State of matters

1. Matter, Properties of Matter

2. State of matter
• What is matter?
• Matter is anything that: a) has mass, and
b) takes up space
• Mass = a measure of the amount
• Volume = a measure of the space occupied by the
object

3. • State of matter is that it indicates how much heat is
contained within the molecules of the substance.
• The more heat that is added, the more the molecules
move and the harder it is for them to stay close
together.
• The state of matter is dependent therefore upon
both the temperature and pressure of a given
substance.

4. • There are essentially 5 states of matter:
–gas
–liquid
–solid
–plasma
–Superfluid (state of matter in which the
matter behaves like a fluid without viscosity
and with infinite thermal conductivity.)

5. STATES OF MATTER
SOLIDS
•Particles of solids are tightly
packed, vibrating about a fixed
position.
•Solids have a definite shape
and a definite volume.
Heat

6. STATES OF MATTER
LIQUID
 Particles of liquids are
tightly packed, but are far
enough apart to slide over
one another.
 Liquids have an indefinite
shape and a definite
volume. Heat

7. STATES OF MATTER
GAS
 Particles of gases are
very far apart and
move freely.
 Gases have an
indefinite shape and
an indefinite volume.
Heat

8. STATES OF MATTER

9. Boyle’s Law
• This law is named for Charles Boyle, who studied the
relationship between pressure, p, and volume, V.
• Boyle determined that for the same amount of a gas
at constant temperature,
p * V = constant
• This defines an inverse relationship:
when one goes up, the other
comes down.
pressure
volume

10. • Boyle’s Law – state that for a fixed amount of gas
at a constant temperature, the volume of the gas
increases as its pressure decreases
p1 = initial pressure
V1 = initial volume
p2 = final pressure
V2 = final volume
If you know three of the four, you can calculate the
fourth.
1 1 2 2
PV = PV

11. Application of Boyle’s Law
p1 * V1 = p2 * V2
p1 = 1 KPa
V1 = 4 liters
p2 = 2 KPa
V2 = ?
Solving for V2, the final volume equals 2 liters.
So, to increase the pressure of 4 liters of gas from 1
KPa to 2 KPa, the volume must be reduced to 2
liters.

12. Charles’ Law
• This law is named for Jacques Charles, who studied
the relationship between volume, V, and
temperature, T.
• He determined that for the same amount of a gas at
constant pressure,
V / T = constant
• This defines a direct relationship:
an increase in one results in an
increase in the other.
volume
temperature

13. • Charles Law - states that for a fixed amount of gas at
a constant pressure, the volume of the gas increases
as the temperature of the gas increases
V1 = initial volume
T1 = initial temperature
V2 = final volume
T2 = final temperature
If you know three of the four, you can calculate the
fourth.
2 2
1 1
V T
=
V T

14. Application of Charles’ Law
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
V1 = 2.5 liters
T1 = 250 K
V2 = 4.5 liters
T2 = ?
Solving for T2, the final temperature equals 450 K.
So, increasing the volume of a gas at constant pressure
from 2.5 to 4.5 liters results in a temperature increase
of 200 K.

15. Ideal Gas Law
Combining Boyle’s and Charles’ laws allows for
developing a single equation:
P*V = n*R*T
P = pressure
V = volume
n = number of moles
R = universal gas constant
T = temperature

16. States of Matter
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Definite
Volume?
YES
YES
NO
Definite
Shape?
YES
NO
NO
Result of a
Temperature
Increase?
Small
Expans.
Small
Expans.
Large
Expans.
Will it Compress?
NO
NO
YES

17. STATES OF MATTER
PLASMA
 A plasma is an ionized gas.
 A plasma is a very good
conductor of electricity
and is affected by
magnetic fields.
 Plasmas, like gases have
an indefinite shape and an
indefinite volume.

18. STATES OF MATTER
SOLID LIQUID GAS PLASMA
Tightly packed, in a
regular pattern
Vibrate, but do not
move from place to
place
Close together with
no regular
arrangement.
Vibrate, move
about, and slide
past each other
Well separated with
no regular
arrangement.
Vibrate and move
freely at high
speeds
Has no definite
volume or shape
and is composed of
electrical charged
particles

19. Phase Changes
solid liquid gas
melting
freezing
vaporizing
condensing
sublimination
Energy absorbed
Energy released

20. At 100°C, water
becomes water
vapor, a gas.
Molecules can
move randomly
over large
distances.
Below 0°C, water
solidifies to become
ice. In the solid state,
water molecules are
held together in a
rigid structure.
Between 0°C and 100
°C, water is a liquid.
In the liquid state,
water molecules are
close together, but
can move about
freely.

21. Phase diagram
Critical
Point
Temperature (oC)
Pressure
(kPa)

22. • A phase diagrams show what phases exist at equilibrium
and what phase transformations we can expect when we
change one of the parameters of the system (T, P,
composition).
• Phase diagram- gives the temperature and pressure at
which a substances exists as solid, liquid, or gas (vapor)
• The point at which all three curves meet is called
the triple point.
• At this precise temperature and pressure, the substance
will be in a state of equilibrium between the three states,
and minor variations would cause it to shift between
them.
• Finally, the point at which the Vaporization curve "ends"
is called the critical point. The pressure at this point is
called the "critical pressure" and the temperature at this
point is the "critical temperature."

23. Latent Heat
• What is Heat?
• Heat is energy in transit.
• The SI unit is the joule (J),
which is equal to Newton-metre (Nm).
• The calorie (cal): amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 0C (from 14.50C
to 15.50C)
• In industry, the British thermal unit (Btu) is still used:
amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1
lb of water by 1 F0 (from 630F to 640F)
1 J = 0.2388 cal = 0.239x10-3 kcal = 60.189 Btu

24. Latent Heat
What is ‘latent heat‘?
Latent heat is associated
with phase change of
matter
When a substance
changes phase, that is it
goes from either a solid
to a liquid or liquid to
gas, the energy requires.
The energy required to change the phase of a
substance is known as a latent heat.

25. Latent Heat of Fusion and Vaporisation
• When the phase change is from solid to liquid we
must use the latent heat of fusion, and
• When the phase change is from liquid to a gas, we
must use the latent heat of vaporisation.
Specific Heat Capacity:-
• Energy needed to heat something
Latent Heat:-
• Energy needed to change phase
The specific latent heat:-
• Energy required to change the state of 1 kg of the
substance

26. • The specific latent heat (l) of fusion or vaporisation is
the quantity of thermal energy required to change
the phase of 1kg of a substance.
• Fusion (solid  liquid) & Vaporisation (liquid  gas)
ml
Q 

where:-
∆Q is the energy change in J
m is the mass of substance changing phase in kg
lv is the latent heat of vaporisation in J kg-1
lf is the latent heat of fusion in J kg-1
For water, the latent heat of fusion (heat needed to
melt ice to water) is 79.7 cal/gm.
For water, the latent heat of vaporization (heat
needed to boil water) is 540 cal/gm.

27. Worked Example 1
• The specific latent heat of fusion (melting) of
ice is 330,000 J kg-1. What is the energy
needed to melt 0.65 kg of ice?
• ∆Q = ml = 0.65 kg × 330,000 J kg-1 = 214,500 J
ml
Q 


28. Worked Example 2
• The power of the immersion heater in the diagram is 60 W. In
5 minutes, the top pan balance reading falls from 282g to
274g. What is the specific latent heat of vaporisation of
water?
• P = 60 W
• ∆ t = 5 minutes = (5 × 60)s = 300 s
• m = m2 -m1 = 282g – 274g = 8g = 0.008 kg
• lv = ?
• ∆Q = P∆ t = 60 W × 300s= 18,000 J
• lv = ∆Q/m = 18,000 J / 0.008 kg = 2.3 × 106 J kg-1
t
Energy
P


ml
Q 


29. Eutectic Mixture
• Certain substances such as menthol, thymol,
camphor, phenol, salol, etc. when mixed in a
particular proportion tend to liquify due to reduction
in their respective melting points.
• Mixtures of such substances are known as eutectic
mixtures.
Eutectic means easy
melting
Phase diagram showing a Eutectic System

30. Applications
• Used to improve the dissolution behavior of certain
drugs. E.g..
- aspirin-acetaminophen ( 37% and 63% resp.)
- urea-acetaminophen (46% and 54% resp.)
- griseofulvin-succinic acid (55% and 45% resp.)
• Eutectics are also useful in transdermal drug delivery
by liquifying the active ingredient to increase solubility
and ease in absorption.
Eg. - Menthol and testosterone
- Lidocane and prilocane

31. • Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere
• To understand water vapor in the atmosphere, you need
to understand saturation.
Saturation = filled to capacity
HUMIDITY

32. • There are several measures of humidity in the atmosphere:
• Absolute Humidity: The absolute amount of water
in the air
• Specific Humidity: The amount of water in a unit
mass of air.
Specific Humidity is useful because the humidity is constant
even as the Volume of the Air in question changes (due to
Pressure).
Absolute Humidity =
Weight of Water Vapor in Air
Weight of Unit Volume of Air
Specific Humidity =
Mass of Water Vapor in Air
Mass of Air

33. •Relative Humidity: The ratio of the air’s actual water
content to its potential water vapor content at a given
temperature.
 Basically, relative humidity tells you how saturated the
air is with water.
Relative Humidity = Weight of Potential Water Vapor in Air
at Saturation
Weight of Water Vapor in Air
• A hygrometer is an instrument used for measuring the
moisture content in the atmosphere. The simplest
hygrometer is Psychrometer.

34. • Dewpoint Temperature: The temperature the air
would have to be cooled to saturate the air (causes
water to condense)

35. If the air is gradually cooled while maintaining the moisture
content constant, the relative humidity will rise until it reaches
100%. This temperature, at which the moisture content in the
air will saturate the air, is called the dew point . If the air is
cooled further, some of the moisture will condense.

36. Aerosols
• A suspension of small solid particles or droplets
suspended in a gas or vapor.
• Aerosol or pressurized package is a system that
depends on the power of a compressed or liquefied
gas to expel the contents from the container.
• Liquefaction of a gas can be achieved by applying
pressure on it and keeping the temperature below the
critical temperature.
• When the pressure is reduced, the molecules expand
and the liquid reverts back to the gaseous state.
• Aerosols are based on this principle reversible change
of state on the application and release of pressure.

37. Types of drug delivery systems
• Nebulizers
– used to administer medication to people in the form of a
mist inhaled into the lungs.
• Meter dose Inhaler (MDI)
– are pressurized, hand-held devices that use propellants to
deliver doses of medication to the lungs of a patient
– Propellant driven
– Aqueous pump sprays
• Dry powder inhaler (DPI)
– delivers medication to the lungs in the form of a dry
powder.

38. Meter dose Inhaler (MDI)
Nebulizers Dry powder inhaler (DPI)

39. Components of Aerosol Package
 An aerosol product consists of the following component
parts:
1. Propellant
2. Container
3. Valve and actuator (Button)
4. Product concentrate
39

40. •Propellant
• It is responsible for developing the proper pressure within the
container
• It expels the product when the valve is opened and aids in the
atomization or foam production of the product
• Types of Propellant
1. Fluorinated hydrocarbons e.g.
• Trichloromonfluoromethane (Prop 11)
• Dichlorodifluoromethane (Prop 12)
• Dichlorotetrafluoroethane (Prop 114)
2. Hydrocarbons e.g.
• Propane, Butane, and Isobutane
3. Compressed gases e.g.
• Nitrogen, Carbon dioxide, and Nitrous oxide
4. Hydrofluoroalkanes
40

41. • Containers
 Containers must withstand
pressure as high as 140 to 180
psig
1. Tin plate containers
2. Aluminum containers
3. Stainless steel container
4. Glass containers
• Valves
 Deliver the content in the
desired form
 Has various components:
– Mount cap, Valve housing,
Stem, Gasket (rubber), Spring,
Deep tube
• Actuators
 Are specially designed buttons
 Ensure proper delivery of the aerosols by allowing the
opening and closing of the valve
 When actuators depressed valve open
 They produce different forms of final product

42. Equipments used
Those fill at pressurized and low temperature
1. Pressure filling (gauge-burette)
2. Cold filling (low temp.)
3. Compressed gas filling (after concentrate has
been filled)
42

43. • Complex fluids: are binary mixtures that have a
coexistence between two phases: solid–liquid
(suspensions or solutions of macromolecules such as
polymers), solid–gas (granular), liquid–gas (foams) and
liquid–liquid (emulsions). e.g., Shaving cream
• Liquid crystals (LCs): are a state of matter that have
properties between those of a conventional liquid and
those of a solid crystal. It Means, an LC may flow like a
liquid, but its molecules may be oriented in a crystal-like
way.
 There are many different types of LC phase, which can be
distinguished by their different optical properties (such
as birefringence)
• Glassy state: Glass is a non-crystalline or amorphous
solid material that exhibits a glass transition when
heated towards the liquid state.

44. Crystalline and Amorphous Solids
CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
 Generally exhibit a definite shape
and an orderly arrangement of
units.
1. They have characteristic
geometrical shape.
2. They have highly ordered three-
dimensional arrangements of
particles.
3. They are bounded by PLANES or
FACES
4. Planes of a crystal intersect at
particular angles.
5. They have sharp melting and
boiling points.
Examples: Copper Sulphate (CuSO4),
NiSO4, Diamond, Graphite, NaCl,
Sugar etc
AMORPHOUS SOLIDS
 Solids that don’t have a definite
geometrical shape are known as
Amorphous Solids.
1. In these solids particles are
randomly arranged in three
dimension.
2. They don’t have sharp melting
points.
3. Amorphous solids are formed due
to sudden cooling of liquid.
4. Amorphous solids melt over a
wide range of temperature
5. Generally they are more soluble
than crystalline solids.
Examples: Coal, Coke, Glass, Plastic,
rubber etc
• Solids can be divided into two categories.

45. 45
Seven Basic Unit Cells
• The various crystal forms are divide to basic 7 unit according to its
symmetry
NaCl urea
iodoform
iodine
sucrose Boric acid
Be3Al2(SiO3)6
beryl
Quartz

46. POLYMORPHISM
Definition:
• Polymorphism is the ability of a substance to
exist in more than one crystal structure
• It is the ability to any compound or element to
crystallize as one or more distinct crystal
species with different internal lattice.

49. Classification of Polymorphs
1. Enantiotropic
 Reversible change
 Affected by temp.
moisture and grinding
3. Dynamic Allotropy
 Reversible change
2. Monotropic
(Metastable)
 No reversible change
 Not affected by temp.
moisture and grinding

50. • Factor Influencing
Polymorphism
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Solvents
 Agitation
 Milling
 Rate of Crystallization
• Physicochemical
Parameters that Alter
Melting point
Density
Hardness
Crystal shape
Optical properties
Vapor pressure
• Parameters that Alter
 Changes in chemical stability and solubility
 Effects drug’s bioavailability and its
development program

51. Methods to Identify Polymorphism
 Microscopy
 Hot stage method Microscopy
 Dissolution
 X-ray powder diffraction
 IR
 NMR
 Thermal analysis[ DSC, DTA, TGA ]
 Dilatometry
 X-ray crystallography

52. Applications to Pharmacy
 High Dissolution rate.
 Time of conversion
 Suspensions
 Compaction
 Bioavailability
 Reproducible results
 Crystal transitions from milling, changes physical &
biological properties of DF.
 Stable form destroyed due to high temp. e.g. Suppositories.
 Metastable to stable– Crystalline out– appearance, texture
changes. E.g. Creams