ontologia(s)vGPFTI202203.pdf

Luís Miguel Oliveira Machado
lmmachado@yahoo.com
2021 | julho
Ontologia(s) em Organização do Conhecimento
Uma perspetiva de modulação ontológica
New Mexico, EUA

Luís Machado | 2
✓ Metaphysics deals with the problem of the totality; generally speaking, there is no way to exclude that the totality
could present aspects that we may forever be unable to rationalize, i.e. submit to a rational analysis.
✓ Ontology deals with what, at least in principle, can be categorized (objectified, i.e. subsumed under distinguishable
categories).
Poli, R. (2010)
Ontology: The Categorial Stance, p.1
ontologia
➢ enquanto área de estudo procede à análise do que existe e à sua organização relacional;
➢ enquanto teoria é o construto resultante da análise ontológica necessário para o desenvolvimento
de qualquer sistema ontológico;
➢ enquanto artefacto de representação (SOC) duas abordagens genéricas podem ser apontadas…

Luís Machado | 3
“Ontology as technology, focuses on those same [philosophical] questions but the intention is distinct: to
create engineering models of reality, artifacts which can be used by software.”
“Ontologies represent (or seek to represent) reality, and they do so in such a way that many different persons
can understand the terms they contain and so learn about the entities in reality that these terms represent.”
“Ontologies are a kind of KOS that present the highest degree of semantic richness, as they allow to establish
a great number of relations between terms, and provide attributes for each class.”
“An ontology is a formal, explicit specification of a shared conceptualization.”
Poli, R. & Obrst, L. (2010)
The Interplay Between Ontology as Categorial Analysis and Ontology as Technology, p.1
Biagetti, M. (2020)
Ontologies (as knowledge organization systems), sec. 3.1
Studer, R.; Benjamins, V.R. & Fensel, D. (1998)
Knowledge Engineering: Principles and Methods, p.184
ontologias computacionais
Arp, R.; Smith, B. & Spear, A. (2015)
Building ontologies with Basic Formal Ontology, p.2
a)
b)

Luís Machado | 4
ONTOLOGIA
➢ enquanto área de estudo procede à análise do que existe e à sua organização relacional;
➢ enquanto teoria é o construto resultante da análise ontológica necessário para o desenvolvimento
de qualquer sistema ontológico;
➢ enquanto artefacto de representação (SOC):
a) procura-se modelar entidades usando significados que as definam/representem;
b) ou segue-se uma modelação onde o foco aparenta ser os próprios significados.

Luís Machado | 5
modelo ontológico=def. um sistema ontológico que segue
rigorosos princípios ontológicos e formais na definição dos
tipos de entidade que incorporam, assim como as relações
entre estes, refletindo uma adequação representativa à
realidade exterior ao próprio modelo
sistema ontológico=def. um artefacto de representação cujo
processo classificatório segue uma análise ontológica
análise ontológica=def. uma categorização dos tipos de
entidades existentes em algum domínio que podem ser
objetivamente subsumidos sob categorias distinguíveis
SOC
sistemas
ontológicos
modelos
ontológicos
ontologias
computacionais

Luís Machado | 6
0 Science And Knowledge. Organization. Computer
Science. Information. Documentation. Librarianship.
Institutions. Publications
1 Philosophy. Psychology
2 Religion. Theology
3 Social Sciences
5 Mathematics. Natural Sciences
6 Applied Sciences. Medicine. Technology
7 The Arts. Recreation. Entertainment. Sport
8 Language. Linguistics. Literature
9 Geography. Biography. History
a Forms
b Spacetime
c Branes
d Energy (wave-particles)
e Atoms
f Molecules
g Continuum bodies
h Celestial bodies
i Rocks
j Land
k Genes
l Bacteria (prokaryotes)
m Organisms (eukaryote)
n Populations
o Instincts
p Consciousness
q Language
r Rituals
s Communities
t Polities
u Enterprises
v Technologies
w Artifacts
x Artworks
y Knowledge
Universal Decimal Classification (UDC)
Integrative Levels Classification (ILC)
“Ontology approach - an understanding of what things exist in the
world and how these are related.”
Szostak, R.; Gnoli, C. & López-Huertas, M. (2016)
Interdisciplinary Knowledge Organization, p.72
“Epistemology approach - an understanding of how scholars study
things.”

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“The approach taken in this book [as, e.g., that taken in the ILC] may be seen as a middle
ground between present classifications and formal ontologies: it calls for adherence to
logical rules in developing hierarchies of things and relationships, but does not demand
that concepts be defined precisely in terms of some logic. Indeed, we have repeatedly
noted that some degree of ambiguity may be unavoidable but is acceptable for the purposes
of classification.” Szostak, R.; Gnoli, C. & López-Huertas, M. (2016)
Interdisciplinary Knowledge Organization, p.87
“Definitions are perhaps the most important component of ontologies, since it is through
definitions that an ontology draws its ability to support consistent use across multiple
communities and disciplines, and to support computational reasoning.”
Arp, R.; Smith, B. & Spear, A. (2015)
Building ontologies with Basic Formal Ontology, p.36

Luís Machado |
“Definition: A Well is a permitted or actual drilled hole in the ground designed to exchange
(or facilitate the exchange of) fluids between a subsurface reservoir and the surface (or
another reservoir), or to enable the detection and measurement of rock properties.”
8
Professional Petroleum Data Management Association (2014)
What is a Well?, p.4
The well.
and the location.
The document
What exist?
What exist?
2017 2018 2019 2020
wells permitted 1.561 1.905 1.208 557
wells drilled 1.527 1.770 1.221 626
Oil and Gas Well Statistics for Kansas
2021 abr. 1

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2006 dez. 11
2006 out. 05
2006 out. 30
O caso do projeto europeu Airbus A380
(dez.2000 – out.2007)
2006 dez. 05

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Mario Heinen
2006 out. 19-20

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Modelo ontológico
✓ Apresenta definições precisas e ontologicamente consistentes.

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relations in RDF-based computational ontologies:
Kless, D., Lindenthal, J., Milton, S., & Kazmierczak, E. (2011)
Interoperability of knowledge organization systems with and through ontologies, sec.2.1
“The logic conclusion from the combined ontologies would be that any doctor, e.g. Dr. Douglas Ross, is also an (event)
organization committee member.”
is-a is-a
doctor
(event) organization
committee member
person
is-a
doctor
person
is-a
doctor
committee member
#B
#A
#A  #B
 is-a
Dr. Douglas Ross

Luís Machado | 13
instances
role
doctor
committee member
person
Dr. Douglas Ross Dr. Gregory House
independent
continuant
some top-level types
of Basic Formal Ontology
(BFO)
types
material entity
object
specifically dependent
continuant
continuant
realizable entity
is_a (subtype of)
(is_a)
instance_of
instance_of
(at time t)
domain level
occurrent
entity
generically dependent
continuant

Luís Machado | 14
hand
finger
finger-nail
human bean
animal face
nose eye
lips
mouth
man woman
human bean
vegetal
living bean
partonomy
taxonomy
part_of
is_a (subtype)

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animal
man woman
human bean
vegetal
living bean
taxonomy
is_a (subtype)
hand
finger
finger-nail
human bean
face
nose
eye
lips
mouth
partonomy
Parente de Oliveira, J. M., & Smith, B. (2017)
A Visual Representation of Part-Whole Relationships in BFO-Conformant Ontologies, sec.4

Luís Machado |
living bean
16
animal
man
woman
vegetal
is_a (subtype)
instance_of
instances
types
human bean

Luís Machado |
living bean
17
animal
hand
finger
finger-nail
human bean
face
nose
eye
lips
mouth
man
woman
vegetal
is_a (subtype)
Hugh Laurie part_of
instances
types
instance_of

Luís Machado | 18
Modelo ontológico
✓ Diferencia claramente as instancias dos tipos (ou classes), nomeadamente no que respeita às relações entre
ambos.
ambos.
✓ Classifica com base nos traços pertencentes às respetivas entidades, i.e., às suas características intrínsecas.

Luís Machado | 19
“Classification has often been defined as bringing like things together (and thus separating unlike things).”
“The problem is that things cannot be similar in an objective way. Any object is similar to another object
in some ways and dissimilar in other ways.”
Hjørland, B. (2019)
Classification, sec.4.2
Figure 1
Não haverá forma de contornar a relatividade dos critérios?
“Consider Figure 1, the items may be classified according to color or shape. None of those properties is
objectively more important than the other.”

Luís Machado | 20
1) pertencentes ao Imperador,
2) embalsamados,
3) amestrados,
4) leitões,
5) sereias,
6) fabulosos,
7) cães soltos,
8) incluídos nesta classificação,
9) que se agitam como loucos,
10) inumeráveis,
11) desenhados com um finíssimo pincel de pêlo de camelo,
12) etcétera,
13) que acabam de quebrar o vaso,
14) que de longe parecem moscas.
Segundo a enciclopédia Empório
Celestial de Conhecimentos
Benévolos os animais se dividem em:
Pombo, O. (2002)
Da classificação dos seres à classificação dos saberes, p.1
O que perturba neste fragmento do imaginário de Borges, o que nos coloca numa situação de desamparo, de inqualificável
mal-estar, é o facto de ele nos confrontar com classificações insólitas, completamente estranhas às categorias do nosso
pensamento.
Borges, J.L. (1952)
Outras inquisições

Luís Machado | 21
[poiquilotérmicos:
animais de temperatura
variável (vulgo animais
de "sangue frio")]
the entry animal splits into:
Jansen, L. (2008)
Classifications, p.163
In the NCIT [National Cancer Institute Thesaurus, USA]
the entry patient
has two subtypes:
a) cancer patient,
b) outpatient.
a) invertebrate,
b) laboratory animal,
c) vertebrate,
d) poikilotherms.
[pacientes ambulatórios]
role
quality
quality
quality
a) c)
d)
role
a) b)
b)
role

Luís Machado | 22
data entities in a “close-world”
domain entities in an “open-world”
color AND shape
a) cancer patient
b) outpatient
a’) cancer inpatient
b’) cancer outpatient

Luís Machado | 23
forma
– tipos de linhas (retas, curvas);
– número de lados;
– número e amplitude dos ângulos internos;
…
cor ?
“An observed phenomenon can be matched with the classes of the theory. Inferences for all classes to which the
phenomenon is matched can be used to predict additional properties (to those used for matching) of the
phenomenon.”
Parsons, J., & Wand, Y. (2013)
Extending Classification Principles from Information Modeling to Other Disciplines, p.263

Luís Machado | 24
Modelo ontológico
ambos.
✓ Não representa os dados de uma base em particular mas os tipos de entidade existentes no domínio ao qual
os dados reportam.

Luís Machado | 25
Gene_Ontology
 part_of
biological process
 is_a
physiological process
 is_a
metabolism
 is_a
nucleobase, nucleoside, nucleotide,
and nucleic acid metabolism
 is_a
transcription
 is_a
transcription, DNA-dependent
 part_of
transcription initiation Johansson, I. (2008)
Bioinformatics and Biological Reality, p.304
mentioned:
used:
it should be regarded as the term ‘biological process’
is part of the Gene Ontology’s hierarchy of terms
the terms should be regarded as, e.g., the type physiological
process is a subtype of the type biological process
Gráfico da Gene Ontology tal como foi originalmente escrito em Junho de 2005
“Thus use and mention of ‘biological process’ are here mixed
(the problem has since been corrected).”
posteriormente alterado com a remoção do último “elo”.

Luís Machado | 26
Gnoli, C. (2018)
Mentefacts as a missing level in theory of Information Science, p.1238
“Concepts, the units of objectivated knowledge, clearly are not the same as the
conceptualized phenomena themselves, but are representations of phenomena as
accurate and reliable as the present state of knowledge allows.”
“Concepts, the units of objectivated knowledge, clearly are not the same as the
conceptualized phenomena themselves, but are representations of phenomena as
accurate and reliable as the present state of knowledge allows.”

Luís Machado | 27
nível #1
o que existe
na realidade
nível #2
cognição
(conceitos)
nível #3
modelo ontológico
usa para representar
“Perception and experienced categories need not mirror the ‘real’ world; they must, however, be isomorphic to it to such
degree as to allow orientation and thus survival.”
von Bertalanffy, L. (1955)
An Essay on the Relativity of Categories, pp.254, 257

Luís Machado | 28
o que existe na realidade
cognição (conceitos)
nível #3
usa para representar
modelo ontológico
nível #2 nível #1
representa
como validar?
“especificação de uma
conceitualização”

Luís Machado |
esquema
percetual
esquema
conceitual
esquema
linguístico
29
“Perception is universally human, determined by man’s psychophysical equipment. Conceptualization is culture-bound
because it depends on the symbolic systems we apply. These symbolic systems are largely determined by linguistic factors, the
structure of the language applied.”
von Bertalanffy, L. (1955)
An Essay on the Relativity of Categories, pp.254, 257

Luís Machado |
esquema
percetual
esquema
conceitual
esquema
linguístico
30
“Ontological theses are assayed, not by measuring them directly against reality, but by considering their relative power. One
thesis trumps another if it is implied by an overall ontology that does a better job of making sense of our experiences of the
world in light of our best scientific theories.”
Heil, J. (2015)
Universals in a world of particulars, p.122

Luís Machado | 31
Modelo ontológico
ambos.
os dados reportam.
✓ Usa as representações cognitivas como um meio para representar as entidades existentes no respetivo
domínio.

Luís Machado | 32
Modelo ontológico
ambos.
os dados reportam.
✓ Usa as representações cognitivas como um meio para representar as entidades existentes no respetivo
domínio.
Nem todas os artefactos de representação vulgarmente chamados ontologia satisfazem estas
condições.

Luís Machado | 33
REFERÊNCIAS (1/3)
Almeida, M. B. (2013). Revisiting ontologies: A necessary clarification. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 64(8),
1532–2890. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.22861
Almeida, M. B. (2020). Ontologia em CIência da Informação: Teoria e prática (Vol. 1). CRV.
Arp, R., Smith, B., & Spear, A. D. (2015). Building ontologies with Basic Formal Ontology. MIT Press.
Biagetti, M. T. (2020). Ontologies (as knowledge organization systems). In B. Hjørland & C. Gnoli (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Knowledge Organization (2020-
08–31). ISKO. https://www.isko.org/cyclo/ontologies
Calleam Consulting Ltd. (2011.o4.11). Why do projects fail?: Airbus – A380.
http://calleam.com/WTPF/?p=4700&utm_content=buffer24c7e&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer
Dahlstrom, D. O. (2010). Hermeneutic Ontology. In R. Poli & J. Seibt (Eds.), Theory and Applications of Ontology: Philosophical Perspectives (pp. 395–
415). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-8845-1
Guarino, N., & Giaretta, P. (1995). Ontologies and Knowledge Bases: Towards a Terminological Clarification. In N. J. I. Mars (Ed.), Towards Very Large
Knowledge Bases (pp. 25–32). IOS Press.
Gnoli, C. (2011). Ontological foundations in knowledge organization: The theory of integrative levels applied in citation order. Scire, 17(1), 29–34.
Gnoli, C. (2018). Mentefacts as a missing level in theory of information science. Journal of Documentation, 74(6), 1226–1242. https://doi.org/10.1108/JD-04-
2018-0054
Heil, J. (2015). Universals in a world of particulars. In G. Galluzzo & M. J. Loux (Eds.), The problem of universals in contemporary philosophy (pp. 133–
155). Cambridge University Press.
Hjørland, B. (2019). Classification. In B. Hjørland & C. Gnoli (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Knowledge Organization (2019.01.29). ISKO.
http://www.isko.org/cyclo/classification

Luís Machado | 34
REFERÊNCIAS (2/3)
Jansen, L. (2008). Classifications. In K. Munn & B. Smith (Eds.), Applied Ontology: An Introduction (pp. 159–172). Ontos Verlag.
Johansson, I. (2008). Bioinformatics and Biological Reality. In K. Munn & B. Smith (Eds.), Applied Ontology: An Introduction (pp. 285–309). Ontos Verlag.
Kless, D., Lindenthal, J., Milton, S., & Kazmierczak, E. (2011). Interoperability of knowledge organization systems with and through ontologies. In A. Slavic &
E. Civallero (Eds.), Universal Decimal Classification Classification and ontology: Formal approaches and access to knowledge (pp. 55–74). Ergon
Verlag.
Machado, L. M. O. (2021a). Ontologies in Knowledge Organization. Encyclopedia, 1(1), 144–151. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1010015
Machado, L. M. O. (2021b). Ontologias, dos sistemas aos modelos: Uma abordagem introdutória no contexto dos sistemas de organização do conhecimento.
Fronteiras da Representação do Conhecimento, 1(1), 1–18. https://periodicos.ufmg.br/index.php/fronteiras-rc/issue/view/1703/283
Munn, K. (2008). What is Ontology for? In K. Munn & B. Smith (Eds.), Applied Ontology: An Introduction (pp. 7–19). Ontos Verlag.
Parsons, J., & Wand, Y. (2013). Extending Classification Principles from Information Modeling to Other Disciplines. Journal of the Association for
Information Systems, 14(5), 245–273. https://doi.org/10.17705/1jais.00332
Poli, R. (2010). Ontology: The Categorial Stance. In R. Poli & J. Seibt (Eds.), Theory and Applications of Ontology: Philosophical Perspectives (pp. 1–22).
Springer Netherlands.
Studer, R., Benjamins, V. R., & Fensel, D. (1998). Knowledge Engineering: Principles and Methods. Data & Knowledge Engineering, 25(1), 161–197.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0169-023x(97)00
Parente de Oliveira, J. M., & Smith, B. (2017). A Visual Representation of Part-Whole Relationships in BFO-Conformant Ontologies. In Á. Rocha, A. M.
Correia, H. Adeli, L. P. Reis, & S. Costanzo (Eds.), Recent Advances in Information Systems and Technologies (Vol. 569, pp. 184–194). Springer
International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56535-4_19
Poli, R. (1996). Ontology for knowledge organization. Knowledge organization and change, 5, 313–319.

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REFERÊNCIAS (3/3)
Poli, R., & Obrst, L. (2010). The Interplay Between Ontology as Categorial Analysis and Ontology as Technology. In R. Poli, M. Healy, & A. Kameas (Eds.),
Theory and Applications of Ontology: Computer Applications (pp. 1–26). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-8847-5_1
Pombo, O. (2002). Da classificação dos seres à classificação dos saberes. Instituto de Educação, Universidade de Lisboa, 1–15.
Smith, B. (2003). Ontology. In L. Floridi (Ed.), Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Computing and Information (pp. 155–166). Blackwell.
Smith, B. (2018.02.17). Ontology for Systems Engineering - Part 1: Introduction to Ontology. https://youtu.be/QGmwIWmyJeg
Smith, B., & Brogaard, B. (2000). A Unified Theory of Truth and Reference. Logique et Analyse, 43(169/170), 49–93. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44074519
Swoyer, C. (1999). How Ontology Might Be Possible: Explanation and Inference in Metaphysics. Midwest Studies In Philosophy, 23(1), 100–131.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-4975.00006
Szostak, R., Gnoli, C., & López-Huertas, M. (2016). Interdisciplinary Knowledge Organization. Springer International Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-30148-8
von Bertalanffy, L. (1955). An Essay on the Relativity of Categories. Philosophy of Science, 22(4), 243–263. https://doi.org/10.1086/287440

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