on its power of Mosul, only recognising the threat
inside." from the east when Mosul and Aleppo were
The king refused, but had a bear united under the rule of Imad al-Din Zangi
wounded and killed instead. in 1128 and more particularly when Zangi
conquered most of the County of Edessa in
1144. Instead their attention was focused
the Islamic military elite returned to its largely upon Damascus and Egypt.
traditional responsibilities of jihad or the Nevertheless, the fall of Edessa sent
defence and recovery of Islamic territory. In Shockwaves throughout Western
general, Middle Eastern society regarded the Christendom and resulted in the preaching
presence of Crusader States in the heart of of the Second Crusade by St Bernard of
the Islamic world as an affront rather than a Clairvaux. In 1147 two great expeditions set
threat. For their part the Crusader Kings of out from France and Germany. Unlike the
Jerusalem seem to have neglected the rising First Crusade, the Second came to grief in
34. 34 Essential Histories • The Crusades
The struggle for Egypt
35. The fighting 35
Turkish Anatolia and only a small part One section of the huge fortified walls of Cairo Citadel
reached Syria. Others came directly by sea. looking south from the Burg al-Ramla or 'Sandy Tower'
towards the Burg a l - l m a m . These towers and the
Once assembled in Palestine the Second
intervening wall were erected between 1183 and 1207.
Crusade attacked Damascus instead of They incorporate several very advanced features including
marching against the main threat in vaulted passages inside the curtain wall. One of the
northern Syria. Even so they failed, being stairways leading from the upper rampart to such a passage
defeated by weak local forces and militias can be seen in the foreground. (David Nicolle photograph)
36. 36 Essential Histories • The Crusades
and Syrian-Turkish armies as well as political
Saladin and military factions within the Fatimid
Salah al-Din Yusuf Ibn Ayyub was born Caliphate. In 1169 Nur al-Din's general
in 1138 into the minor Kurdish military Shirkuh seized Cairo and the Crusader army
aristocracy. He was brought up in the evacuated Egypt. That same year Shirkuh
service of Zangi, his father being died and his nephew, Saladin, became not
governor of Baalbek. Saladin was only Nur al-Din's governor and commander
educated in the typical manner of the of the Syrian forces in Egypt, but also of the
Turco-Arab military aristocracy. He Fatimid army and navy. After ruthless
entered the service of Zangi's son Nur purging and reorganisation these formed
al-Din and accompanied his uncle on Saladin's first powerbase, to which he
two expeditions to Egypt. Following the gradually added more troops including a
second successful expedition, Saladin significant force of slave-recruited mamluks.
became the wazir or chief minister of the The Crusader States seemed paralysed
last Fatimid Caliph. When the latter died before this looming threat and when Nur
in 1171 Saladin took over as governor of al-Din and King Almaric of Jerusalem both
Egypt under the suzereinty of Nur al-Din died in 1174, Saladin added Damascus to his
of Aleppo. After the ruler of Aleppo died realm. Over the next few years Saladin
in 1174, Saladin gradually extended his extended his authority further, either by
control over most of what had been Nur direct annexation or by obliging Nur al-Din's
al-Din's territory. Despite earlier and less descendants to recognise his overlordship. At
successful clashes, Saladin's invasion of this stage Saladin's occasional brushes with
the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem the Crusader States seemed designed to
resulted in overwhelming victory in improve his standing among his fellow
1187, including the reconquest of
Jerusalem itself. Thereafter he held on to
the Holy City despite Western
Richard I of England
Christendom's massive effort in the
Richard, called Coeur de Lion, was born
Third Crusade. He died in 1193. Pious
in 1157, the third son of King Henry II.
and orthodox, an astute politician and
He became King of England in 1189, led a
an excellent military commander,
major contingent in the Third Crusade
Saladin was regarded as a pattern of
and married Berengaria of Navarre while
chivalry by his Frankish foes and as an
in Cyprus, which he had conquered from
ideal ruler by many, though not all, in
the Byzantines. Richard defeated Saladin
the Islamic world.
at Arsuf but failed to retake Jerusalem.
Attempting to return home overland, he
was imprisoned by Duke Leopold of
outside Damascus in 1148. The Second Austria. Ransomed in 1194, King Richard
Crusade was, in fact, a fiasco which returned home and fought King Philip
destroyed a potential alliance between the Augustus of France in Normandy, being
Crusader States and Damascus against Mosul killed in 1199 while besieging Chaluz.
and Aleppo. A few years later, in 1154, Nur Richard was regarded as one of the finest
al-Din added Damascus to his expanding exponents of chivalry, handsome and
domain. physically brave but ostentatious. He
Since the first attempt by King Almaric I spent barely six months in England as
of Jerusalem to take control of Egypt, the king, regarding it merely as a place to
Muslim and Christian powers in Syria had raise money. King Richard I was also a
hoped to annexe this wealthy and densely leading patron of troubadours, as his
populated country. This resulted in a series mother Eleanor of Aquitaine had been.
of remarkable campaigns, involving Crusader
37. The fighting 37
French sword, 1 1 5 0 - 7 5 . This is a very typical knightly
weapon of the later 12th c e n t u r y . The pommel is a
flattened nut shape while the quillons broaden towards
their ends. Such a sword-hilt is shown in a great deal of
art from this period, but usually appears in a chunkier,
less delicate manner than the real w e a p o n . The blade has
a single broad fuller or groove down most of its length
and also has a now unintelligible inlaid inscription. (Royer
Collection, Paris. France)
Muslims. He also retook the southern tip of
Palestine; a victory which was presented as
the 'freeing' of the Islamic pilgrim route
from Egypt to the Holy Cities of Mecca and
Medina, which was good for Saladin's
credentials as a leader of the jihad. It also
meant that communication between Increasingly it focused on breaking Islamic
Saladin's two powerbases in Egypt and Syria, power in Egypt, which was the main threat
though difficult, was free from anything to what remained of the Crusader States.
more serious than occasional Crusader raids. Egypt was also accessible now that Western
In 1187 Saladin launched a major European domination of the Mediterranean
campaign against the Kingdom of Jerusalem. was overwhelming; Cyprus, taken from the
This, like the First Crusade, achieved greater Byzantines during the Third Crusade,
success than Saladin probably expected. The provided an excellent naval base.
Christian army was virtually annihilated at During the 13th century the fate of the
the battle of Hattin and Jerusalem was Crusader States became entangled in the
retaken along with almost all the Kingdom rivalries of Western powers, most notably
of Jerusalem and a considerable amount of those of the German Empire and southern
other Crusader territory. This caused an even Italy. In fact the rulers of Sicily sometimes
greater shock than had the fall of Edessa, seemed to view the affairs of Jerusalem as
and resulted in the Third Crusade. Emperor part of their own ambitions to dominate the
Frederick Barbarossa marched in 1189 but
was drowned in Anatolia, only a small part
of his army reaching Syria. Next year King Pope Innocent III
Philip of France and King Richard of England Lotario de'Conti de Segni was born in
set out by sea. Other European leaders were 1160 of a noble family. Vigorous, quick-
also involved in this huge enterprise but the witted and highly educated in theology
results, though significant, were far less than and law at Paris and Bologna
might have been expected from a pan- universities, Lotario had very elevated
European effort to reconquer the Holy Land. views of the Papacy. Unfortunately he
Even the famous battle of Arsuf was little tended to be hasty, arrogant, legalistic
more than a failed ambush from Saladin's and what today might be termed a
point of view. Nevertheless, Saladin's army 'control freak'. Elected Pope in 1198 at
was exhausted by the time the Third Crusade the young age of 37 with the name of
ended. A rump Kingdom of Jerusalem was Innocent III, his tenure saw continued
recreated, but without Jerusalem, and the efforts to promote papal supremacy over
great coastal port of Acre remained the temporal rulers, the suppression of
effective capital of the Crusader east until its heresies and support for Crusades. He is
fall in 1291. often regarded as the chief architect of
The emphasis of the Crusading movement the powerful Papacy of the 13th century.
in the Middle East now changed.
38. 38 Essential Histories • The Crusades
The fortified port of Aigues Mortes was specially built as entire Eastern Mediterranean. At the same
a powerful base in southern France from which to launch time antipathy between Catholic Western
Crusading expeditions. Whether it was started by King
Europe and Orthodox Eastern Europe was
Louis IX or dates entirely from the reign of King Philip the
Fair is unclear but most of the walls and towers clearly increasing. Such tensions, added to the
date from Philip's reign, 1285 to 1314. Today the seashore declining authority of the Byzantine
is some way away from the town, which is partly Emperors and the Venetian desire to control
surrounded by reed marshes. (David Nicolle photograph)
the region's trade, culminated in the
The Fourth Crusade attacks the port of transport ship in tow so that they could
Constantinople, as described in reach the other side [of the Golden
Villehardouin's Chronicle: Horn] more quickly ... The knights came
"The appointed time was now come out of the transports and leapt fully
and the knights went on board the armed into the sea up to their waists,
transport ships with their war-horses. helmets on their heads and spears in
They were fully armed, with their their hands. The good archers and the
helmets laced on, while the horses were good crossbowmen, each in their units,
covered with their armours and were scrambled ashore as soon as their ships
saddled. All the other people who were touched the ground. At first the Greeks
of less importance in battle were in the made a good resistance but when it came
larger ships. The galleys were also fully to the meeting of spears they turned
armed and made ready. The weather was their backs and fled, abandoned the
fair and a little after dawn the Emperor shoreline ... Then the sailors began to
Alexius (III) was waiting for them on the open the doors of the transports, let
other side with a great army and with down the ramps and took out the horses.
everything in order. Now the trumpets The knights mounted and were
sounded and every galley took a marshalled in their correct divisions."
39. The fighting 39
diversion of the Fourth Crusade against Crusade of 1218-21 was a government-led
Constantinople. This led to the creation of a rather than popular movement. It started
short-lived 'Latin Empire' of Constantinople with relatively small-scale operations against
and of several Latin-Crusader States in neighbouring Islamic territory in Syria but
Greece, plus the emergence of Byzantine then a bolder plan was devised. The
successor states in Epirus, Nicea and Crusaders would attack Egypt itself but this
Trebizond. From then on effective military time, with control of the Eastern
co-operation between Latin and Orthodox, Mediterranean, they could invade from the
Western and Eastern Christian states became sea. Although the resulting campaign
difficult if not impossible. It was a turning demonstrated the sophistication of Western
point in the history of the Crusades. European combined operations, it failed with
The need to support new Latin-Crusader the Crusader army surrendering to the forces
states in the Balkans also diverted resources of Saladin's nephew, al-Kamil, in 1221. The
away from the Middle Eastern Crusader Sixth Crusade, led by the cultured but
States at a time when European enthusiasm excommunicated Western Emperor Frederick
for Crusading was in steep decline. Like II, was a diplomatic exercise rather than a
virtually all the later Crusades, the Fifth military expedition and resulted in the
peaceful transfer of Jerusalem to Crusader
Clairmont Castle, now called Khlemoutsi Castle, built sovereignty in 1229. From then on the
in 1220-23, was one of the most important military, political and diplomatic situation of
fortresses in Crusader Greece, it defended the lands the Crusader States deteriorated both in
of the Villehardouin family, whose capital was at
nearby Andravida, and consisted of an outer wall, the
Syria-Palestine and Greece. Small groups of
large eliptical inner ward, and a series of rooms and Crusaders would arrive from the West,
galleries including a chapel built against the outer wall. invariably conduct ineffective raids that
In most cases only their fireplaces r e m a i n . The keep, merely annoyed neighbouring Islamic rulers,
seen here on the right, was basically hexagonal with and then sail back to Europe. One of these
huge vaulted galleries around a central court. (Ian
Meigh photograph)
led by Thibaut of Champagne, the King of
40. 40 Essential Histories • The Crusades
Egyptian use of naft against the Crusaders elbows and knees, and pray to our
outside the captured city of Dumyat, Saviour to save us.' As soon as they threw
according to De Joinville's Chronicle: their first shot, we threw ourselves on
"One night when we were guarding our elbows and knees as he had shown
the chas-chastiaus the Saracens brought us. That first shot fell between the two
up an engine called a pierrière which they chas-chastiaus. It fell right in front of us,
had not used before. They put Greek Fire where the army had been damming the
into the sling of this engine. When my river ... The Greek Fire was hurled
Lord Gautiers d'Escuiré, a good knight towards us like a large barrel of vinegar,
who was with me, said; 'Lords, we are in and the tail of fire which came from it
the greatest peril so far, for if they set fire was as long as a large lance.
to our towers and we are inside them, we The noise it made as it came was like
are doomed and burned up. But if we heaven's thunder, and it seemed as if a
leave these defences which we have been dragon was flying through the air. It
ordered to defend, we are dishonoured ... also shed so much light... that one
So my advice is this. Every time they could see the camp as clearly as if it had
throw the fire at us, we drop on our been daytime."
Navarre, was graced with the title of the Aerial view of Irbil taken in the early 1930s. Irbil was a
Seventh Crusade. It tried to take advantage major centre of military power and of culture in
northern Iraq during the 12th and 13th centuries,
of rivalry between Saladin's Ayyubid particularly when Saladin's Turkish general Gökböri was
descendants who ruled in Cairo, Damascus the city's governor When this photograph was taken, it
and elsewhere. This resulted in an had still not expanded far beyond the original circular
unsuccessful alliance with Damascus, a walled hilltop medieval city. Even today, after being
ravaged by Mongols and damaged in 20th-century wars,
serious defeat near Gaza, a coup d'etat in
Irbil still has the beautifully decorated brick minaret of
Cairo which placed a more effective Ayyubid the Great Mosque built by Gökböri. (Flight Lieutenant
Prince on the Egyptian throne, and Thibaut Sharpe photograph. St Andrews University Library
sailing home in disgust. Jerusalem was lost Photographic Collection, St Andrews, Scotland)
41. The fighting 41
The famous but very damaged
wall-painting at Cressac is unusual in
illustrating specifically Crusader knights.
French 12th c e n t u r y . The scene is
believed to illustrate their defeat of
Nur al-Din in the Buqaia valley in
1163. A 19th-century reproduction of
this section of the wall-painting, made
before it suffered further damage,
shows that the little figure apparently
seated behind one of the knight's
shields, was playing a stringed
instrument. Perhaps he represented
the musicians who also accompanied
some Crusader armies into battle.
(in situ Protestant church, Cressac,
France. David Nicolle photograph)
again in 1244, taken by an army of
Khwarazmian military refugees called in by Danishmandamah, originally written
the Sultan of Egypt. Then, in alliance with c.1245 for Sultan Kay Kawus II of Seljuk
the Egyptian army, they inflicted a crushing Rum, describing how Malik Danishmend
defeat on the Christians and their allies from fought a Christian knight named Tatis:
Damascus at La Forbie, north of Gaza. It was "The evil Tatis attacked Malik
the last time an army from the Crusader Danishmend with his lance; Malik
States challenged a comparable Islamic army parried with his shield. They fought on
in open battle. with blows of their lances, and because
In 1249 the Eighth Crusade led by King of the violence and the strength of these
Louis IX of France was a more ambitious, blows they burst the links which held
better organised and better led expedition their coat of mail and so, ring by ring,
and once more was aimed at Egypt. The these tumbled to the ground ... The
Crusaders landed at Dumyat on the eastern neighing of horses, the rattle of armour
branch of the Nile, and marched upriver and harness, the clatter of swords, the
towards Cairo, as they had done previously. crash of maces, the whistling of arrows,
They again reached Mansura, named in the twang of bows and the cries of
commemoration of the defeat of the Fifth warriors filled the air."
Crusade, and were again crushed in 1250.
42. 42 Essential Histories • The Crusades
During the course of this Eighth Crusade a wholly dominated by soldiers of mamluk
military coup in Egypt overthrew the origin, mostly Turks from Central Asia or
Ayyubid Sultan and, after a complex southern Russia. More immediately, this new
transition period, replaced Saladin's Mamluk Sultanate faced a daunting array of
descendants with a remarkable new form of challenges even after the defeat of the Eighth
government - the Mamluk Sultanate. Here Crusade.
the ruler was himself a soldier of slave- The Mongol Hordes under Genghis Khan
recruited origin. The state now existed to and his descendants had already invaded the
maintain the army while the army was eastern Islamic world, raising visions in
Europe of a potent new ally, which would
join Christians in destroying Islam. Even
King Louis IX of France after the Mongol invasion of Orthodox
Born in 1214, Louis came to the throne Christian Russia, followed by their terrifying
at the age of 12. Though generally rampage across Catholic Hungary and parts
conservative, his reign was a positive of Poland, many in the West still regarded
period in French history and also saw the Mongols as potential allies. The Muslims,
improved relations with England. Louis of course, recognised the Mongols as mortal
was a man of strong character, neither foes. In 1258 Genghis Khan's grandson
extravagant nor subservient to the Hulegu conquered the sadly diminished city
Church. Nevertheless, he tried hard to of Baghdad, killing its last 'Abbasid Caliph.
establish peace among Christian rulers.
Soldierly and brave, King Louis became Effigy of Othon de Grandson, Savoyard-Swiss early 14th
obsessed by the idea of Crusade in his century. Othon was one of those who survived the fall
of the Crusader city of Acre to the Mamluks in 1291. He
later years, and he died in 1270 while then continued his very successful career in the service
leading an expedition against Tunis. of the English crown. His effigy dates from the early 14th
He was not only a pious man but was century and the military equipment it illustrates, though
concerned that justice was available for old-fashioned, is shown in very interesting detail. Even the
bulge caused by the knight's ears beneath the mail of his
all. The French king was canonised as coif, and almost certainly a partially padded cloth coif
St Louis in 1297. beneath, has been accurately shown, (in situ Cathedral,
Lausanne, Switzerland. David Nicolle photograph)
