This document is a master's thesis submitted by Jordan Zarone to the Graduate School of Public Health at the University of Pittsburgh in 2014. It examines the history and efficacy of harm reduction programs, specifically needle and syringe exchange programs and housing first models, for reducing HIV transmission among injection drug users in the United States. The thesis reviews primary and secondary literature on these harm reduction approaches. It finds evidence that while direct links between the programs and reduced HIV incidence are complex, there is substantial evidence they are associated with reduced HIV risk behaviors. The thesis concludes harm reduction programs show promise for addressing the disproportionate impact of HIV among injection drug users.
The document discusses harm reduction programs as a tool to prevent health issues for people who use drugs. It defines harm reduction programs and their principles, like respecting human dignity. The literature review discusses evidence that needle exchange programs and methadone maintenance can reduce mortality, HIV, and HCV. However, some argue harm reduction may encourage drug use. The research aims to analyze advantages and disadvantages of applying harm reduction in Qatar. It hypothesizes benefits in preventing harm but may increase addiction. The importance is exploring a new perspective for Arabic societies that traditionally reject addiction.
Ethical Considerations for a Public Health Response Using Molecular HIV Surve...HopkinsCFAR
This document discusses a multi-stakeholder consultation regarding the ethical use of molecular HIV surveillance (MHS) data for public health purposes. MHS analyzes genetic sequences from HIV tests to identify clusters of individuals with closely related viruses, potentially indicating transmission relationships. While MHS could help target prevention, concerns include potential misinterpretation increasing criminalization risk. The consultation made recommendations in four areas: community education and engagement; examining laws/policies around data sharing; research on effectiveness and optimal implementation; and ensuring community input on policies. Addressing these issues is important as public health agencies expand use of this new surveillance approach.
Levels of Utilization and Socio - Economic Factors Influencing Adherence to U...inventionjournals
This document analyzes levels of utilization and socio-economic factors influencing adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) among people living with HIV/AIDS in Dodoma Municipality and Kongwa District, Tanzania. The study found that ART usage rates ranged from 100% at some facilities to 40% at others. Common reasons for dropping out of ART programs included side effects like vomiting (25.1%) and frequent sickness (19.9%), as well as lack of employment support (66.7%) and lack of confidentiality (50%). The document concludes that improving adherence requires addressing side effects, providing income assistance, and ensuring confidentiality in HIV services.
1) The survey found that while most providers were aware of CDC and D.C. HIV testing guidelines, only a small percentage were implementing them in practice.
2) Providers reported patient demographics that over-represented Caucasian and privately insured populations compared to actual D.C. demographics. Most providers did not understand the true extent of the HIV epidemic across D.C.
3) Limited time for counseling and beliefs that HIV was not an issue for their patient populations were the primary barriers cited to routine HIV testing. The study was limited by a small sample size but suggests biases may influence provider testing practices.
This document outlines the purpose and context of a research study on the impact of health education on HIV prevention in Canada. [1] The study aims to understand how education impacts various intervention programs and factors that help education be successful. [2] It will also seek to understand perceptions incorporated in education that help HIV education programs. [3] Key issues examined will include whether education targets at-risk groups and whether service providers are flexible in assisting people with HIV.
This study developed and tested a brief self-administered questionnaire called the Complementary and Alternative Management for Asthma (CAM-A) instrument to identify negative beliefs about inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) and endorsement of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) among urban minority adults with asthma. Psychometric testing identified 17 items representing ICS beliefs and CAM endorsement that demonstrated acceptable reliability. High rates of CAM endorsement, negative ICS beliefs, and uncontrolled asthma were found. CAM endorsement was significantly associated with uncontrolled asthma. Qualitative analysis provided preliminary evidence that use of the CAM-A instrument in primary care visits prompted providers to discuss ICS beliefs and CAM endorsement with patients.
Living with HIV/AIDS and use of online support groups [4 1530 Aud Coulson]Gunther Eysenbach
The document summarizes a study that examined the use of online support groups among individuals living with HIV/AIDS. The study found that more frequent users of online support groups reported poorer physical health and health-related quality of life compared to infrequent and non-users. Frequent users also reported greater use of coping strategies like active coping and emotional support. The study was limited by its cross-sectional design and recruitment method, but provides interesting findings on how online support group use relates to health status and coping among HIV/AIDS patients. Future research could explore participation levels, empowerment processes, and reasons for leaving online support groups.
This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the association between depressive symptoms and adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) among people living with HIV. It analyzed data from 111 studies with 42,366 participants across low, middle, and high income countries. The analysis found that the rate of depressive symptoms among people living with HIV ranged from 12.8% to 78% across studies, while the rate of good ART adherence (≥80%) ranged from 20% to 98%. There was no significant difference in depressive symptom rates by country income, but good adherence was significantly higher in lower income countries (86%) than higher income countries (67.5%). The meta-analysis showed that people living with HIV with depressive symptoms had a
The document discusses harm reduction programs as a tool to prevent health issues for people who use drugs. It defines harm reduction programs and their principles, like respecting human dignity. The literature review discusses evidence that needle exchange programs and methadone maintenance can reduce mortality, HIV, and HCV. However, some argue harm reduction may encourage drug use. The research aims to analyze advantages and disadvantages of applying harm reduction in Qatar. It hypothesizes benefits in preventing harm but may increase addiction. The importance is exploring a new perspective for Arabic societies that traditionally reject addiction.
Ethical Considerations for a Public Health Response Using Molecular HIV Surve...HopkinsCFAR
This document discusses a multi-stakeholder consultation regarding the ethical use of molecular HIV surveillance (MHS) data for public health purposes. MHS analyzes genetic sequences from HIV tests to identify clusters of individuals with closely related viruses, potentially indicating transmission relationships. While MHS could help target prevention, concerns include potential misinterpretation increasing criminalization risk. The consultation made recommendations in four areas: community education and engagement; examining laws/policies around data sharing; research on effectiveness and optimal implementation; and ensuring community input on policies. Addressing these issues is important as public health agencies expand use of this new surveillance approach.
Levels of Utilization and Socio - Economic Factors Influencing Adherence to U...inventionjournals
This document analyzes levels of utilization and socio-economic factors influencing adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) among people living with HIV/AIDS in Dodoma Municipality and Kongwa District, Tanzania. The study found that ART usage rates ranged from 100% at some facilities to 40% at others. Common reasons for dropping out of ART programs included side effects like vomiting (25.1%) and frequent sickness (19.9%), as well as lack of employment support (66.7%) and lack of confidentiality (50%). The document concludes that improving adherence requires addressing side effects, providing income assistance, and ensuring confidentiality in HIV services.
1) The survey found that while most providers were aware of CDC and D.C. HIV testing guidelines, only a small percentage were implementing them in practice.
2) Providers reported patient demographics that over-represented Caucasian and privately insured populations compared to actual D.C. demographics. Most providers did not understand the true extent of the HIV epidemic across D.C.
3) Limited time for counseling and beliefs that HIV was not an issue for their patient populations were the primary barriers cited to routine HIV testing. The study was limited by a small sample size but suggests biases may influence provider testing practices.
This document outlines the purpose and context of a research study on the impact of health education on HIV prevention in Canada. [1] The study aims to understand how education impacts various intervention programs and factors that help education be successful. [2] It will also seek to understand perceptions incorporated in education that help HIV education programs. [3] Key issues examined will include whether education targets at-risk groups and whether service providers are flexible in assisting people with HIV.
This study developed and tested a brief self-administered questionnaire called the Complementary and Alternative Management for Asthma (CAM-A) instrument to identify negative beliefs about inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) and endorsement of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) among urban minority adults with asthma. Psychometric testing identified 17 items representing ICS beliefs and CAM endorsement that demonstrated acceptable reliability. High rates of CAM endorsement, negative ICS beliefs, and uncontrolled asthma were found. CAM endorsement was significantly associated with uncontrolled asthma. Qualitative analysis provided preliminary evidence that use of the CAM-A instrument in primary care visits prompted providers to discuss ICS beliefs and CAM endorsement with patients.
Living with HIV/AIDS and use of online support groups [4 1530 Aud Coulson]Gunther Eysenbach
The document summarizes a study that examined the use of online support groups among individuals living with HIV/AIDS. The study found that more frequent users of online support groups reported poorer physical health and health-related quality of life compared to infrequent and non-users. Frequent users also reported greater use of coping strategies like active coping and emotional support. The study was limited by its cross-sectional design and recruitment method, but provides interesting findings on how online support group use relates to health status and coping among HIV/AIDS patients. Future research could explore participation levels, empowerment processes, and reasons for leaving online support groups.
This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the association between depressive symptoms and adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) among people living with HIV. It analyzed data from 111 studies with 42,366 participants across low, middle, and high income countries. The analysis found that the rate of depressive symptoms among people living with HIV ranged from 12.8% to 78% across studies, while the rate of good ART adherence (≥80%) ranged from 20% to 98%. There was no significant difference in depressive symptom rates by country income, but good adherence was significantly higher in lower income countries (86%) than higher income countries (67.5%). The meta-analysis showed that people living with HIV with depressive symptoms had a
A survey was developed and distributed to adult pharmacy customers in Pristina, Kosovo to explore the extent and reasons for self-medication and knowledge regarding antibiotic use. The survey was distributed via-email to a convenience sample of pharmacy customers (n=693). Four hundred and nineteen (n=419, 63.2% response rate) completed surveys were returned. Most respondents (56%, n=235) were between 25-45 years old, almost 80% (79.62%, n=332) held a university degree, 59.43% were females, and 12.05% (n=50) were unemployed. Sore throats (44.47%, n=185) were the most common reason for self-medicating with antibiotics followed by other – unspecified (28.61%, n=119), cough (7.21%, n=30) and pain (6.49%, n=27). Amoxicillin was the most frequently self-administered antibiotic (41.1%, n=175). It was concluded that self-medication with antibiotics in this sample is a problem and controlling antibiotic use is an important public health effort.
- The study examined knowledge and attitudes toward antibiotic use and resistance among school and institution personnel in Tbilisi, Georgia through a cross-sectional quantitative questionnaire.
- The results found that over 90% of respondents had used antibiotics before, and over half agreed antibiotics could treat viruses and the common cold. Many respondents had obtained antibiotics without medical consultation or prescription.
- Respondents demonstrated some misunderstanding about antibiotics' effectiveness against bacteria versus viruses. While trust in doctors was high, the study highlights misconceptions around appropriate antibiotic use and resistance in Georgia.
This survey of 948 oncologists from 82 countries investigated which cancer medicines they deemed most essential for public health in their countries. The most commonly selected medicines were doxorubicin, cisplatin, paclitaxel, pembrolizumab, trastuzumab, carboplatin, and 5-fluorouracil - 19 of the top 20 medicines are currently on the WHO Essential Medicines List. Availability of these medicines was lowest in low-income countries, ranging from 9-54% availability, compared to 68-94% availability in high-income countries. Risk of catastrophic health expenditures for cancer treatment was also higher in low-income countries. The findings challenge the feasibility of adding more expensive
The document proposes that the Texas Department of Insurance adopt new rules allowing insurance payments for non-traditional public health services to help control chronic disease costs. It argues that chronic diseases account for the majority of healthcare spending and can be prevented or better managed through programs like self-management education, community health workers, and lifestyle interventions. New payment rules could help fund these services and reduce insurance premiums for individuals and employers that lower chronic disease rates in their communities. The goal is to bend the healthcare cost curve by preventing chronic diseases before medical treatment is needed through a comprehensive population health model.
Alcohol and substance use vis a vis hiv sexual risk behavioursAlexander Decker
1) The study evaluated perceptions of freshman students at a Kenyan university regarding HIV/AIDS, sexual behaviors, and drug use. It found high HIV/AIDS knowledge but behaviors did not always reflect this.
2) Over half of participants had been sexually active and nearly half did not consistently use condoms. Alcohol consumption was associated with increased risky sexual behaviors like unprotected sex.
3) While knowledge of HIV transmission and prevention was high, testing rates remained low and risk perception seemed unrealistic. There is a need for interventions to change attitudes and increase safer practices.
Adherencia al tarv en am latina y caribeRosa Alcayaga
This systematic review and meta-analysis examined adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) among people living with HIV in Latin America and the Caribbean. The analysis included 53 studies published between 2005-2016 involving over 22,000 individuals across 25 countries. The overall adherence rate was estimated to be 70%, similar to rates in high-income regions. Adherence was higher with shorter recall periods and in lower income countries. Common barriers to adherence included substance abuse, depression, unemployment and pill burden. The review suggests adherence in the region may be below the level needed for long-term viral suppression.
This document summarizes a systematic review of 146 studies on determinants of adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) among HIV-positive adults in sub-Saharan Africa. The main findings were:
1) Main determinants of non-adherence included use of alcohol, male gender, use of traditional medicine, dissatisfaction with healthcare, depression, stigma, and poor social support.
2) Promoters of adherence included counseling, education, memory aids, and disclosure of HIV status.
3) Determinants of health status had conflicting effects on adherence.
Baltimore mapping studies working copy 27 oct2021HopkinsCFAR
This document lists several investigators, their projects, funders, key populations studied, pillars of work (prevention, diagnosis, treatment, response), end dates, and any publications or presentations. The projects cover a wide range of populations including people who inject drugs, men who have sex with men, transgender individuals, sex workers, and focus on prevention, diagnosis, treatment and response work related to HIV/AIDS in Baltimore.
This document describes a proposed randomized controlled trial to test the effectiveness of a health literacy and community health worker intervention for type 2 diabetes patients in community health centers. The study aims to address the gap in knowledge about how such interventions impact clinical outcomes like adherence, self-management, and communication. If shown to be effective, the intervention could help the millions of Americans with limited health literacy better manage their chronic conditions. The trial would involve community health centers in low-income neighborhoods of Boston serving predominantly minority populations disproportionately impacted by diabetes complications. Results could demonstrate cost-effective ways to incorporate health literacy and community health workers into standard care for medically underserved groups.
Health policy plan. 2007-lönnroth-156-66Reaksmey Pe
This study assessed the impact of a social franchise model for tuberculosis (TB) care delivered through private general practitioners (GPs) in Myanmar. The key findings were:
1) The franchisees contributed around 20% of newly diagnosed smear-positive TB cases notified to the national TB program, helping to improve case detection.
2) Lower socioeconomic groups represented 68% of TB patients accessing care through the franchise, indicating it helped reach the poor.
3) The treatment success rate for new smear-positive cases through the franchise was 84%, close to the WHO target of 85% and similar to the national program rate.
4) While overall costs of TB care were high for poor patients, comprising on
This document summarizes a study on factors influencing clients' adherence to tuberculosis treatment under the Public-Private Mix Directly Observed Treatment Short-course (PPMD-DOTS) program in Cebu, Philippines. The study found that income level, quality of health services, and perceived social stigma were significant predictors of treatment adherence, with quality of health services most strongly influencing adherence. The study concluded that income and social stigma can help screen for adherence and that improving health service quality should be considered to promote adherence.
A B S T R A C T
Purpose: Hispanic/Latino adolescents and young adults are disproportionately impacted by the
HIV/AIDS epidemic; yet little is known about the best strategies to increase HIV testing in this
group. Network-based approaches are feasible and acceptable means for screening at-risk adults
for HIV infection, but it is unknown whether these approaches are appropriate for at-risk young
Hispanics/Latinos. Thus, we compared an alternative venue-based testing (AVT) strategy with a
social and sexual network-based interviewing and HIV testing (SSNIT) strategy.
Methods: All participants were Hispanics/Latinos aged 13e24 years with self-reported HIV risk;
they were recruited from 11 cities in the United States and Puerto Rico and completed an audio
computer-assisted self-interview and underwent HIV screening.
Results: A total of 1,596 participants (94.5% of those approached) were enrolled: 784 (49.1%)
through AVT and 812 (50.9%) through SSNIT. HIV infection was identified in three SSNIT (.37%) and
four AVT (.51%) participants (p ¼ .7213).
Conclusions: Despite high levels of HIV risk, a low prevalence of HIV infectionwas identified with no
differences by recruitment strategy. We found overwhelming support for the acceptability and feasibility
of AVT and SSNIT for engaging and screening at-risk young Hispanics/Latinos. Further research is
needed to better understand howto strategically implement such strategies to improve identification of
undiagnosed HIV infection.
Literature evaluation table student name change topic (2ADDY50
The document appears to be a literature evaluation table created by a student to analyze articles related to their capstone project or evidence-based practice topic. It includes sections for 8 articles that address the author, title, year, research questions/hypotheses, study purpose, design, setting/sample, methods, analysis, findings, recommendations, and how each article relates to the student's project. The table criteria are rated as comprehensive with supporting details. The overall presentation is neat and professional. The document also includes the student's PICOT question and provides background on Prince George's County and the impact of COVID-19 in the area.
This study assessed health care costs and utilization among union members from 2008-2010, comparing those who received primary care from providers participating in a public health initiative (PCIP) versus non-participating providers. Members accessing PCIP providers saw a 16% decrease in hospitalizations for chronic conditions, whereas non-PCIP members saw a 15% increase. PCIP access was associated with lower inpatient utilization and costs. Specialty care increased more for PCIP members with diabetes and hypertension. Overall, the results suggest population health initiatives incorporating electronic health records can reduce health care costs by decreasing hospitalizations for better chronic disease management.
This paper examines the opportunities and benefits of using apps to help manage diabetes, as well as limitations and concerns. Apps can help patients track key areas of care, enable personalized self-management through data sharing with providers, and provide decision support. However, many apps focus only on parts of care and few use evidence-based practices or offer comprehensive education. After analyzing the top diabetes apps against criteria for effective features, the author concludes that Diabetes App is currently the best option due to its coverage of important data areas and education. Overall, apps show promise for improving outcomes but development needs to address gaps versus clinical guidelines.
The document presents a strategic framework for the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to improve health outcomes for individuals with multiple chronic conditions. Approximately 75 million Americans have two or more chronic illnesses like arthritis, diabetes, and heart disease. These individuals face higher costs, worse health outcomes, and complex care needs. The framework aims to shift care from focusing on single diseases in isolation to a holistic approach that addresses all of a person's conditions. It establishes goals, objectives, and strategies for HHS agencies to better coordinate care, research, and policies related to multiple chronic conditions.
Needle exchange programs (NEPs) are a supply-side public health intervention that aims to reduce HIV and other infections for injecting drug users. NEPs provide sterile needles in exchange for used needles to increase access to sterile needles and remove contaminated syringes. This reduces disease transmission. NEPs are effective because they address the actual needs of at-risk populations by providing resources like clean needles without legal consequences, rather than just educating on disease risks. Studies show HIV prevalence declined in areas with NEPs compared to increases in areas without. While demand-side interventions could educate on benefits of sterile needles, they do not solve the barriers of fear of arrest that supply-side NEPs address through accessible resource
Comparing Patients’ Experiences in Three Differentiated Service Delivery Mode...Ferdinand C Mukumbang
Differentiated service delivery for HIV treatment seeks to enhance medication adherence while respecting the preferences of people living with HIV. Nevertheless, patients’ experiences of using these differentiated service delivery models or approaches have not been qualitatively compared. Underpinned by the tenets of descriptive phenomenology, we explored and compared the experiences of patients in three differentiated service delivery models using the National Health Services Patient Experience Framework. Data were collected from 68 purposively selected people living with HIV receiving care in Facility adherence clubs, community adherence clubs, and quick pharmacy pick-up. Using the constant comparative thematic analysis approach, we compared themes identified across the different participant groups. Compared to facility adherence clubs and community adherence clubs, patients in the quick pharmacy pick-up model experienced less information sharing; communication and education; and emotional/psychological support. Patients’ positive experience with a differentiated service delivery model is based on how well the model fits into their HIV disease self-management goals.
The document discusses harm reduction from an Indigenous perspective. It describes how colonialism disrupted traditional ways of living for First Nations communities and caused imbalance. Harm reduction aims to help people reduce risks like HIV/AIDS in a value-neutral way by empowering informed decisions. Effective harm reduction programs are culturally appropriate and community-led, employing strategies like needle exchange and addressing gender inequalities. Challenges include gaining acceptance for new concepts and ensuring programs incorporate Indigenous beliefs.
The document discusses harm reduction strategies for injecting drug users (IDUs) to reduce the negative consequences of drug use and prevent the spread of HIV. It defines harm reduction as a set of practical strategies that incorporate safer drug use, managed use, and abstinence. Examples of harm reduction alternatives provided are not using drugs, getting treatment if possible, disinfecting needles if sharing, and always using a new sterile syringe and needle for each injection. The document also advocates for evidence-based HIV prevention and treatment policies for IDUs and calls for removing the federal funding ban on syringe exchange programs.
A survey was developed and distributed to adult pharmacy customers in Pristina, Kosovo to explore the extent and reasons for self-medication and knowledge regarding antibiotic use. The survey was distributed via-email to a convenience sample of pharmacy customers (n=693). Four hundred and nineteen (n=419, 63.2% response rate) completed surveys were returned. Most respondents (56%, n=235) were between 25-45 years old, almost 80% (79.62%, n=332) held a university degree, 59.43% were females, and 12.05% (n=50) were unemployed. Sore throats (44.47%, n=185) were the most common reason for self-medicating with antibiotics followed by other – unspecified (28.61%, n=119), cough (7.21%, n=30) and pain (6.49%, n=27). Amoxicillin was the most frequently self-administered antibiotic (41.1%, n=175). It was concluded that self-medication with antibiotics in this sample is a problem and controlling antibiotic use is an important public health effort.
- The study examined knowledge and attitudes toward antibiotic use and resistance among school and institution personnel in Tbilisi, Georgia through a cross-sectional quantitative questionnaire.
- The results found that over 90% of respondents had used antibiotics before, and over half agreed antibiotics could treat viruses and the common cold. Many respondents had obtained antibiotics without medical consultation or prescription.
- Respondents demonstrated some misunderstanding about antibiotics' effectiveness against bacteria versus viruses. While trust in doctors was high, the study highlights misconceptions around appropriate antibiotic use and resistance in Georgia.
This survey of 948 oncologists from 82 countries investigated which cancer medicines they deemed most essential for public health in their countries. The most commonly selected medicines were doxorubicin, cisplatin, paclitaxel, pembrolizumab, trastuzumab, carboplatin, and 5-fluorouracil - 19 of the top 20 medicines are currently on the WHO Essential Medicines List. Availability of these medicines was lowest in low-income countries, ranging from 9-54% availability, compared to 68-94% availability in high-income countries. Risk of catastrophic health expenditures for cancer treatment was also higher in low-income countries. The findings challenge the feasibility of adding more expensive
The document proposes that the Texas Department of Insurance adopt new rules allowing insurance payments for non-traditional public health services to help control chronic disease costs. It argues that chronic diseases account for the majority of healthcare spending and can be prevented or better managed through programs like self-management education, community health workers, and lifestyle interventions. New payment rules could help fund these services and reduce insurance premiums for individuals and employers that lower chronic disease rates in their communities. The goal is to bend the healthcare cost curve by preventing chronic diseases before medical treatment is needed through a comprehensive population health model.
Alcohol and substance use vis a vis hiv sexual risk behavioursAlexander Decker
1) The study evaluated perceptions of freshman students at a Kenyan university regarding HIV/AIDS, sexual behaviors, and drug use. It found high HIV/AIDS knowledge but behaviors did not always reflect this.
2) Over half of participants had been sexually active and nearly half did not consistently use condoms. Alcohol consumption was associated with increased risky sexual behaviors like unprotected sex.
3) While knowledge of HIV transmission and prevention was high, testing rates remained low and risk perception seemed unrealistic. There is a need for interventions to change attitudes and increase safer practices.
Adherencia al tarv en am latina y caribeRosa Alcayaga
This systematic review and meta-analysis examined adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) among people living with HIV in Latin America and the Caribbean. The analysis included 53 studies published between 2005-2016 involving over 22,000 individuals across 25 countries. The overall adherence rate was estimated to be 70%, similar to rates in high-income regions. Adherence was higher with shorter recall periods and in lower income countries. Common barriers to adherence included substance abuse, depression, unemployment and pill burden. The review suggests adherence in the region may be below the level needed for long-term viral suppression.
This document summarizes a systematic review of 146 studies on determinants of adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) among HIV-positive adults in sub-Saharan Africa. The main findings were:
1) Main determinants of non-adherence included use of alcohol, male gender, use of traditional medicine, dissatisfaction with healthcare, depression, stigma, and poor social support.
2) Promoters of adherence included counseling, education, memory aids, and disclosure of HIV status.
3) Determinants of health status had conflicting effects on adherence.
Baltimore mapping studies working copy 27 oct2021HopkinsCFAR
This document lists several investigators, their projects, funders, key populations studied, pillars of work (prevention, diagnosis, treatment, response), end dates, and any publications or presentations. The projects cover a wide range of populations including people who inject drugs, men who have sex with men, transgender individuals, sex workers, and focus on prevention, diagnosis, treatment and response work related to HIV/AIDS in Baltimore.
This document describes a proposed randomized controlled trial to test the effectiveness of a health literacy and community health worker intervention for type 2 diabetes patients in community health centers. The study aims to address the gap in knowledge about how such interventions impact clinical outcomes like adherence, self-management, and communication. If shown to be effective, the intervention could help the millions of Americans with limited health literacy better manage their chronic conditions. The trial would involve community health centers in low-income neighborhoods of Boston serving predominantly minority populations disproportionately impacted by diabetes complications. Results could demonstrate cost-effective ways to incorporate health literacy and community health workers into standard care for medically underserved groups.
Health policy plan. 2007-lönnroth-156-66Reaksmey Pe
This study assessed the impact of a social franchise model for tuberculosis (TB) care delivered through private general practitioners (GPs) in Myanmar. The key findings were:
1) The franchisees contributed around 20% of newly diagnosed smear-positive TB cases notified to the national TB program, helping to improve case detection.
2) Lower socioeconomic groups represented 68% of TB patients accessing care through the franchise, indicating it helped reach the poor.
3) The treatment success rate for new smear-positive cases through the franchise was 84%, close to the WHO target of 85% and similar to the national program rate.
4) While overall costs of TB care were high for poor patients, comprising on
This document summarizes a study on factors influencing clients' adherence to tuberculosis treatment under the Public-Private Mix Directly Observed Treatment Short-course (PPMD-DOTS) program in Cebu, Philippines. The study found that income level, quality of health services, and perceived social stigma were significant predictors of treatment adherence, with quality of health services most strongly influencing adherence. The study concluded that income and social stigma can help screen for adherence and that improving health service quality should be considered to promote adherence.
A B S T R A C T
Purpose: Hispanic/Latino adolescents and young adults are disproportionately impacted by the
HIV/AIDS epidemic; yet little is known about the best strategies to increase HIV testing in this
group. Network-based approaches are feasible and acceptable means for screening at-risk adults
for HIV infection, but it is unknown whether these approaches are appropriate for at-risk young
Hispanics/Latinos. Thus, we compared an alternative venue-based testing (AVT) strategy with a
social and sexual network-based interviewing and HIV testing (SSNIT) strategy.
Methods: All participants were Hispanics/Latinos aged 13e24 years with self-reported HIV risk;
they were recruited from 11 cities in the United States and Puerto Rico and completed an audio
computer-assisted self-interview and underwent HIV screening.
Results: A total of 1,596 participants (94.5% of those approached) were enrolled: 784 (49.1%)
through AVT and 812 (50.9%) through SSNIT. HIV infection was identified in three SSNIT (.37%) and
four AVT (.51%) participants (p ¼ .7213).
Conclusions: Despite high levels of HIV risk, a low prevalence of HIV infectionwas identified with no
differences by recruitment strategy. We found overwhelming support for the acceptability and feasibility
of AVT and SSNIT for engaging and screening at-risk young Hispanics/Latinos. Further research is
needed to better understand howto strategically implement such strategies to improve identification of
undiagnosed HIV infection.
Literature evaluation table student name change topic (2ADDY50
The document appears to be a literature evaluation table created by a student to analyze articles related to their capstone project or evidence-based practice topic. It includes sections for 8 articles that address the author, title, year, research questions/hypotheses, study purpose, design, setting/sample, methods, analysis, findings, recommendations, and how each article relates to the student's project. The table criteria are rated as comprehensive with supporting details. The overall presentation is neat and professional. The document also includes the student's PICOT question and provides background on Prince George's County and the impact of COVID-19 in the area.
This study assessed health care costs and utilization among union members from 2008-2010, comparing those who received primary care from providers participating in a public health initiative (PCIP) versus non-participating providers. Members accessing PCIP providers saw a 16% decrease in hospitalizations for chronic conditions, whereas non-PCIP members saw a 15% increase. PCIP access was associated with lower inpatient utilization and costs. Specialty care increased more for PCIP members with diabetes and hypertension. Overall, the results suggest population health initiatives incorporating electronic health records can reduce health care costs by decreasing hospitalizations for better chronic disease management.
This paper examines the opportunities and benefits of using apps to help manage diabetes, as well as limitations and concerns. Apps can help patients track key areas of care, enable personalized self-management through data sharing with providers, and provide decision support. However, many apps focus only on parts of care and few use evidence-based practices or offer comprehensive education. After analyzing the top diabetes apps against criteria for effective features, the author concludes that Diabetes App is currently the best option due to its coverage of important data areas and education. Overall, apps show promise for improving outcomes but development needs to address gaps versus clinical guidelines.
The document presents a strategic framework for the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to improve health outcomes for individuals with multiple chronic conditions. Approximately 75 million Americans have two or more chronic illnesses like arthritis, diabetes, and heart disease. These individuals face higher costs, worse health outcomes, and complex care needs. The framework aims to shift care from focusing on single diseases in isolation to a holistic approach that addresses all of a person's conditions. It establishes goals, objectives, and strategies for HHS agencies to better coordinate care, research, and policies related to multiple chronic conditions.
Needle exchange programs (NEPs) are a supply-side public health intervention that aims to reduce HIV and other infections for injecting drug users. NEPs provide sterile needles in exchange for used needles to increase access to sterile needles and remove contaminated syringes. This reduces disease transmission. NEPs are effective because they address the actual needs of at-risk populations by providing resources like clean needles without legal consequences, rather than just educating on disease risks. Studies show HIV prevalence declined in areas with NEPs compared to increases in areas without. While demand-side interventions could educate on benefits of sterile needles, they do not solve the barriers of fear of arrest that supply-side NEPs address through accessible resource
Comparing Patients’ Experiences in Three Differentiated Service Delivery Mode...Ferdinand C Mukumbang
Differentiated service delivery for HIV treatment seeks to enhance medication adherence while respecting the preferences of people living with HIV. Nevertheless, patients’ experiences of using these differentiated service delivery models or approaches have not been qualitatively compared. Underpinned by the tenets of descriptive phenomenology, we explored and compared the experiences of patients in three differentiated service delivery models using the National Health Services Patient Experience Framework. Data were collected from 68 purposively selected people living with HIV receiving care in Facility adherence clubs, community adherence clubs, and quick pharmacy pick-up. Using the constant comparative thematic analysis approach, we compared themes identified across the different participant groups. Compared to facility adherence clubs and community adherence clubs, patients in the quick pharmacy pick-up model experienced less information sharing; communication and education; and emotional/psychological support. Patients’ positive experience with a differentiated service delivery model is based on how well the model fits into their HIV disease self-management goals.
The document discusses harm reduction from an Indigenous perspective. It describes how colonialism disrupted traditional ways of living for First Nations communities and caused imbalance. Harm reduction aims to help people reduce risks like HIV/AIDS in a value-neutral way by empowering informed decisions. Effective harm reduction programs are culturally appropriate and community-led, employing strategies like needle exchange and addressing gender inequalities. Challenges include gaining acceptance for new concepts and ensuring programs incorporate Indigenous beliefs.
The document discusses harm reduction strategies for injecting drug users (IDUs) to reduce the negative consequences of drug use and prevent the spread of HIV. It defines harm reduction as a set of practical strategies that incorporate safer drug use, managed use, and abstinence. Examples of harm reduction alternatives provided are not using drugs, getting treatment if possible, disinfecting needles if sharing, and always using a new sterile syringe and needle for each injection. The document also advocates for evidence-based HIV prevention and treatment policies for IDUs and calls for removing the federal funding ban on syringe exchange programs.
The document summarizes Eurasian Harm Reduction Network's (EHRN) work in developing a regional initiative on HIV and harm reduction in Eastern Europe and Central Asia in response to an invitation from the Global Fund. Key activities included initiating a regional dialogue process through online consultations and meetings, establishing governance structures like a Regional Technical Advisory Group, and developing a concept note for a $6 million grant over 3 years. Lessons learned included the need for more time and support for community engagement, improved epidemiological data, and ensuring technical partners are able to fully support the process. The initiative aims to improve health and rights for people who use drugs in the region.
The document summarizes an HIV/AIDS prevention project conducted by OSD Pakistan from 2011-2012. The project provided harm reduction services to 400 injecting drug users, 138 men who have sex with men, and 137 transgender individuals in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Services included syringe exchanges, condom distribution, counseling, and education. Testing showed HIV prevalence of 9.2% overall, with the highest (12%) among injecting drug users. Challenges included lack of government support and high prices of condoms and syringes.
Harm Reduction: A Public Health Response to HIV Epidemic among Injecting Drug...Sketchpowder, Inc.
Harm reduction programs, including needle and syringe programs (NSP) and methadone maintenance treatment (MMT), were introduced in Indonesia in the early 2000s to address the HIV epidemic among injecting drug users (IDU). The first NSP encountered challenges from law enforcement but showed effectiveness. The first MMT programs in 2002 in Jakarta and Bali also showed decreases in criminal behavior and drug use. However, stigma presented barriers to antiretroviral treatment (ART) adherence for IDU. To scale up, programs aimed to integrate into primary health centers and involve local authorities and communities to build legitimacy and sustainability within the public health system. By 2007, NSP was operating in 65 primary health centers
The document discusses harm reduction as an effective approach for preventing HIV among people who inject drugs. It provides evidence from multiple studies that needle and syringe programs, opioid substitution therapy, and increased access to HIV treatment and prevention services can significantly reduce HIV transmission when coverage of target populations is high. However, implementation of harm reduction programs is often inadequate due to lack of political will, legal restrictions, prejudice against people who use drugs, and over-reliance on law enforcement approaches rather than public health strategies. The document also argues that harm reduction is consistent with Islamic principles when understood as a pragmatic, evidence-based public health approach aimed at preventing greater harms.
Injecting Drug Use, HIV/AIDS Epidemic and Harm Reduction StrategiesSketchpowder, Inc.
The document discusses two major epidemics - injecting drug use and HIV/AIDS. It provides statistics on the number of people using drugs globally and discusses some of the health consequences of injecting drug use like HIV, hepatitis, and overdoses. It then discusses harm reduction strategies as an effective approach to addressing the health issues associated with injecting drug use and HIV prevention for people who inject drugs.
This document provides revised guidance for the U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) on comprehensive HIV prevention for people who inject drugs. It endorses a package of three core interventions: community-based outreach programs, sterile needle and syringe programs, and drug dependence treatment including medication-assisted treatment. The guidance outlines evidence that these interventions can significantly reduce risky drug use behaviors and HIV transmission when implemented together in a comprehensive manner.
Syringe exchange programs (SEPs) have been shown to be a cost-effective intervention for preventing HIV among injection drug users (IDUs). SEPs are associated with an 80% reduction in HIV incidence among IDUs over the last 20 years. While HIV rates have decreased among most groups, IDUs have seen one of the largest improvements due in large part to SEPs increasing access to sterile syringes. However, SEPs remain controversial in the US despite evidence that they are cost-effective and reduce HIV transmission by providing sterile injection equipment and linking IDUs to healthcare. Further advocacy is needed to restore federal funding for expanding SEPs.
This document provides information on syringe access services as a harm reduction and disease prevention intervention. It discusses the benefits of syringe access programs in reducing HIV and HCV transmission as well as their cost effectiveness. The document outlines different models of syringe access programs and considerations for starting a new program, including conducting a needs assessment, recommended equipment, and the importance of practicing drug user cultural competency. Contact information is provided for technical assistance from The Harm Reduction Coalition.
RESEARCH ARTICLEWill Combined Prevention Eliminate Racia.docxronak56
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Will "Combined Prevention" Eliminate Racial/
Ethnic Disparities in HIV Infection among
Persons Who Inject Drugs in New York City?
Don Des Jarlais1*, Kamyar Arasteh1, Courtney McKnight1, Jonathan Feelemyer1,
Holly Hagan2, Hannah Cooper3, Aimee Campbell4, Susan Tross4, David Perlman1
1 The Baron Edmond de Rothschild Chemical Dependency Institute, Mount Sinai Beth Israel, New York,
New York, United States of America, 2 College of Nursing, New York University, New York, New York,
United States of America, 3 Rollins School of Public Health at Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United
States of America, 4 Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of
America
* [email protected]
Abstract
It has not been determined whether implementation of combined prevention programming
for persons who inject drugs reduce racial/ethnic disparities in HIV infection. We examine
racial/ethnic disparities in New York City among persons who inject drugs after implementa-
tion of the New York City Condom Social Marketing Program in 2007. Quantitative inter-
views and HIV testing were conducted among persons who inject drugs entering Mount
Sinai Beth Israel drug treatment (2007–2014). 703 persons who inject drugs who began in-
jecting after implementation of large-scale syringe exchange were included in the analyses.
Factors independently associated with being HIV seropositive were identified and a pub-
lished model was used to estimate HIV infections due to sexual transmission. Overall HIV
prevalence was 4%; Whites 1%, African-Americans 17%, and Hispanics 4%. Adjusted
odds ratios were 21.0 (95% CI 5.7, 77.5) for African-Americans to Whites and 4.5 (95% CI
1.3, 16.3) for Hispanics to Whites. There was an overall significant trend towards reduced
HIV prevalence over time (adjusted odd ratio = 0.7 per year, 95% confidence interval (0.6–
0.8). An estimated 75% or more of the HIV infections were due to sexual transmission. Ra-
cial/ethnic disparities among persons who inject drugs were not significantly different from
previous disparities. Reducing these persistent disparities may require new interventions
(treatment as prevention, pre-exposure prophylaxis) for all racial/ethnic groups.
Introduction
Significant racial/ethnic disparities in HIV infection among persons who inject drugs (PWID)
have been observed in many countries, with ethnic minority group members [1] and females
[2] typically having higher HIV prevalence. There are effective interventions to reduce HIV
transmission among PWID, and the logic of “combined” prevention programming is that
PLOS ONE | DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0126180 May 12, 2015 1 / 11
OPEN ACCESS
Citation: Des Jarlais D, Arasteh K, McKnight C,
Feelemyer J, Hagan H, Cooper H, et al. (2015) Will
"Combined Prevention" Eliminate Racial/Ethnic
Disparities in HIV Infection among Persons Who
Inject Drugs in New York City? PLoS ONE 10(5):
e0126180. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0126 ...
Running head: ASSIGNMENT 3 1
ASSIGNMENT 3
4
Assignment 3
Diamond Fulton-Hicks
Saint Leo University-HCA:402
Mrs.Claudette Andrea
04/05/2020
According to the CDC, Youth Risk Behaviors are used in monitoring the six groups of health-associated practices that are contributing to the top causes of deaths and disability amongst youths and adults. Some of these behaviors are those which are contributing to unintended injuries and violent behavior; sexual practices which lead to unintentional pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections; alcohol and other drug use; tobacco use; detrimental dietary practices; and the insufficient engagement in the physical exercise. This paper is therefore based on discussing these health behaviors top factors associated with the increased death and disability rates amongst youths and adults (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d).
Alcohol and other drug use
Alcohol and other illicit drug are used by the majority of the youths as compared to tobacco use. It is contributing to about 41 percent of all deaths that are caused by motor vehicles. When compared to other behaviors that put human at risk concerning health, alcohol is causing a wider variety of injuries and it is approximated that 100,000 deaths occurs as a result alcohol consumption every year in the U.S. About 46 percent of Americans have been intoxicated in the previous years and roughly 4 percent have been intoxicated weekly (Kann, et al., 2014).
Behaviors causing unplanned injuries and violence such as suicide
The injuries and violent behavior are considered to be amongst the top causes of death amongst the youth of ages 10 to 24 years. The motor vehicle crashes are contributing to 30 percent of deaths and other accidental injuries contribute to 15 percent. Homicide and suicide are contributing to 15 and 12 percent death cases respectively (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d).
Tobacco Use
It is estimated that there are about 3,600 adolescents of ages 12 to 17 years in the United States who have tried their first cigarette. The use of cigarettes is contributing to 1 to every 5 deaths (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d).
Unhealthy Dietary Behaviors
Healthy eating is linked to the reduction in the risks of diseases that exposes individuals to death and these diseases include heart disease. In 2009, it was reported that about 23.3 percent of the high school learners reported increased habit of consuming fruits and vegetables five or more times every day. Studies have shown the relationship in the habit of eating the restaurant foods and the increased BMI thus exposing individuals to diseases such as obesity and other cardiovascular diseases (Kann, et al., 2014).
Physical Inactivity
The decline in physical activity is common among children when they get older. Most of the youths are spending their time in a sedentary lifestyle such as watching television with less participation in physical ...
Surveillance Systems: Their Role in Identifying Risk and Resilience Factorsippnw
The document discusses a multinational injury surveillance pilot project in Africa from 2006-2007 that aimed to collect injury data across multiple countries on factors like cause, context, and victim demographics. The project found that data collection completeness gradually increased over time. Interpersonal violence made up 64.5% of injuries and data showed details on factors like the age, sex, location and mechanisms of these violent incidents. The project demonstrates the value of injury surveillance systems for understanding problems and informing prevention strategies.
The document summarizes a study examining HIV stigma among opioid-dependent individuals under community supervision. It describes high HIV rates in Washington D.C. and the criminal justice system. The study used a stigma scale to assess stigma in 16 participants. Females and homosexuals reported higher levels of stigma than males and heterosexuals, particularly around disclosure concerns. The study aims to reduce stigma and HIV risk through counseling in Project STRIDE, which provides medication-assisted treatment for opioid dependence and HIV.
Running head PUBLIC HEALTH INITIATIVE2Publi.docxtodd581
Running head: PUBLIC HEALTH INITIATIVE 2
Public Health Initiative
Abraham Anderson
Walden University
Principles of economics for evaluating and assessing the need for the public health initiative
Public Health is a science that all in all expects to improve and lessen disparities in wellbeing. Public Health economics manages the basic leadership process for public health professionals in the usage of accessible resources while limiting opportunity cost (Edwards, Charles and Lloyd-Williams, 2013). The initiative will concentrate on making HIV testing a routine that will assist in decreasing and HIV. HIV represents human immunodeficiency virus. It debilitates an individual's immune system by crushing vital cells that battle infection and disease. The ascent in HIV is an expanding worry to public health making the need for consideration to decrease the potential health impacts it has on the human population. HIV is running fast in the population because of low salary, poor or no medicinal services, flooding rates of sexually transmitted infection's and people who have no idea of their HIV status.
A brief description of whether the initiative is a micro or macroeconomic program
The public health initiative to help lessen and counteract HIV is a macroeconomic program. The HIV issue is not just an individual concern yet additionally influences the country in general. When individuals are HIV, they are prone to various medical conditions like pneumonia, tuberculosis (TB), and other respiratory infections; lymphoma, cervical cancer, and other cancers; cardiovascular disease; and problems that affect the brain and central nervous system such as dementia, nerve damage, and memory problems, which have the potential of influencing the productivity of such people (Iribarren et al., 2018). At the point when a critical number of people are not productive because of HIV and these conditions, it turns into a risk to a nation's monetary development on the grounds that the country development is reliant on the profitability of its natives. At the end of 2015, an estimated 1.1 million persons aged 13 and older were living with HIV infection in the United States, including an estimated 162,500 (15%) persons whose infections had not been diagnosed. A ton of assets allotment is towards guaranteeing healthcare administrations are accessible to people in general to get to treatment for HIV and conditions that are appended to them.
A determination of whether the result of the initiative is a public or private good
The public health initiative in diminishing HIV is a public good. In economics, public goods are those which its utilization by one individual does not decrease the sum accessible for others to expend and are comprehensive to such an extent that nobody is barred from getting a charge out of the advantages related with them (Grossman, Pierskalla, & Dean, 2017). Public health initiatives are an element of different components both b.
The new public health and std hiv preventionSpringer
This document discusses social determinants of sexually transmitted infections. It explores how social factors like education, occupation, neighborhoods, and media can influence sexual behaviors and networks, thereby affecting STI spread. Key determinants of STI transmission include likelihood of transmission during sex, number of sexual partners, and partnership patterns. Factors like consistent condom use, access to healthcare, sex education, sexual network patterns, and timing of partnerships all influence STI rates at a population level.
1) Community-based interventions have been shown to successfully change risky behaviors and prevent HIV transmission when they incorporate cultural elements, community participation, and education programs delivered by community leaders.
2) Effective interventions identify factors influencing HIV transmission, tailor prevention strategies to specific populations, and address barriers like discrimination and lack of culturally competent healthcare services.
3) For HIV-positive injecting drug users, improved access to substance abuse treatment, healthcare, housing support and antiretroviral therapy through community programs can achieve comparable health outcomes to non-drug users.
Primary Care and Behavioral Health Integration – Leveraging psychologists’ ro...Michael Changaris
Background and Importance: Violence stands as a significant cause of death in the United States, contributing to various health and mental health issues. The role of psychologists has evolved into an essential component of healthcare.
Despite a decrease over several decades, rates of violence have begun to rise again. However, the prevailing approach often focuses on managing the aftermath of violence rather than tackling its underlying causes. Each community possesses its own distinct profile of factors that either elevate or mitigate the risk of violence.
Primary Care Behavioral Health Integration presents a broadly applicable method for preventing violence, offering a hyper-local approach that targets the specific health needs of individuals, families, and communities. By adapting established evidence-based strategies for healthcare improvement, primary prevention can significantly reduce violence.
Methods and Description: This presentation will provide practical tools and general measures to effectively merge behavioral healthcare with primary care systems, fostering violence reduction at the levels of the community, healthcare facility, and healthcare providers. The implementation of universal precautions for violence reduction will be outlined, along with a structured approach to establish violence reduction advocates and teams. These teams will be equipped to assess the unique local risks, manifestations, and impacts of violence within the community they serve.
Outcomes: Through the incorporation of a 7-factor violence risk reduction strategy within primary care behavioral health, collaborative multidisciplinary teams can effectively diminish instances of interpersonal, individual, and community violence. The application of the "four Ts" model (Training, Triage, Treatment, Team Care) empowers primary care clinicians and integrated healthcare settings to enhance individual clinical outcomes, overall clinic population health, and actively champion community-wide violence reduction.
Assessment of the level of awareness on AIDS/HIV in Johor, MalaysiaSriramNagarajan17
This document summarizes a study that assessed awareness of HIV/AIDS among 396 respondents in Johor, Malaysia. The study found that respondents had moderately high overall knowledge of HIV/AIDS, though some misconceptions remained. Most respondents knew that high-risk behaviors like needle sharing and unprotected sex can transmit HIV, but fewer were aware of risks from activities like tattooing or sharing personal items. While most knew there is no cure for HIV/AIDS, over half believed incorrectly that washing after sex prevents transmission. The study provides insight into awareness levels and information gaps regarding HIV/AIDS in Johor.
This document summarizes a study examining HIV testing practices among healthcare providers in Washington D.C. The following key points are made:
1. A survey of over 4,000 providers in D.C. found that while most agree HIV screening is important, only 21% reported testing over 90% of patients. Barriers to testing included limited time and concerns over costs/reimbursement.
2. The survey results indicate gaps in provider knowledge - only 28% were aware of the severity of HIV/AIDS in D.C. and 56-68% knew but did not implement CDC and D.C. testing guidelines.
3. The study aims to address these gaps by distributing the survey to
Increase Knowledge of PrEP for HIV Prevention Prophylaxis.pdfstudywriters
This document discusses increasing healthcare provider knowledge of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for HIV prevention through academic detailing. It notes that while PrEP is an effective prevention method, lack of provider education has limited its integration into patient care. The document outlines making edits to a DNP project proposal to use quantitative methods for measuring knowledge gains from academic detailing about PrEP, as the original qualitative approach was not approved. It provides background on PrEP and the problem of limited provider and patient awareness negatively impacting uptake.
PAGE 24The perceptions of health workers on the effecti.docxalfred4lewis58146
PAGE
24
The perceptions of health workers on the effectiveness of HIV Prevention Programmes for MSM in Jamaica
May 2013
Abstract
The Jamaican Ministry of Health (MOH) has framed a policy and strategy that allows for sexual health promotion and HIV prevention programmes to be conducted for men who have sex with men (MSM), despite an enforced legal framework which makes it illegal to participate in anal sex. The population of Jamaica’s MSM accounts for the highest HIV prevalence rate on the island. While the National HIV/ STI Programme conducts a government-run programme, a significant portion of the work is conducted by local and internationally funded non-government organizations (NGO). This study seeks to explore the efficiency of these HIV/AIDS prevention programmes from the experiences and perspectives of the health care workers involved in their implementation. It will utilize qualitative research methodology of a descriptive cross-sectional design. The procedure will involve the use of interviews. These will be conducted with health workers in MSM programmes from NGOs and the Jamaica National HIV/STI Programme. It is expected that the results may indicate a view of success with many programmes, with limitations being attributed to the societal and legal framework within which they work. It may also show disparities between government and locally ran programmes conducted by NGOs. The results of this study will be shared and made available to public libraries, the government of Jamaica and other stakeholders working to alleviate the impact of HIV and AIDS in Jamaica and the world. *
Keywords: HIV/AIDS, health promotion and HIV prevention, men who have sex with men (MSM), Jamaica, sexual health, gay men, other MSM and transgender individuals (GMT).Table of Contents
Page #
Abstract
Introduction
Methodology
Discussion
Conclusion
Reflection
References
Appendix Consent
Appendix Draft Interview
Glossary
Privacy Statement
1. Introduction
This study explores the effectiveness of the HIV and AIDS response within the target population of MSM in Jamaica. It investigates, the views and perspectives of the health workers who carry out or implement these programmes.
Thanks to science, the ability to treat and care for persons living with HIV (PLHIV) and AIDS has grown exponentially. Individuals are defying their prognoses and are living with HIV and AIDS for record number of years than they did when the virus was first discovered. Gay, bisexual, transgendered and other men who have sex with men but may not identify as gay, are disproportionately affected by sexually transmitted infections like HIV (MOH, 2011a). For the purpose of this research the term MSM will be defined and utilized as the public health terminology to capture the target audience of all males who have sex with males.
For the purpose of this research.
This document outlines an intervention strategy to address the high prevalence of HIV in young men who have sex with men (MSM) in Alexandria, Virginia. The strategy involves conducting bi-monthly support group sessions over 10 months led by a part-time facilitator. The goals are to increase knowledge of HIV/STD prevention, decrease risky behaviors like unprotected sex and binge drinking, and ultimately lower new HIV cases in the target population by 5% within a year. Participants will be recruited through various community locations and incentives will be provided to encourage attendance. The intervention is evidence-based and aims to move participants through stages of behavior change. Objectives, activities, evaluations and a budget are included in the plan.
Reply 1 he safety of our patients is an important.docxwrite30
Patient safety is critical in healthcare and focuses on preventing medical errors that can harm patients. A 1999 report found that up to 100,000 patients die each year due to preventable errors. This led to initiatives like the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality to develop tools to improve safety. However, errors are increasingly common in outpatient settings. Reasons include issues with information flow during patient handoffs between providers and human factors like poor documentation that can lead to missed diagnoses or medication errors. Reducing errors requires improved communication and ensuring healthcare workers have the proper expertise.
Technical Guidance on Combination HIV Preventionclac.cab
This document provides guidance on HIV prevention programs for men who have sex with men (MSM) as part of the US President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR). It summarizes that MSM face a disproportionately high risk of HIV in many countries. An effective prevention program requires a combination of structural, biomedical, and behavioral interventions tailored to the specific risks and needs of MSM. PEPFAR supports integrating community outreach, condom distribution, HIV testing, healthcare linkage, health education, and STI treatment into a comprehensive prevention package for MSM.
A bridge too near injecting drug users' sexual behaviourMd. Nakebul Kausar
This document summarizes a study on the personal profiles and health seeking behaviors of injecting drug users (IDUs) in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The study involved interviews with 120 IDUs attending a drug treatment center between March and September 2005. Key findings included: 1) Most respondents (60%) had little knowledge about diseases spread by injecting drugs or needle sharing, with only 17.5% mentioning HIV/AIDS. 2) Regarding protection, 29.2% mentioned not injecting drugs anymore while 34.2% mentioned using sterile needles/syringes. 3) The majority (60%) had never participated in a needle exchange program, with lack of awareness being a key barrier.
A bridge too near injecting drug users' sexual behaviour
Zarone,_Jordan_MPH_Essay(edited)
1. Harm Reduction and HIV in the United States: A Review of the History, Efficacy, and
Future Directions
by
Jordan Zarone
B.S. James Madison University. 2012.
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of
Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
Graduate School of Public Health in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Public Health
University of Pittsburgh
2014
2. ii
UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH
GRADUATE SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH
This essay is submitted
by
Jordan Zarone
on
April 25, 2014
and approved by
Essay Advisor:
Jeremy Martinson, PhD ______________________________________
Academic Rank?????
Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
Graduate School of Public Health
University of Pittsburgh
Essay Reader:
Ronald Stall, PhD ______________________________________
Academic Rank?????
Department of Behavioral and Community Health Sciences
Graduate School of Public Health
University of Pittsburgh
4. iv
ABSTRACT
Since the emergence of HIV in the United States in the 1980s, efforts have been made to
reduce the risk of virus transmission by encouraging alterations in the behaviors that perpetuate
its spread. The advent of harm reduction campaigns aimed towards injection drug users (IDU)
represents one such effort, but these methods have historically not been readily accepted due to
the national attitudes regarding illicit drug use. IDU constitute a population for whom the impact
of HIV continues to be extreme. It is well established that this population engages in risk
behaviors at a level exceeding the non-IDU population, while simultaneously receiving an
inadequate degree of health and prevention services. The prolonged insufficiency of services
targeting IDU has contributed a substantial morbidity and mortality burden to an epidemic of
significant public health importance around the globe. Recently, there has been an upsurge in
the support of employing needle and syringe exchange programs (NSEP) and housing-first (HF)
models as measures to prevent HIV transmission. A favorable attitude towards these programs
and the people they serve, however, has yet to be widely adopted by US policymakers and
mainstream society. This review of primary and secondary literature examines the challenges
faced in the establishment of harm reduction programs in the United States, and considers the
evidence of the efficacy of such programs as they relate to HIV risk behaviors and transmission,
drug injection behavior, and related health outcomes. It was concluded that despite difficulties in
Jeremy Martinson, PhD
Harm Reduction and HIV in the United States: A Review of the History, Efficacy, and
Future Directions
Jordan Zarone, MPH
University of Pittsburgh, 2014
5. v
linking the NSEP and HF harm reduction approaches directly to HIV incidence reduction, there
is substantial evidence in support of reduced HIV risk behavior associated with these programs.
The complexity of the numerous interacting lifestyle factors contributing to HIV risk and
transmission in IDU poses a challenge to researchers, and there is limited cost-effect analysis
available. As evidence supporting the association of harm reduction programs with a decline in
some of the harmful lifestyle factors accumulates, however, there is room for optimism regarding
widespread employment of such programs in the future.
6. vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 1
2.0 METHODS................................................................................................................... 4
3.0 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................... 5
3.1 NEEDLE AND SYRINGE EXCHANGE PROGRAMS................................... 5
3.1.1 BACKGROUND............................................................................................. .5
3.1.2 NSEPS AND HIV INCIDENCE/PREVALENCE...................................... 11
3.1.3 NSEPS AND INJECTION BEHAVIOR..................................................... 13
3.2 HOUSING FIRST PROGRAMS....................................................................... 15
3.2.1 BACKGROUND........................................................................................... 15
3.2.2 HOUSING FIRST AND INJECTION BEHAVIOR.................................. 20
3.2.3 HOUSING FIRST AND PREVENTIVE SERVICE UTILIZATION...... 23
4.0 DISCUSSION.............................................2ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................... 29
7. vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Summary of search terms ................................................................................................. 4
Table 2. NASEN Record of US States Containing Info Providing NSEPs……………………....9
8. viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Map of U.S. States with operational NSEPs ................................................................... 8
Figure 2. Map of U.S. States with Pathways' model HF Programs……………………………..18
10. 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Injection drug users (IDU) were first recognized as an important risk group for
HIV/AIDS in a 1982 edition of the Centers for Disease Control’s (CDC) Morbidity and
Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) (Vlahov et al., 2001). Since the beginning of the HIV
epidemic through 2010, approximately 182,000 IDU died of AIDS related diagnoses in the
United States (CDC, 2012). Of the 16 million people around the globe classified as injection
drug users (IDU), 3 million are HIV positive, and the United States ranks in the top three
contributors to that global statistic (WHO, 2013; Vlahov et al., 2010). IDU represent less than
1% of the US population, however in the United States, as of 2010, IDU constitute 8% of
incident HIV infections and 16% of those living with the virus (CDC, 2012). An additional 3%
of HIV infections were attributed to men who have sex with men (MSM) and also qualify as
IDU (Virginia HIV Epidemiology Profile, 2011). The number of people at risk for HIV as a
result of injection drug use is even higher when the sexual partners of drug users and their
children are included in the equation. It is estimated that injection drug use has either indirectly
or directly accounted for over one-third of AIDS cases since the epidemic began in the United
States (CDC, 2002; DesJarlais et al., 1995).
As a result of the stigmatization surrounding injection drug use, IDU have and continue
to face challenges in obtaining access to HIV prevention services (Vlahov et al., 2010).
Worldwide, it is estimated that a mere 5% of IDU have access to prevention services (Vlahov et
al., 2010). Harm reduction seeks to increase the percentage of IDU with access to HIV
prevention measures. Harm reduction represents an effort to acknowledge drug use as normal
11. 2
instead of punishing the behavior. It looks to equip IDU with tools to empower them as
responsible community members with greater control over their own health, as opposed to
rejecting them from the society and therefore impeding their access to HIV prevention (MacNeil
and Pauly, 2011). The overarching idea behind harm reduction contends that although drug use
may be harmful, the diseases that spread as a result of poor injection practices are a much greater
threat to IDU and the community as a whole.
A multitude of methods have been developed in an attempt to provide IDU with
resources to reduce their risk of HIV transmission, and to treat existing infections, without
necessarily discontinuing their drug use. Structural interventions function to remove barriers to,
or facilitate access to prevention materials and risk reducing behaviors, thereby directly or
indirectly limiting HIV exposure for uninfected individuals and slowing transmission and disease
progression in people living with HIV/AIDS (Aidala et al., 2005). Attempts to implement these
interventions have been met with a great deal of resistance from politicians, society, and
advocacy groups alike. Certain arguments suggest that focusing on drug related risk behaviors
will serve to encourage illicit drug use. Others argue that shifting the focus from primary
prevention to harm reduction in populations already affected by HIV will take resources from
uninfected persons (Gerbert et al., 2008). HIV advocacy groups have even expressed discontent
with harm reduction approaches, asserting that intensified scrutiny of the behaviors of HIV-
positive people would result in increased stigmatization (Gerbert et al., 2008).
The structural intervention methods included in this review are needle and syringe
exchange programs (NSEP) and housing-first interventions (HF). The former method was
selected based on the large body of research available. The latter method was selected because it
presents a unique approach that involves HIV harm reduction in IDU without focusing explicitly
12. 3
on injection practices. Both methods exhibit distinct benefits and challenges in the reduction of
HIV transmission in IDU, and contribute interesting chapters in the ongoing story of harm
reduction in the United States. Most importantly, these methods demonstrate the variety of
lifestyle and behavioral centered approaches to combating the spread of HIV in one of the virus’
most high-risk populations.
13. 4
2.0 METHODS
A review of the literature was initiated by searches in PubMed. Searches were conducted
using the search terms summarized in Table 1, and included only English language peer-
reviewed scholarly articles published on or after January 1, 1994. Article titles and abstracts
were scanned for relevance and articles were included only if they qualified as reviews or meta-
analyses of NSEP or HF related to HIV and IDU. Supplementary primary literature was selected
using the references cited in the reviews, as well as through further PubMed searches adhering to
the same inclusion criteria as mentioned above.
Table 1. A summary of search terms used to generate initial body of literature.
Additional restrictions limited results to reviews published in English between 1994-
2004.
Search Terms N (results)
‘harm reduction’ 758
‘HIV harm reduction’ 105
‘needle exchange’ 145
‘syringe exchange’ 78
‘housing first’ 119
‘HIV housing first’ 2
‘HIV housing’ 29
14. 5
3.0 RESULTS
3.1 NEEDLE AND SYRINGE EXCHANGE PROGRAMS
3.1.1 Background
The sharing of injection materials used by IDU has long been accepted as a risk factor for
the contraction of various blood borne infections. Needle and syringe exchange programs have
been utilized as a means of harm reduction in IDU since the opening of the first formal opening
of an exchange in Amsterdam in 1984 (Vlahov et al., 2001). Although originally intended to
reduce the Hepatitis B transmission, the strategy was applied to HIV and Hepatitis C soon after.
The provision of sterile injection equipment combats transmission of the blood borne infections
by increasing the chances an IDU will have the hardware and knowledge to consistently inject
with an uninfected syringe. The first reported evidence of a decline in needle sharing and
injection frequency, concurrent with needle exchange, was released from the Amsterdam
exchange in 1988, and other European countries began adopting the strategy in response to the
growing HIV/AIDS epidemic (Vlahov et al., 2001).
Unfortunately the appearance of HIV/AIDS in the United States coincided with a national
adoption of the political movement known as the War on Drugs (Drug Policy Alliance, 2014).
Because of the taboo nature of injection drug use, and the opinion that distribution of sterile
15. 6
injecting equipment would only encourage drug use, Americans arrived late to the NSEP game.
The first glimpse of the harm reduction approach in the United States came in the form of a
former IDU, Jon Parker (PBS Frontline, 2006). Parker began illegally distributing sterile
syringes to IDU in New Haven, Connecticut after learning of the success of NSEPs in Europe
(PBS Frontline, 2006). The first wave of organized NSEPs opened in Tacoma, New York City,
Portland and San Francisco between 1988 and 1989, but these programs received little support
and were operated under stringent regulations (Vlahov et al., 2001). There were limitations on
the number of syringes a user could obtain from the exchange, and police frequently, if not
permanently, monitored the structures out of which the programs were operated.
The following excerpt from a New York Times article from March of 1989 reflects the
controversy surrounding early NSEP programs:
Two weeks before Health Secretary Dr. Louis W. Sullivan endorsed local
programs that let drug addicts trade their dirty needles for clean ones, a
memorandum by a subordinate warned Federal grant recipients that they could
lose the aid if they ran such efforts. The memorandum told 41 AIDS programs
financed by the National Institute on Drug Abuse that Federal Policy prohibits
“any kind of Federal support” for programs that distribute clean needles to addicts
to help stop the spread of the deadly virus. (New York Times, 1989)
Other federal funding restrictions were enacted over the course of the late 1980s and early 1990s
making it difficult to run NSEPs and conduct further research into NSEPs that had already
shown promising results in IDU populations (Vlahov et al., 2001). As a result of the stunted
influx of research funds, most evidence in favor of NSEPs came from privately funded studies
and initially garnered little attention from the public.
The ban on federal funding of NSEPs was lifted in 2009, by which time a substantial
body of evidence had been gathered demonstrating positive outcomes for IDU involved in
16. 7
NSEPs (Sharon, 2009; Vlahov et al., 2001). Although the lift of the ban did not guarantee
federal funding to any of the NSEPs in operation, the political message sent in favor of harm
reduction practices was considered a victory for public health (Sharon, 2009). The victory was
short lived, however, as the ban was reinstated in 2011 (Egelko, 2011). By this time, the
majority of NSEPs had adapted ways to operate in the absence of federal funding, but the
reinstatement of the ban stifled ambitions for expansion of services (Egelko, 2011). Many states
worked around the restriction on NSEP funding by permitting the sale of syringes from
pharmacies without a prescription. Although the removal of barriers to syringe distribution from
pharmacies should be cited as a progressive measure in reducing blood borne illness
transmission, the anonymity afforded to users by NSEPs is lacking in the pharmacy setting,
which may deter IDU (Public Health Law Research, 2013).
In addition to providing sterile injection equipment to participants in NSEPs, these
establishments deliver services including condoms, pore filters, counseling, and references to
outside resources such as clinics, social workers, and drug rehab centers (Hilton et al., 2001;
Vlahov et al., 2010). The operators of NSEPs are often counselors, clinicians, or peers who are
able to relate to IDU in a supportive manner that encourages the safe practice methodology
advocated by the exchange programs. NSEPs and those who work within them function as a
refuge from the discrimination faced by IDU in a society that criminalizes and criticizes drug
use. As this stigma has frequently been identified as an obstacle to quality health care access, its
elimination or reduction in the NSEP environment serves to increase the chances of improved
health outcomes for IDU who utilize NSEPs (MacNeil & Pauly, 2011). The improved health
outcomes result, in part, from the acquisition of the medical and drug treatment referrals offered
by NSEPs (Bowen, 2012).
17. 8
Today, in the United States, there are approximately 227 NSEPs providing at least a
portion of the described services, distributed throughout 31 of the continental states and the
District of Columbia (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2013). The geographical concentrations of
NSEP states fall on the West Coast and in the North East extending around the Great Lakes up to
Minnesota (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2013). As shown in Figure 1, there is a gaping
interruption in coverage across the Mid West and in most of the South East.
Figure 1. The map displays states with operating NSEPs as of 2013. Those displayed in yellow
lack NSEPs, while the blue areas represent states that currently have functioning exchange
programs. (Adapted from the Kaiser Family Foundation Sterile Syringe Exchange Programs
map, 2014)
The majority of the NSEPs in the states indicated by the map are found in major cities and
metropolitan areas with high population density. There are NSEPs present in rural areas also,
but only in a handful of states. The North American Syringe Exchange Network provides a list
of North American programs that have permitted the public display of their contact information.
18. 9
Although the list does not contain all of the NSEPs in the United States, it offers a good picture
of the places and populations served. Table 2 summarizes the information provided by NASEN.
Table 2. A list of the states containing NSEPs that allow the display of contact information by
the North American Needle Exchange Program, the number of reported NSEPs in each state, and
the number of urban or suburban/rural NSEPs contributing to the total reported (NASEN: US
Syringe Exchange Program Database, 2014).
State/Territory # NSEPs Reported # Urban # Rural/Suburban
Alaska 2 2 0
Arizona 2 2 0
California 35 29 6
Colorado 4 4 0
Connecticut 4 4 0
D.C. 4 4 0
Delaware 1 1 0
Florida 1 1 0
Georgia 1 1 0
Hawaii 1 1 0
Illinois 10 7 3
Indiana 1 1 0
Louisiana 5 5 0
Massachusetts 5 3 2
Maryland 1 1 0
Maine 4 3 1
Michigan 7 5 2
Minnesota 6 5 1
19. 10
State/Territory # NSEPs Reported # Urban # Rural/Suburban
Missouri 1 1 0
Montana 2 2 0
North Carolina 4 4 0
New Jersey 5 5 0
New Mexico 49 31 18
New York 21 18 3
Ohio 2 1 1
Oregon 7 6 1
Pennsylvania 2 2 0
Puerto Rico 3 3 0
Rhode Island 2 2 0
Vermont 3 1 2
Washington 20 14 6
Wisconsin 14 12 2
The distribution of NSEPs, according to the available location information, clearly favors urban
areas over rural and suburban locations, consistent with many other health services. Although
there are injection drug users located in every type of geographic area, the practice is most
common in urban settings. According to a 2012 TEDS Report comparing rural and urban
substance abuse, urban drug users are more likely to abuse heroin and cocaine, while rural abuse
of alcohol, marijuana, and methamphetamine is more common (Substance Abuse and Mental
Health Services Administration, 2012). Heroin and cocaine can both be injected and are cited as
20. 11
two of the most common illegal injection drugs among HIV positive persons (Diaz et al., 1994;
AIDS.gov, 2014). Methamphetamine (meth) can also be injected, contributing to the danger of
HIV transmission posed by its use. Smoking is the most common mode of meth use, however,
and its association with HIV transmission is most often a result of the enhanced sex drive and
increase in unprotected sexual encounters resulting from the characteristic energy boost felt
while high (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2014). These drug use patterns, which suggest
greater injection tendencies among urban drug users, likely influence the placement location of
NSEPs. Moreover, placing NSEPs in areas of high population density increases the odds of
impacting larger numbers of people, which is important when funding is limited.
3.1.2 NSEPs and HIV Incidence/Prevalence
A multitude of studies, and reviews of studies, have been published over the lifespan of
NSEPs, related to the efficacy of such programs in reducing the incidence and/or prevalence of
HIV/AIDS. Researchers have made conclusions all across the board, but an overwhelming
majority of the evidence falls in favor of a weak to moderate positive correlation between NSEPs
and reduction in HIV transmission. Strength of the evidence associated with HIV infection risk
is limited by the difficulty of controlling other risk behaviors, especially sexual risk behaviors, in
the study population. Studies have looked into the relationship between NSEP presence and HIV
transmission in countries around the globe, all following a similar pattern of support for NSEP
efficacy. International studies were considered in terms of the overall evaluation of NSEPs as
harm reduction strategies, but for the purpose of this review, only analyses of U.S. programs
were given emphasis.
21. 12
Gibson, Flynn, and Perales (2001) conducted a review including seven longitudinal
studies evaluating the effect of NSEP utilization and blood borne virus seroconversion. Of the
seven, four were conducted within IDU communities in the United States. Three of the four
studies, conducted with IDU in Portland and New York City (2) demonstrate a protective effect
of NSEP usage against HIV seroconversion (Gibson, Flynn, & Perales, 2001). The fourth study,
conducted in Seattle, Washington, focused on HCV and HBV and shows no effect (Gibson,
Flynn, & Perales, 2001).
A study conducted by Heller et al. (2009) cites a 41% reduction in HIV prevalence
among New York City IDU from 1990 to 2001, coincident with the expansion of NSEPs.
Hurley, Jolley and Kaldor (1997) compared HIV seroprevalence in 29 cities containing NSEPs
with seroprevalence in 52 cities without NSEPs. The results were not as drastic as the Heller
finding, but a 5.9% yearly average increase in seroprevalence was observed in cities lacking
NSEPs while cities with NSEPs experienced an average decrease of 5.8% per year (Hurley,
Jolley, & Kaldor, 1997).
A review and meta-analysis conducted by Aspinall et al. (2014) assesses the pooled effect
of NSEPs in reducing HIV transmission over data collected from 12 studies. Of the 12 studies,
10 were cohorts, one was case-control, and one was cross-sectional. The meta-analysis found a
protective effect was afforded to participants in the included NSEPs, five of which are located in
the United States (Aspinall et al., 2014). Of the five U.S. studies, three individually demonstrate
a protective effect of NSEP utilization, and two found NSEP users to be at higher risk for HIV
infection (Aspinall et al., 2014). In several other reviews citing studies that found NSEP
participants to be at a higher risk for HIV than non-participants, the authors reasoned that this
was because IDU who utilize NSEP services are typically already high-risk individuals, even
22. 13
compared to other IDU (Palmateer et al., 2010). It was argued that these individuals would
exhibit elevated risk for HIV regardless of participation in NSEPs, and that their existing
elevated risk is what prompted them to use NSEPs in the first place.
A 2000 review by Coffin cites eight US government studies (National Commission on
AIDS 1991; General Accounting Office 1993; University of California for CDC 1993; National
Academy of Science 1993; Office of Technology Assessment 1995; National Institutes of Health
Consensus Conference 1995; and Department of Health and Human Services 1997 and 1998)
which all concluded that there was a reduction in HIV transmission as a result of NSEPs. The
review also points out that every one of these eight government-supported studies makes the
determination that NSEPs do not increase drug use, contrary to a popular argument against
NSEP funding (Coffin, 2000).
3.1.3 NSEPs and Injection Behavior
As an indirect measure of the capacity of NSEPs to reduce HIV incidence and prevalence
rates within the injection drug using community, many studies have concentrated attention on the
changes in IDU risk behavior as a result of the provision of NSEP services. Risk behaviors in
these assessments include needle and syringe borrowing or sharing, and needle and syringe
reuse. The United States and other higher income countries have consistently generated
convincing evidence of NSEP driven reduction in risky injection behaviors (Dutta et al., 2012).
A 2010 review by Palmateer et al. cites evidence from 43 studies pertaining to NSEP impact on
IDU risk behavior. Reductions in self-reported needle and syringe sharing and reuse were
demonstrated in 39 of the 43 studies (Palmateer et al., 2010). The reduced risk behaviors
reported in the studies were all associated with NSEP utilization at an association rating of
23. 14
moderate or strong (Palmateer et al., 2010). Gibson, Flynn, and Perales (2001) cite evidence
from four cross-sectional studies of U.S. IDU populations showing decreases in borrowing and
lending of syringes coincident with an increase in NSEP presence or distribution volume. The
same review cites three observational studies in San Francisco (2) and New York City in which
IDU who had recently participated in NSEPs were less likely to borrow or lend syringes than
IDU who had not participated in NSEPs (Gibson, Flynn, & Perales, 2001).
Positive effects on injection behavior have been shown to increase when sterile syringe
availability is less restricted. Researchers in Vancouver, British Columbia observed a significant
decline in the rates of syringe borrowing and lending following a NSEP policy change
emphasizing syringe distribution rather than an exchange-only strategy (Kerr et al., 2010). Kerr
et al. (2010) reported a nearly 11% decline in syringe borrowing, and a 12.3% decrease in
syringe lending over a five year period surrounding the policy change. Drach et al. (2011)
provide additional support for the concept of increasing distribution in lieu of cut and dry
exchange in a pilot program based in Portland, Oregon. Compared to a baseline distribution
evaluation made of the original 1-for-1 exchange practice, the pilot program doubled its
distribution volume, increased the number of dirty syringes turned in and expanded distribution
networks after relaxing restrictions on syringe distribution (Drach et al., 2011). According to
Heller (2009) and based on the findings of the eight government studies discussed above, it is
reasonable to assume that an increase in clean syringe circulation indicates a reduction in reuse
of unsterile injection materials, and an increase in safe injection practice, rather than an increase
in drug injection frequency.
A 2010 Lancet review offers that the effect of NSEPs on the reduction of HIV incidence
is likely proportional to the volume of sterile syringes entering circulation, as more IDU are able
24. 15
to avoid the use of dirty injection material (Degenhardt et al., 2010). Conversely, arguments can
also be made in favor of a strict exchange policy as they function to reduce the number of used
syringes in circulation by requiring IDU to turn them in.
3.2 HOUSING FIRST PROGRAMS
3.2.1 Background
Among IDU, individuals classified as homeless have demonstrated a quicker HIV sero-
conversion rate than users whose housing situation is considered stable, and therefore comprise
an inimitable risk group for which additional harm reduction tactics must be employed (Milloy,
Marshall, Montaner, & Wood, 2012). Looking at housing as a risk factor independent of
injection drug use, the HIV seroprevalence among homeless and marginally housed is 5-10 times
higher than that of the stably housed population (Milloy, Marshall, Montaner, & Wood, 2012;
Aidala et al., 2005; Kidder et al., 2007). HAART access and adherence is poor in the homeless
population, compared with HIV positive individuals in permanent, stable housing (Milloy,
Marshall, Montaner, & Wood, 2012). Adherence is an even greater challenge for homeless IDU,
as their drug use can lead to incarceration, negative interference with HAART, and an inability
to maintain a treatment schedule (Kerr et al., 2005). In addition to deficient HAART utilization,
marginally housed persons have low contact with the healthcare system in general, despite high
rates of disease (Milloy, Marshall, Montaner, & Wood, 2012). As a result of their
disconnectedness to the healthcare system, they are less also likely to make use of specific risk
reduction services (Aidala et al., 2005; Aidala et al., 2007). Included in these risk reduction
services are NSEPs and drug rehabilitation programs. Homeless IDU are more likely to share
25. 16
injection equipment, and have a higher rate of injection than those in stable living situations,
characteristics likely associated with their lack of access to and use of risk reduction services
(Dickinson-Gomez et al., 2011).
Weir et al. (2007) describes housing as a fundamental determinant dictating which social
and physical risk factors make up an individual’s environmental risk profile. The lack of
housing characterizing homeless and marginally housed persons creates their unique
environmental risk profile. These individuals are challenged daily with exposures not
experienced by the stably housed population; including hard drug use, sex exchange, communal
sleeping arrangements, inclement weather, and the street violence associated with the low
income areas in which homeless and unstably housed people are typically located (Cisneros,
2007; Milloy, Marshall, Montaner, & Wood, 2012; Aidala et al., 2005). Individuals without a
permanent, stable living arrangement lack a safe place to store their belongings, which may
include medication, clean syringes, condoms, and other harm reduction materials (Weir et al.,
2007). Not having a secure place to sleep also hinders the ability to sustain stable intimate
relationships, increasing the likelihood that a marginally housed individual will engage in sex
with multiple partners or trade sex for other commodities (Aidala et al., 2005; Weir et al., 2007).
Shooting up in public places becomes increasingly common when people lack permanent
housing, and sterile injection procedures become a low priority.
Housing first (HF) programs seek to mitigate the health threats faced by homeless and
marginally housed individuals by prioritizing stable housing over all other treatment aims (Hawk
and Davis, 2012). These programs, like NSEPs, embody the harm reduction ideal of supporting
any positive change in a person’s lifestyle to achieve better health, rather than mandating
sobriety. Although supportive housing programs have been used for decades, HF systems take
26. 17
on a different approach than that which has been traditionally used. Formerly established
methods, such as the Continuum of Care model, work on a step-by-step process where the aim is
to gradually transition homeless into independent housing over time to ensure readiness. One
component of the readiness, as defined by the traditional supportive housing approach, is
abstinence or sobriety from substance use (Hawk and Davis, 2012). The HF school of thought
promotes immediate permanent housing, after which other health and social needs can be more
effectively addressed (Hawk and Davis, 2012). Once a person is housed, HF programs provide
support in the form of counselors, social workers, career services, and linkages to health and
rehabilitation services (Hawk and Davis, 2012). Through the combination of these services, and
the removal of barriers to health maintenance present on the streets and in shelters, housing
interventions establish an environment facilitating HIV prevention (Degenhardt et al., 2010).
Pathways to Housing is generally credited with being the first HF model, established in
New York in 1992 (United States Interagency Council on Homelessness, 2013; Pathways to
Housing, 2014). The Pathways model, which has been applied in over 40 U.S. cities, as well as
abroad, is built around the goal of ending homelessness first, then reducing substance abuse and
poor health outcomes (USICH, 2013; Pathways to Housing, 2014). The model uses a scattered-
site approach to avoid clustering too many units together and prevents the creation of a housing
program atmosphere (USICH, 2013; Pathways to Housing, 2014). The strategic avoidance of
clustering units has been advocated in past studies examining community acceptance of
supportive housing programs, and increases the degree of integration experienced by
participants. At the core of each program is a multi-disciplinary Assertive Community
Treatment (ACT) team, which, composed of social workers, medical professionals, and
substance abuse counselors, functions to provide support to residents after they have secured
27. 18
housing within the program’s units (USICH, 2013). HF programs modeled after the Pathways
system typically also have some version of an ACT. Figure 2 maps the states with HF programs
that utilize the model exemplified by Pathways to Housing.
Figure 2. A map of states harboring communities engaged in Pathways’ Housing First. The blue
shaded states contain Pathways’ model HF programs, while the yellow states either lack HF
programs or have an alternative version supportive housing. (map created using HF location
information provided by Pathways to Housing: Housing First in the U.S., 2014)
Similar to the national distribution of NSEPs, the states of the Mid West stand out as a
large cluster devoid of HF programs. Keeping in mind that the map only applies to states with
supportive housing systems that use the HF model originated by Pathways, the pattern of
absence of harm reduction programs in the Mid West is still noteworthy. A possible explanation
for the absence of HF programs in the yellow states of the Mid West is provided by the Housing
Opportunities for Persons With AIDS (HOPWA) Housing Innovations in HIV Care publication
(2012). This summary of the program and its accomplishments since 1992 contains a description
of how HOPWA sponsored housing assistance programs are funded, and where the most and
28. 19
least funding is distributed. Formula funding accounts for 90% of the money allotted to
programs by HOPWA, and is dependent on the number of AIDS cases and total population in the
locality (HOPWA, 2012). The remaining 10% of funds are competitively awarded to programs
based on innovative practices or accommodations for special populations (HOPWA, 2012). Not
surprisingly, states in the middle of the country receive the least amount of formula funding
compared to other geographical regions. According to the report, in 2012, Montana, Wyoming,
North Dakota and South Dakota received no formula funding whatsoever. This does not mean
that these states are without provisions for the homeless. The U.S. Department of Housing and
Urban Development’s 2013 Continuum of Care Homeless Assistance Programs: Housing
Inventory Count Report contains state by state information indicating that every state in the U.S.,
regardless of HOPWA funding, provides some form of permanent supportive housing (HUD,
2013). The relatively low reported numbers of total “beds” classified as “permanent supportive
housing” in the aforementioned states may be a result of low funding, or may simply reflect a
lack of necessity compared with densely populated metropolitan areas and coast line states
(HUD, 2013).
The United States Interagency Council on Homelessness provides snapshots of HF
programs in Alameda County, CA, Seattle, WA, Chicago, IL, and a statewide program in Rhode
Island, citing them as examples of the multi-faceted positive impact achievable using the HF
model of permanent supportive housing. Notable findings of studies evaluating each of the
programs included high retention rates for participants, decreased hospitalization and
incarceration rates, large cost-savings, and reduction in viral load for participants with HIV
(USICH, 2013). The Rhode Island program saw an 80% retention rate after one year of the
program and $1.45 million in total year savings as a result of reduced jail, ER, and shelter usage,
29. 20
even with the price of supportive services accounted for (USICH, 2013). Seattle’s DESC HF
program saw a 74% retention rate after one year, a 30% decrease in participant hospital visits,
and $4 million in tax payer savings attributed to reductions in health and crisis system costs
(USICH, 2013). An 18-month study of the Chicago Housing for Health Partnership program
found that HF program participants required fewer hospitalizations and ER visits than study
participants who received other forms of housing support (USICH, 2013). This same study
found that HIV positive participants included in the HF group were twice as likely to achieve
undetectable viral loads as HIV positive patients receiving other forms of housing support
(USICH, 2013). Finally, the HF program participants in Alameda Co., California achieved an
83% decrease in new incarcerations and a 94% decrease in days spent homeless over the 2006-
2010 time period (USICH, 2013).
The cost-savings, alleviation of stress on the health and crisis systems, and reduction in
incarcerations and homelessness are all positives outcomes of HF programs on the communities
in which they are implemented and the homeless populations they serve. Considering the strong
association between injection drug use, HIV, and homelessness, these positive outcomes function
also as predictors of the value HF programs are capable of imparting as HIV harm reduction
strategies specific to IDU.
3.2.2 Housing-First and Injection Behavior
As with NSEP efficacy measures, injection behavior has been used as an indicator of the
effect of HF programs on HIV transmission among IDU. It should be noted that even among
IDU who already have HIV, a positive change in injection behavior is beneficial in reducing
transmission rates within the community as these individuals are less likely to pass the virus on
30. 21
to someone else. The majority of the studies investigating injection behavior changes look at
housing status transition, and not specifically at HF programs. Since HF programs exemplify a
transition from homelessness to housing stability, however, the results of these studies have been
applied as predictors of the outcomes ensuing from HF implementation in parallel populations.
A study conducted by Weir, et al., examined the relationships between five housing
indicators related to stability and support and four HIV risk behaviors (2007). Two of the HIV
risk behaviors—hard drug use and needle sharing—were specifically relevant to IDU. The
housing indicators evaluated were objective stability, subjective stability, supportive housing,
number of residences in the last 6 months, and need for housing services (Weir et al., 2007). It
was determined that study subjects who lived in a housing situation classified as “objectively
unstable” had higher odds of hard drug use than those whose situation was “objectively stable”
(Weir et al., 2007, S33). Individuals who experienced improvements in their “objective housing
stability” demonstrated lower odds of hard drug use than individuals whose status did not change
over the course of the study (Weir et al., 2007, S40). Subjects who moved from “subjectively
stable” to “subjectively unstable” housing arrangements became five times more likely to share
needles and syringes (Weir et al., 2007, S40). Supportive housing environments demonstrated a
substantial impact on drug use and injection practices. Those who were initially classified as
excluded from supportive housing were three to five times more likely to use hard drugs and
share needles compared to the subjects involved in supportive housing (Weir et al., 2007).
Subjects who transitioned into supportive housing over the course of the study saw a great
reduction in odds of hard drug use (Weir et al., 2007). There is a possibility that this reduction
was a result of sobriety requirements upheld by some supportive housing systems. Additional
factors that could impact this behavior, however, include access to rehabilitation services, and
31. 22
social norms promoted in these housing situations (Weir et al., 2007). This possibility should be
considered in favor of HF programs, as participation in these is not contingent on drug cessation
and therefore would not experience a reduction in risk behavior in line with the former
explanation.
Aidala, et al., completed an analysis of a pooled interview data set taken from HIV
positive medical and social service clients, in which housing was evaluated as a contextual factor
impacting HIV risk behavior (2005). Baseline rates of risk behaviors indicated that the odds of
hard drug use and needle sharing within the 6 months prior to assessment were three to six times
higher in those who were homeless compared to those with stable housing (Aidala et al., 2005).
Comparisons between HIV positive persons with unstable housing (not completely homeless)
and those with housing stability also demonstrated a difference in drug risk behavior. Subjects
with stable housing demonstrated drug use and needle sharing rates as low as 1/3 those of
unstably housed subjects at baseline (Aidala et al., 2005). Even after adjusting the primary
evaluation model to add controls for demographics and health service utilization, the same dose
response effect was observed, where each increasing level of housing stability was associated
with a decrease risk behavior (Aidala et al., 2005). The same study also looked at changes in
drug risk behavior after a change in housing status. The odds of recent drug use in the 23% of
the study population whose housing status improved was approximately half that of the group
whose housing status was unchanged (Aidala et al., 2005). When drug use, injection, and needle
sharing behaviors were looked at in combination, risk decreased by 11.4% in subjects who
experienced housing improvement and only by 3.8% with no housing change (Aidala et al.,
2005). Conversely, no change in housing was associated with an 8.7% increase in drug risk
32. 23
initiation, while risk increased by 4.4% in those with a housing improvement (Aidala et al.,
2005).
3.2.3 Housing-First and Prevention Service Utilization
Since housing-first programs, by definition, focus on getting homeless and marginally
housed persons off the streets and into permanent housing before meeting other health and
treatment needs, the proportion of participants who actually connect with health services upon
housing attainment can vary. Ideally, in order to maximize the positive outcomes for those who
participate in supportive housing, 100% of clients would become connected with, and remain in,
health services. Although that number is idyllic, it is not likely realistic at the present. As an
alternative indicator of efficacy, researchers have looked for an increase in usage of health and
treatment programs by individuals involved in supportive housing programs, compared with
baseline usage or the utilization by homeless persons. Specific to IDU and people living with
HIV/AIDS, these services can range from drug rehabilitation to non-emergent medical care to
anti-retroviral treatment programs.
A study conducted by Aidala et al. examined the relationship between housing status and
connection to HIV care, and found that the receipt of housing assistance directly and
independently contributed to improved access to HIV medical care (2007). Based on the
analysis of interview data from a collection of persons living with HIV/AIDS in New York City,
the interview participants experiencing homelessness or housing needs were significantly less
likely to be receiving medical HIV care than those without housing needs (Aidala et al., 2007).
The same group was also found to be about 1/3 as likely to have entered into medical HIV care
over time, compared to those without housing needs (Aidala et al., 2007). Participants not
33. 24
initially receiving medical care were two times as likely to enter into medical HIV care once they
received housing assistance, compared to PLWHA who did not receive housing assistance
(Aidala et al., 2007).
A review by Milloy, Marshall, Montaner, and Wood (2012) cites evidence from several
studies that specifically shed light on the role of housing on HAART adherence in illicit drug
users. Two of the studies, one in the United States and one in Canada, identified homelessness
as a barrier to HAART treatment (Milloy, Marshall, Montaner, & Wood, 2012). Another study,
conducted among IDU in several sites in the United States, determined that stable housing was
associated with HAART uptake and adherence (Milloy, Marshall, Montaner, & Wood, 2012).
Notably, the same review cites a Pittsburgh case study in which 69% of residents in a harm
reduction housing program were able to achieve undetectable viral loads (Milloy, Marshall,
Montaner, & Wood, 2012).
A 2004 study conducted by Tsemberis, Gulcur, and Nakae compared HF to the
continuum of care housing support model in terms of treatment/service utilization, housing
attainment and perceived consumer choice using a sample of homeless individuals in New York
City (Tsemberis, Gulcur, & Nakae, 2004). The study found that members of the experimental
group (those enlisted in the HF program) were less likely to make use of substance abuse
treatment programs than those in the continuum of care control group (Tsemberis, Gulcur, &
Nakae, 2004). The finding is not surprising considering the mandatory sobriety or substance
abuse treatment required by the continuum of care housing model that is not required in the HF
model. A more surprising finding, however, was that HF program participants, despite lower
participation in treatment programs, were not found to exhibit significant differences in
substance use compared with the control group (Tsemberis, Gulcur, & Nakae, 2004). This
34. 25
suggests that even without requiring abstinence or substance abuse program participation, the HF
model achieved comparable success in limiting substance use. Additionally, the HF participants
had significantly faster transitions from homeless status to stably housed status than the
continuum of care participants, and reported more time spent in stable housing than the control
group (Tsemberis, Gulcur, & Nakae, 2004). These results, as well as the 80% housing retention
rate seen in the experimental group, speak to the advantage of HF models over traditional
supportive housing that require treatment program utilization. The HF participants, despite
lower utilization of services, were still able to retain housing and maintain substance abuse rates
similar to their counterparts in the control group. The voluntary nature of program participation
offered by HF programs and the enhanced feeling of consumer choice imparts more
independence to residents, which may be critical to its success.
35. 26
4.0 DISCUSSION
Over the course of the past several decades, IDU have presented distinct challenges to
public health workers attempting to curb the spread of HIV. It has been difficult to acquire the
necessary political and community support and funding to implement strategies effective in the
IDU population. As a result of legislative bans, NSEPs must function without federal funding,
and HF programs compete for funds with arguably less effective housing provisions.
Demonstrating the efficacy of programs that do manage to receive or produce funding has also
presented obstacles. The transient and elusive nature of the IDU population, especially those
classified as homeless, compromise the ability for any control over research studies. Self-report
biases and the ethics involved in comparing treatment and control groups also undermine the
ability to derive strong evidence from the studies of this population. There continues to be made
available, however, more and more convincing research in support of the practice of harm
reduction strategies in dealing with HIV in substance users.
This review has cited evidence from several pieces of literature that function to provide
said support. Looking at the United States alone, a significant body of investigation has yielded
results in favor of the use of NSEPs and HF programs to ameliorate injection behavior, which,
when practiced poorly, is the chief element in HIV transmission in IDU. NSEPs and HF
programs provide linkages to care and rehabilitation services, which, though not mandatorily
imposed, have demonstrated effectiveness in reducing or maintaining levels of substance abuse.
36. 27
Participation in NSEPs and HF programs has been associated with increases in HAART uptake
and adherence, enhancing the prognosis of HIV positive IDU. HF programs are extremely
effective at reducing homelessness, which has a well-documented association with both HIV and
injection drug use, and results in demonstrated cost-savings to the communities involved.
Until there is a cure for HIV, structural interventions that successfully reduce the spread
of the virus provide the best options for the health and wellness of those with lifestyle factors
that put them at great risk for HIV. These programs must be as inclusive as possible, and should
provide accommodations for persons currently living with the virus as well as those at risk.
NSEPs and HF programs demonstrate both of those principles by maintaining policies that
welcome participants with minimal stipulations. The fortification of participant autonomy
displayed by NSEPs and HF programs gives these programs an advantage over more stringently
regulated efforts and emphasizes the harm reduction principle of consumer choice. They
exemplify the principles of harm reduction by encouraging any improvement that will benefit the
health of the participant as well as the community, and benefits to both have been substantiated
in the literature.
Although it is difficult to definitively tie NSEPs and HF programs with a reduction in
HIV incidence/prevalence, both harm reduction strategies have exhibited repeated consistent
effects on risk factors contributing to HIV transmission in IDU. These harm reduction strategies
have achieved positive outcomes without substantial government funding, and within a
population society has outcast as a lost cause. The success of NSEPs and HF programs in the
United States should be taken as proof that harm reduction is a veritable HIV prevention and
control approach and provide stimulus for the expansion and intersection of these types of
programs. No single approach can possibly succeed in surmounting all of the obstacles
37. 28
presented by HIV/AIDS, but the combined effects of a variety of harm reduction approaches can
certainly make a significant impact on the virus in a special population like IDU.
38. 29
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