1. The Architecture of Ancient Rome adopted the external Greek architecture for their own purposes, creating a new architectural style. The two styles are often
considered one body of classical architecture. This approach is considered reproductive,[citation needed] and sometimes it hinders scholars' understanding and
ability to judge Roman buildings by Greek standards, particularly when relying solely on external appearances. The Romans absorbed Greek influence, apparent in
many aspects closely related to architecture; for example, this can be seen in the introduction and use of the Triclinium in Roman villas as a place and manner of
dining. The Romans, similarly, were indebted to their Etruscan neighbors and forefathers who supplied them with a wealth of knowledge essential for future
architectural solutions,[citation needed] such as hydraulics and in the construction of arches.
Social elements such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new (architectural) solutions of their own. The use of
vaults and arches together with a sound knowledge of building materials, for example, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of
imposing structures for public use. Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the basilicas and perhaps most
famously of all, the Colosseum. They were reproduced at smaller scale in most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structures are almost
complete, such as the town walls of Lugo in Hispania Tarraconensis, or northern Spain.
Political propaganda demanded that these buildings should be made to impress as well as perform a public function.[citation needed] The Romans didn't feel
restricted by Greek aesthetic axioms alone in order to achieve these objectives.[citation needed] The Pantheon is a supreme example of this, particularly in the
version rebuilt by Hadrian and which still stands in its celestial glory as a prototype of several other great buildings of Eastern architecture. The same emperor left his
mark on the landscape of northern Britain when he built a wall to mark the limits of the empire, and after further conquests in Scotland, the Antonine wall was built
to replace Hadrian's Wall.
The Roman use of the arch and their improvements in the use of concrete and bricks facilitated the building of the many aqueducts throughout the empire, such as
the magnificent Aqueduct of Segovia and the eleven aqueducts in Rome itself, such as Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus. The same idea produced numerous bridges, such
as the still used bridge at Merida.
The dome permitted construction of vaulted ceilings and provided large covered public space such as the public baths and basilicas. The Romans based much of their
architecture on the dome, such as Hadrian's Pantheon in the city of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla.
Art historians such as Gottfried Richter in the 20's identified the Roman architectural innovation as being the Triumphal Arch and it is poignant to see how this symbol
of power on earth was transformed and utilised within the Christian basilicas when the Roman Empire of the West was on its last legs: The arch was set before the
altar to symbolize the triumph of Christ and the after life. It is in their impressive aqueducts that we see the arch triumphant, especially in the many surviving
examples, such as the Pont du Gard, the aqueduct at Segovia and the remains of the Aqueducts of Rome itself. Their survival is testimony to the durability of their
materials and design.
Although less visible level to the modern observer, ancient Roman developments in housing and public hygiene are impressive, especially given their day and age.
Clear examples are public and private baths and latrines, and under-floor heating in the form of the hypocaust, double glazing (examples in Ostia Antica), and piped
water(examples in Pompeii).
Possibly most impressive from an urban planning point of view are the multi-story apartment blocks called insulae that catered to a wide range of residential
situations. These buildings, solely intended for large scale accommodation, could reach several floors in height. Insulates were often dangerous, unhealthy, and prone
to fires. There are examples in cities like the Roman port town of Ostia, that date back to the reign of Trajan and show how Roman architects met residential needs in
a variety of situations.
As an example, consider the housing on Via della Focette: a large-scale real estate development that catered to up-and-coming middle class entrepreneurs. Rather
like modern semi-detached housing, these residences had repeated floor plans intended for easy, economical, and repetitive construction. Internal spaces were
designed to be relatively low-cost, yet functional and with decorative elements reminiscent of the detached houses and villas to which the buyers might aspire later
in their lives. Each apartment had its own terrace and private entrance. External walls were in "Opus Reticulatum" and interiors in "Opus Incertum", which would
then be plastered and sometimes painted. Some existing examples show that a relatively popular choice of interior decor was to paint panels in alternating red and
rainbow.
Roman architecture was sometimes determined based upon the requirements of Roman religion. For example, the Pantheon was an amazing engineering feat
created for religious purposes, and its design (the large dome and open spaces) was made to fit the requirements of the religious services. Some of the most
impressive public buildings are the amphitheatres, over 220 being known and many of which are well preserved, such as that at Arles, as well as the progenitor, the
Colosseum in Rome. They were used for gladiatorial contests, public displays, public meetings and bullfights, the last of which survives in Spain. They are among the
most impressive remains of the Roman empire at its height, and many of them are still used for public displays and performances.
Many lighthouses were built around the Mediterranean and around the shores of their expanding empire, including the Tower of Hercules at A Coruña in northern
Spain, a structure which still survives to this day. A smaller lighthouse at Dover, England also still exists as a ruin about half the height of the original. The light would
have been provided by a fire at the top of the structure.
Tile covered concrete quickly supplanted marble as the primary building material and more daring buildings soon followed, with great pillars supporting broad arches
and domes rather than dense lines of columns suspending flat architraves. The freedom of concrete also inspired the colonnade screen, a row of purely decorative
columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concrete's strength freed the floor plan from rectangular cells to a more free-flowing
environment. Most of these developments are ably described by Vitruvius writing in the first century AD in his work De Architectura.

2. Although concrete had been used on a minor scale in Mesopotamia, Roman architects perfected it and used it in buildings where it could stand on its own and
support a great deal of weight. The first use of concrete by the Romans was in the town of Cosa sometime after 273 BC. Ancient Roman concrete was a mixture of
lime mortar, pozzolana, water, and stones, and stronger than previously-used concrete. The ancient builders placed these ingredients in wooden frames where it
hardened and bonded to a facing of stones or (more frequently) bricks. When the framework was removed, the new wall was very strong with a rough surface of
bricks or stones. This surface could be smoothed and faced with an attractive stucco or thin panels of marble or other coloured stones called revetment. Concrete
construction proved to be more flexible and less costly than building solid stone buildings. The materials were readily available and not difficult to transport. The
wooden frames could be used more than once, allowing builders to work quickly and efficiently.
On return from campaigns in Greece, the general Sulla returned with what is probably the most well-known element of the early imperial period: the mosaic, a
decoration of colourful chips of stone inset into cement. This tiling method took the empire by storm in the late first century and the second century and in the
Roman home joined the well known mural in decorating floors, walls, and grottoes in geometric and pictorial designs.
Though most would consider concrete the Roman contribution most relevant to the modern world, the Empire's style of architecture, though no longer used with any
great frequency, can still be seen throughout Europe and North America in the arches and domes of many governmental and religious buildings.
AMPITHEATHER- The earliest permanent Roman amphitheatre known was built at Pompeii after a colonia of Roman veteran soldiers was established there in 80 B.C.
Before this, gladiatorial contests would take place in the forum of Rome and other cities. There are many famous examples from the Roman Classical period. Being
particularly associated with ancient Rome, amphitheatres were used for various types of public spectacles. In the Roman Empire, amphitheatres were nearly round,
or oval in shape (the name suggests that they were thought of as resembling two theatres joined together,[citation needed] hence the name "amphi"-theatre),
[citation needed] forming a complete near-circle or ellipse, and were used for spectator sports, games and displays.
This is in contrast to a Greek or Roman classical theatre, which was semicircular and used for theatrical performances (but also for gladiators in areas where
amphitheatres were not available).[citation needed] An amphitheatre also differed from a Roman circus or Greek hippodrome, both of which were used for chariot
racing and horse racing and were shaped more like a very long, narrow horse shoe. The best-known amphitheatre in the world is the Colosseum in Rome, which is
more correctly termed the Flavian amphitheatre (Amphitheatrum Flavii), after the Flavian dynasty who had it built. An amphitheatre in a community became a prized
symbol of Roman citizenship in the outlying areas of Italy and could fit up to 2,000 people. The remains of some 230 amphitheatres have been located in widely
scattered areas of the Roman Empire. (See:List of Roman amphitheatres)
TEMPLE- In the ancient religion of Roman paganism, practitioners often performed their worship at a temple. Sacrifices would take place at an altar outside the
temple, as this meant any mess was easier to clean up, and the ceremony could be attended by many. Roman temples were not large and were basically houses for
cult statues which were kept in the main room, called the cella. The cella may also have a small altar for burning incense. Behind the cella was a room or rooms used
by the attendants for storage of equipment and offerings.
AQUEDUCT- The ancient Romans typically constructed numerous aqueducts to serve any large city in their empire, as well as many small towns and industrial sites.
The city of Rome itself, being the largest city, had the largest concentration of aqueducts, with water being supplied by eleven aqueducts constructed over a period of
500 years. Scholars can even predict the size of the city by its water supply. They served potable water and supplied the numerous baths and fountains in the city, as
well as finally being emptied into the sewers, where they performed their last function in removing waste matter. The methods of construction are well described by
Vitruvius in his work De Architectura written in the first century BC. His book would have been of great assistance to Frontinus, a general who was appointed in the
late first century AD to administer the many aqueducts of Rome. He discovered a discrepancy between the intake and supply of water caused by illegal pipes inserted
into the channels to divert the water, and reported on his efforts to improve and regulate the system to the emperor Trajan at the end of the first century AD. The
report of his investigation is known as De aquaeductu. In addition to masonry aqueducts, the Romans built many more leats — channels excavated in the ground,
usually with a clay lining. They could serve industrial sites such as gold mines, lead and tin mines, forges, water-mills and baths or thermae. Leats were very much
cheaper than the masonry design, but all aqueducts required good surveying to ensure a regular and smooth flow of water.
BASILICA-The Latin word basilica (derived from Greek, Basiliké Stoà, Royal Stoa, the tribunal chamber of a king), was originally used to describe a Roman public
building (as in Greece, mainly a tribunal), usually located in the forum of a Roman town. In Hellenistic cities, public basilicas appeared in the 2nd century BC.
Basilicas were also used for religious purposes. The remains of a large subterranean Neopythagorean basilica, dating from the first century, were found near the Porta
Maggiore in 1915; the stuccoes on the interior vaulting have survived, though their exact interpretation remains a matter for debate. The groundplan of Christian
basilicas in the 4th century was similar to that of this Neopythagorean basilica, which had three naves, and an apse.
After the Roman Empire became officially Christian, the term came by extension to specifically refer to a large and important church that has been given special
ceremonial rites by the Pope. Thus the word retains two senses today, one architectural and the other ecclesiastical.
COLOSSEUM- The Colosseum or Roman Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an
elliptical amphitheatre in the center of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and
Roman engineering.
Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under
Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's
family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).
Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles. As well as the gladiatorial games, other public
spectacles were held there, such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The

3. building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a
fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
It has been estimated[who?] that about 500,000 people and over a million wild animals died in the Colosseum games.[6][7]
Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of
Imperial Rome and its breakthrough achievements in earthquake engineering. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with
the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[8]
The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.
CATACOMBS - The Catacombs of Rome (Italian: Catacombe di Roma) are ancient catacombs, or underground burial places under or near Rome, Italy, of which there
are at least forty, some discovered only in recent decades. Though most famous for Christian burials, they include pagan and Jewish burials, either in separate
catacombs or mixed together. They began in the 2nd century,[citation needed] as much as a response to overcrowding and shortage of land as they were to satisfy
the need for persecuted Christians to bury their dead secretly. The soft volcanic tufo rock under Rome is highly suitable for tunnelling, as it is softer when first
exposed to air, hardening afterwards. Many have kilometres of tunnels, in up to four stories (or layers).
The Christian catacombs are extremely important for the art history of early Christian art, as they contain the great majority of examples from before about 400 AD,
in fresco and sculpture. The Jewish catacombs are similarly important for the study of Jewish art at this period.
The Pantheon (pronounced /pænˈθiː.ən/ or /ˈpænθi.ən/,[1] Latin: Pantheon,[nb 1] from Greek: Πάνθεον, meaning "Every god") is a building in Rome, built by Marcus
Agrippa as a temple to all the gods of Ancient Rome, and rebuilt by Emperor Hadrian in about 126 AD.[2] A near-contemporary writer, Cassius Dio, speculates that the
name comes from the statues of many gods placed around the building, or from the resemblance of the dome to the heavens.[3] Since the French Revolution, when
the church of Sainte-Geneviève, Paris, was deconsecrated and turned into a secular monument, the Panthéon, the generic term pantheon may be applied to any
building in which illustrious dead are honoured or buried.[1]
The building is circular with a portico of three ranks of huge granite Corinthian columns (eight in the first rank and two groups of four behind) under a pediment
opening into the rotunda, under a coffered, concrete dome, with a central opening (oculus) to the sky. Almost two thousand years after it was built, the Pantheon's
dome is still the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome.[4] The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same, 43.3 metres (142 ft).[5]
A rectangular structure links the portico with the rotunda. It is one of the best preserved of all Roman buildings. It has been in continuous use throughout its history,
and since the 7th century, the Pantheon has been used as a Roman Catholic church dedicated to "St. Mary and the Martyrs" but informally known as "Santa Maria
Rotonda."[6]