Woodworking has been practiced since early humans first started working with materials like wood and stone. Neanderthals were known to use stone tools for woodworking tasks. Early wooden tools and hunting gear have been found from past civilizations. Woodworking involved the use of axes, chisels and saws to carve wood and create items like coffins, chairs, and statues. The Egyptians were one of the earliest civilizations to practice woodworking on a large scale, as evidenced by wooden artifacts found in tombs. Woodworking has evolved with new tools and techniques developed over time in various cultures around the world.

1. Woodworking is the process of making items from wood.
Along with stone, mud and animal parts, wood was one of the first materials worked by early humans. Microwear
analysis of theMousterian stone tools used by the Neanderthals show that many were used to work wood. The
development of civilization was closely tied to the development of increasingly greater degrees of skill in working these
materials.
Woodworking shop in Germany in 1568, the worker in front is using a bow saw, the one in the background is planing.
Among early finds of wooden tools are the worked sticks from Kalambo Falls, Clacton-on-Sea and Lehringen.
The spears fromSchöningen (Germany) provide some of the first examples of wooden hunting gear. Flint tools were
used for carving. Since Neolithic times, carved wooden vessels are known, for example, from the Linear Pottery
culture wells at Kückhofen and Eythra.
Examples of Bronze Age wood-carving include tree trunks worked into coffins from northern Germany
and Denmark and wooden folding-chairs. The site of Fellbach-Schmieden in Germany has provided fine examples of
wooden animal statues from the Iron Age. Woodenidols from the La Tène period are known from a sanctuary at the
source of the Seine in France.
The ancient civilization that first used woodworking was the Egyptians. Woodworking is depicted in many ancient
Egyptian drawings, and a considerable amount of ancient Egyptian furniture (such as
stools, chairs, tables, beds, chests) has been preserved in tombs. As well, the inner coffins found in the tombs were
also made of wood. The metal used by the Egyptians for woodworking tools was originallycopper and eventually, after
[1]
2000 BC bronze as ironworking was unknown until much later.
Commonly used woodworking tools included axes, adzes, chisels, pull saws, and bow drills. Mortise and tenon joints
are attested from the earliest Predynastic period. These joints were strengthened using
[2]
pegs, dowels and leather or cord lashings. Animal glue came to be used only in the New Kingdom period. Ancient
Egyptians invented the art of veneering and used varnishes for finishing, though the composition of these varnishes is
unknown. Although different native acacias were used, as was the wood from the
localsycamore and tamarisk trees, deforestation in the Nile valley resulted in the need for the importation of wood,
[3]
notably cedar, but also Aleppo pine, boxwood and oak, starting from the Second Dynasty.
Damascene woodworkers carving wood forhookahs, 19th century.
The progenitors of Chinese woodworking are considered to be Lu Ban (魯班) and his wife Lady Yun, from the Spring
and Autumn Period. Lu Ban is said to have introduced the plane, chalk-line, and other tools to China. His teachings
were supposedly left behind in the book Lu Ban Jing (魯班經, "Manuscript of Lu Ban"). Despite this, it is believed that
the text was written some 1500 years after his death. This book is filled largely with descriptions of dimensions for use
in building various items such as flower pots, tables,altars, etc., and also contains extensive instructions
concerning FengShui. It mentions almost nothing of the intricate glue-less and nail-less joinery for which Chinese
furniture was so famous.
Materials[edit]
Historically, woodworkers relied upon the woods native to their region, until transportation and trade innovations made
more exotic woods available to the craftsman. Woods are typically sorted into three basic types: hardwoods typified by
tight grain and derived from broadleaf trees, softwoods from coniferous trees, and man-made materials such
as plywood and MDF.
Typically furniture such as tables and chairs is made using solid stock, and cabinet/fixture makers employ the use
of plywood and other man made panel products.
Electrical engineering
is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics,
andelectromagnetism. This field first became an identifiable occupation in the latter half of the 19th century after
commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone, and electric power distribution and use.
Subsequently, broadcasting and recording media made electronics part of daily life. The invention of the transistor and,
subsequently, the integrated circuit brought down the cost of electronics to the point where they can be used in almost

2. any household object. The personal computer and information technology are the most complex electronics yet to be
used in everyday life.
Electrical engineering has now subdivided into a wide range of subfields including electronics, digital computers, power
engineering,telecommunications, control systems, RF engineering, signal processing, instrumentation,
and microelectronics. The subject ofelectronic engineering is often treated as its own subfield but it intersects with all
the other subfields, including the power electronics of power engineering.
Electrical engineers typically hold a degree in electrical engineering or electronic engineering. Practicing engineers may
have professional certification and be members of a professional body. Such bodies include the Institute of Electrical
and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET).
Electrical engineers work in a very wide range of industries and the skills required are likewise variable. These range
from basic circuit theory to the management skills required of project manager. The tools and equipment that an
individual engineer may need are similarly variable, ranging from a simple voltmeter to a top end analyzer to
sophisticated design and manufacturing software.
History[edit]
The discoveries of Michael Faraday formed the foundation of electric motor technology.
Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century. The first electrical engineer was
probably William Gilbertwho designed the versorium: a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects.
He was also the first to draw a clear distinction between magnetism and static electricity and is credited with
[1]
establishing the term electricity. In 1775 Alessandro Volta's scientific experimentations devised the electrophorus, a
device that produced a static electric charge, and by 1800 Volta developed the voltaic pile, a forerunner of the electric
[2]
battery.
19th century[edit]
However, it was not until the 19th century that research into the subject started to intensify. Notable developments in
this century include the work of Georg Ohm, who in 1827 quantified the relationship between the electric
current and potential difference in a conductor, Michael Faraday, the discoverer of electromagnetic induction in 1831,
and James Clerk Maxwell, who in 1873 published a unified theory of electricity and magnetism in his treatise Electricity
[3]
and Magnetism.
Beginning in the 1830s, efforts were made to apply electricity to practical use in the telegraph. By the end of the 19th
century the world had been forever changed by the rapid communication made possible by engineering development of
land-lines, submarine cables, and, from about 1890,wireless telegraphy.
Practical applications and advances in such fields created an increasing need for standardized units of measure. They
led to the international standardization of the units volt, ampere, coulomb, ohm, farad, and henry. This was achieved at
[4]
an international conference in Chicago 1893. The publication of these standards formed the basis of future advances
in standardisation in various industries, and in many countries the definitions were immediately recognised in relevant
[5]
legislation.
Thomas Edison built the world's first large-scale electrical supply network.
During these years, the study of electricity was largely considered to be a subfield of physics. It was not until about
1885 that universities andinstitutes of technology such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Cornell
University started to offer bachelor's degrees in electrical engineering. The Darmstadt University of
Technology founded the first department of electrical engineering in the world in 1882. In that same year, under
Professor Charles Cross at MIT began offering the first option of electrical engineering within
[6]
its physics department. In 1883, Darmstadt University of Technology and Cornell University introduced the world's
first bachelor's degree courses of study in electrical engineering, and in 1885 the University College London founded
[7]
the first chair of electrical engineering in Great Britain. The University of Missouri established the first department of
[8]
electrical engineering in the United States in 1886. Several other schools soon followed suit, including Cornell and
theGeorgia School of Technology in Atlanta, Georgia.
During these decades use of electrical engineering increased dramatically. In 1882, Thomas Edison switched on the
world's first large-scale electric power network that provided 110 volts — direct current (DC) — to 59 customers
on Manhattan Island in New York City. In 1884, Sir Charles Parsons invented the steam turbine. Turbines now provide
the mechanical power for about 80 percent of the electric power in the world using a variety of heat sources.

3. The alternating current power system developed rapidly after 1886 with efficient, practical, transformer and AC
motor designs, including induction motors independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla and further
[9]
developed into a practical three-phase form by Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky and Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown. AC
had the ability to transmit power more efficiently over long distances via the use of transformers to increase and
decrease voltages (not possible with DC). The spread in the use of AC set off what has been called the War of
[10]
Currents between the backers of AC and DC based power systems, with AC being adopted as the overall standard.
More modern developments[edit]
During the development of radio, many scientists and inventors contributed to radio technology and electronics. In his
classic physics experiments of 1888, Heinrich Hertztransmitted radio waves with a spark-gap transmitter, and detected
them by using simple electrical devices. The mathematical work of James Clerk Maxwell during the 1850s had shown
the possibility of radio waves but Heinrich Hertz was the first to demonstrate their existence in 1888.
Guglielmo Marconi known for his pioneering work on long distance radio transmission
In 1897, Karl Ferdinand Braun introduced the cathode ray tube as part of an oscilloscope, a crucial enabling technology
[11]
for electronic television. John Fleming invented the first radio tube, the diode, in 1904. Two years later, Robert von
[12]
Lieben and Lee De Forest independently developed the amplifier tube, called the triode. In 1895, Guglielmo
Marconi furthered the art of hertzian wireless methods. Early on, he sent wireless signals over a distance of one and a
half miles. In December 1901, he sent wireless waves that were not affected by the curvature of the Earth. Marconi
later transmitted the wireless signals across the Atlantic between Poldhu, Cornwall, and St. John's, Newfoundland, a
[13]
distance of 2,100 miles (3,400 km). In 1920 Albert Hull developed the magnetron which would eventually lead to the
[14][15]
development of the microwave oven in 1946 by Percy Spencer.
In 1934 the British military began to make strides
toward radar (which also uses the magnetron) under the direction of Dr Wimperis, culminating in the operation of the
[16]
first radar station at Bawdsey in August 1936.
In 1941 KonradZuse presented the Z3, the world's first fully functional and programmable computer using
electromechanical parts. In 1943Tommy Flowers designed and built the Colossus, the world's first fully functional,
[17]
electronic, digital and programmable computer. In 1946 theENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
of John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly followed, beginning the computing era. The arithmetic performance of these
machines allowed engineers to develop completely new technologies and achieve new objectives, including theApollo
[18]
program which culminated in landing astronauts on the Moon.
Solid-state transistors[edit]
The invention of the transistor in late 1947 by William B. Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain of the Bell
Telephone Laboratories opened the door for more compact devices and led to the development of the integrated
[19]
circuit in 1958 by Jack Kilby and independently in 1959 by Robert Noyce. Starting in 1968, Ted Hoff and a team at
the Intel Corporation invented the first commercial microprocessor, which foreshadowed the personal computer.
The Intel 4004 was a four-bit processor released in 1971, but in 1973 the Intel 8080, an eight-bit processor, made the
[20]
first personal computer, the Altair 8800, possible.
Subdisciplines[edit]
Electrical engineering has many subdisciplines, the most popular of which are listed below. Although there are
electrical engineers who focus exclusively on one of these subdisciplines, many deal with a combination of them.
Sometimes certain fields, such as electronic engineering and computer engineering, are considered separate
disciplines in their own right.
Power[edit]
Main article: Power engineering
Power pole
Power engineering deals with the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity as well as the design of a
[21]
range of related devices. These include transformers, electric generators, electric motors, high voltage engineering,
and power electronics. In many regions of the world, governments maintain an electrical network called a power
grid that connects a variety of generators together with users of their energy. Users purchase electrical energy from the
grid, avoiding the costly exercise of having to generate their own. Power engineers may work on the design and
[22]
maintenance of the power grid as well as the power systems that connect to it. Such systems are called ongrid power systems and may supply the grid with additional power, draw power from the grid or do both. Power
engineers may also work on systems that do not connect to the grid, called off-grid power systems, which in some

4. cases are preferable to on-grid systems. The future includes Satellite controlled power systems, with feedback in real
time to prevent power surges and prevent blackouts.
Control[edit]
Main article: Control engineering
Control systems play a critical role inspace flight.
Control engineering focuses on the modeling of a diverse range of dynamic systems and the design of controllers that
[23]
will cause these systems to behave in the desired manner. To implement such controllers electrical engineers may
use electrical circuits, digital signal processors, microcontrollers and PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers). Control
engineering has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of commercial airliners to
[24]
the cruise control present in many modern automobiles. It also plays an important role in industrial automation.
Control engineers often utilize feedback when designing control systems. For example, in an automobile with cruise
control the vehicle'sspeed is continuously monitored and fed back to the system which adjusts
the motor's power output accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, control theory can be used to determine how
[25]
the system responds to such feedback.
Electronics[edit]
Main article: Electronic engineering
Electronic components
Electronic engineering involves the design and testing of electronic circuits that use the properties of components such
[22]
as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes and transistors to achieve a particular functionality. The tuned circuit,
which allows the user of a radio to filter out all but a single station, is just one example of such a circuit. Another
example (of a pneumatic signal conditioner) is shown in the adjacent photograph.
Prior to the Second World War, the subject was commonly known as radio engineering and basically was restricted to
[22]
aspects of communications and radar, commercial radio and early television. Later, in post war years, as consumer
devices began to be developed, the field grew to include modern television, audio
systems, computers and microprocessors. In the mid-to-late 1950s, the termradio engineering gradually gave way to
the name electronic engineering.
[26]
Before the invention of the integrated circuit in 1959, electronic circuits were constructed from discrete components
that could be manipulated by humans. These discrete circuits consumed much space and power and were limited in
speed, although they are still common in some applications. By contrast, integrated circuits packed a large number—
[27]
often millions—of tiny electrical components, mainly transistors, into a small chip around the size of a coin. This
allowed for the powerful computers and other electronic devices we see today.
Microelectronics[edit]
Main article: Microelectronics
Microprocessor
Microelectronics engineering deals with the design and microfabrication of very small electronic circuit components for
[28]
use in anintegrated circuit or sometimes for use on their own as a general electronic component. The most common
microelectronic components are semiconductor transistors, although all main electronic components
(resistors, capacitors etc.)can be created at a microscopic level. Nanoelectronics is the further scaling of devices down
to nanometer levels. Modern devices are already in the nanometer regime, with below 100 nm processing having been
[29]
standard since about 2002.
Microelectronic components are created by chemically fabricating wafers of semiconductors such as silicon (at higher
frequencies,compound semiconductors like gallium arsenide and indium phosphide) to obtain the desired transport of
electronic charge and control of current. The field of microelectronics involves a significant amount of chemistry and
material science and requires the electronic engineer working in the field to have a very good working knowledge of the
[30]
effects of quantum mechanics.
Signal processing[edit]
Main article: Signal processing

5. A Bayer filter on a CCD requires signal processing to get a red, green, and blue value at each pixel.
[31]
Signal processing deals with the analysis and manipulation of signals. Signals can be either analog, in which case
the signal varies continuously according to the information, or digital, in which case the signal varies according to a
series of discrete values representing the information. For analog signals, signal processing may involve
the amplification and filtering of audio signals for audio equipment or the modulation and demodulation of signals
for telecommunications. For digital signals, signal processing may involve the compression,error detection and error
[32]
correction of digitally sampled signals.
Signal Processing is a very mathematically oriented and intensive area forming the core of digital signal processing and
it is rapidly expanding with new applications in every field of electrical engineering such as communications, control,
radar, audio engineering,broadcast engineering, power electronics and bio-medical engineering as many already
existing analog systems are replaced with their digital counterparts. Analog signal processing is still important in the
design of many control systems.
DSP processor ICs are found in every type of modern electronic systems and products
[33]
including, SDTV | HDTV sets, radios and mobile communication devices, Hi-Fi audio equipment, Dolby noise
reduction algorithms, GSM mobile phones, mp3 multimedia players, camcorders and digital cameras, automobile
control systems, noise cancelling headphones, digital spectrum analyzers, intelligent missile
guidance, radar, GPS based cruise control systems and all kinds of image processing, video processing, audio
[34]
processing and speech processing systems.
Telecommunications[edit]
Main article: Telecommunications engineering
Satellite dishes are a crucial component in the analysis of satellite information.
Telecommunications engineering focuses on the transmission of information across a channel such as a coax
[35]
cable, optical fiber or free space. Transmissions across free space require information to be encoded in a carrier
wave to shift the information to a carrier frequency suitable for transmission, this is known as modulation. Popular
[36]
analog modulation techniques include amplitude modulationand frequency modulation. The choice of modulation
affects the cost and performance of a system and these two factors must be balanced carefully by the engineer.
Once the transmission characteristics of a system are determined, telecommunication engineers design
the transmitters and receiversneeded for such systems. These two are sometimes combined to form a two-way
communication device known as a transceiver. A key consideration in the design of transmitters is their power
[37][38]
consumption as this is closely related to their signal strength.
If the signal strength of a transmitter is insufficient
the signal's information will be corrupted by noise.
Instrumentation[edit]
Main article: Instrumentation engineering
Flight instruments provide pilots the tools to control aircraft analytically.
Instrumentation engineering deals with the design of devices to measure physical quantities such
[39]
as pressure, flow and temperature. The design of such instrumentation requires a good understanding
of physics that often extends beyond electromagnetic theory. For example, flight instruments measure variables such
as wind speed and altitude to enable pilots the control of aircraft analytically. Similarly, thermocouples use the Peltier[40]
Seebeck effect to measure the temperature difference between two points.
Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as the sensors of larger electrical systems. For example, a
[41]
thermocouple might be used to help ensure a furnace's temperature remains constant. For this reason,
instrumentation engineering is often viewed as the counterpart of control engineering.
Computers[edit]
Main article: Computer engineering
Supercomputers are used in fields as diverse as computational biology andgeographic information systems.
Computer engineering deals with the design of computers and computer systems. This may involve the design of
new hardware, the design of PDAs, tablets and supercomputers or the use of computers to control an industrial
[42]
plant. Computer engineers may also work on a system's software. However, the design of complex software systems

6. [43]
is often the domain of software engineering, which is usually considered a separate discipline. Desktop
computers represent a tiny fraction of the devices a computer engineer might work on, as computer-like architectures
are now found in a range of devices including video game consoles and DVD players.
Related disciplines[edit]
Mechatronics is an engineering discipline which deals with the convergence of electrical and mechanical systems.
Such combined systems are known as electromechanical systems and have widespread adoption. Examples
[44]
[45]
include automated manufacturing systems, heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems and various
[46]
subsystems of aircraft and automobiles.
The term mechatronics is typically used to refer to macroscopic systems but futurists have predicted the emergence of
very small electromechanical devices. Already such small devices, known as Microelectromechanical
[47]
systems (MEMS), are used in automobiles to tell airbags when to deploy, in digital projectors to create sharper
images and in inkjet printers to create nozzles for high definition printing. In the future it is hoped the devices will help
[48]
build tiny implantable medical devices and improve optical communication.
Biomedical engineering is another related discipline, concerned with the design of medical equipment. This includes
[49]
fixed equipment such as ventilators, MRI scanners andelectrocardiograph monitors as well as mobile equipment
such as cochlear implants, artificial pacemakers and artificial hearts.
Education[edit]
Main article: Education and training of electrical and electronics engineers
The University of the Philippines College of Engineering
Electrical engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in electrical engineering, electronics
[50][51]
engineering, or electrical and electronic engineering.
The same fundamental principles are taught in all programs,
though emphasis may vary according to title. The length of study for such a degree is usually four or five years and the
completed degree may be designated as a Bachelor of Engineering, Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Technology,
or Bachelor of Applied Science depending on the university. The bachelor's degree generally includes units
covering physics, mathematics, computer science, project management, and a variety of topics in electrical
[52]
engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the subdisciplines of electrical engineering. At some
schools, the students can then choose to emphasize one or more subdisciplines towards the end of their courses of
study. At many schools, electronic engineering is included as part of an electrical award, sometimes explicitly, such as
a Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical and Electronic), but in others electrical and electronic engineering are both
[53]
considered to be sufficiently broad and complex that separate degrees are offered.
Some electrical engineers choose to study for a postgraduate degree such as a Master of Engineering/Master of
Science(M.Eng./M.Sc.), a Master of Engineering Management, a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Engineering,
an Engineering Doctorate(Eng.D.), or an Engineer's degree. The master's and engineer's degrees may consist of
either research, coursework or a mixture of the two. The Doctor of Philosophy and Engineering Doctorate degrees
consist of a significant research component and are often viewed as the entry point to academia. In the United
Kingdom and some other European countries, Master of Engineering is often considered to be an undergraduate
[54]
degree of slightly longer duration than the Bachelor of Engineering rather than postgraduate.
Practicing engineers[edit]
Belgian electrical engineers inspecting the rotor of a 40,000 kilowatt turbine of theGeneral Electric Company in New York City
In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification and the
[55]
degree program itself is certified by a professional body. After completing a certified degree program the engineer
must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience requirements) before being certified. Once certified the
engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa), Chartered
Engineer or Incorporated Engineer (in India, Pakistan, the United Kingdom, Ireland and Zimbabwe), Chartered
Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand) or European Engineer (in much of theEuropean Union).
The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada "only a
[56]
licensed engineer may seal engineering work for public and private clients". This requirement is enforced by state
[57]
and provincial legislation such asQuebec's Engineers Act. In other countries, no such legislation exists. Practically all
[58]
certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion. In this way
these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions

7. where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject tocontract law. In cases where an
engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the tort of negligence and, in extreme cases, the charge of criminal
negligence. An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building
codesand legislation pertaining to environmental law.
Professional bodies of note for electrical engineers include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
and the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET). The IEEE claims to produce 30% of the world's literature in
[59]
electrical engineering, has over 360,000 members worldwide and holds over 3,000 conferences annually. The IET
publishes 21 journals, has a worldwide membership of over 150,000, and claims to be the largest professional
[60][61]
engineering society in Europe.
Obsolescence of technical skills is a serious concern for electrical engineers.
Membership and participation in technical societies, regular reviews of periodicals in the field and a habit of continued
learning are therefore essential to maintaining proficiency. MIET(Member of the Institution of Engineering and
[62]
Technology) is recognised in Europe as Electrical and computer (technology) engineer.
In Australia, Canada and the United States electrical engineers make up around 0.25% of the labor force (see note).
Outside of Europe and North America, engineering graduates per-capita, and hence probably electrical engineering
[63]
graduates also, are most numerous in Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea.
Tools and work[edit]
From the Global Positioning System to electric power generation, electrical engineers have contributed to the
development of a wide range of technologies. They design, develop, test and supervise the deployment of electrical
systems and electronic devices. For example, they may work on the design of telecommunication systems, the
operation of electric power stations, the lighting and wiring of buildings, the design of household appliances or the
[64]
electrical control of industrial machinery.
Satellite communications is one of many projects an electrical engineer might work on.
Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of physics and mathematics as these help to obtain both
a qualitative and quantitativedescription of how such systems will work. Today most engineering work involves the use
of computers and it is commonplace to usecomputer-aided design programs when designing electrical systems.
Nevertheless, the ability to sketch ideas is still invaluable for quickly communicating with others.
Although most electrical engineers will understand basic circuit theory (that is the interactions of elements such
as resistors, capacitors,diodes, transistors and inductors in a circuit), the theories employed by engineers generally
depend upon the work they do. For example,quantum mechanics and solid state physics might be relevant to an
engineer working on VLSI (the design of integrated circuits), but are largely irrelevant to engineers working with
macroscopic electrical systems. Even circuit theory may not be relevant to a person designing telecommunication
systems that use off-the-shelf components. Perhaps the most important technical skills for electrical engineers are
reflected in university programs, which emphasize strong numerical skills, computer literacy and the ability to
[65]
understand the technical language and concepts that relate to electrical engineering.
A wide range of instrumentation is used by electrical engineers. For simple control circuits and alarms, a
basic multimeter measuringvoltage, current and resistance may suffice. Where time-varying signals need to be studied,
the oscilloscope is also an ubiquitous instrument. In RF engineering and high frequency telecommunications spectrum
analyzers and network analyzers are used. In some disciplines safety can be a particular concern with instrumentation.
For instance medical electronics designers must take into account that much lower voltages than normal can be
[66]
dangerous when electrodes are directly in contact with internal body fluids. Power transmission engineering also has
great safety concerns due to the high voltages used; although voltmeters may in principle be similar to their low voltage
[67]
equivalents, safety and calibration issues make them very different. Many disciplines of electrical engineering use
tests specific to their discipline. Audio electronics engineers use audio test sets consisting of a signal generator and a
meter, principally to measure level but also other parameters such as harmonic distortion and noise. Likewise
information technology have their own test sets, often specific to a particular data format, and the same is true of
television broadcasting.
For many engineers, technical work accounts for only a fraction of the work they do. A lot of time may also be spent on
[68]
tasks such as discussing proposals with clients, preparingbudgets and determining project schedules. Many senior
engineers manage a team of technicians or other engineers and for this reason project management skills are
important. Most engineering projects involve some form of documentation and strong written communication skills are
therefore very important.

8. The workplaces of electrical engineers are just as varied as the types of work they do. Electrical engineers may be
found in the pristine lab environment of a fabrication plant, the offices of a consulting firm or on site at a mine. During
their working life, electrical engineers may find themselves supervising a wide range of individuals
[69]
including scientists,electricians, computer programmers and other engineers.
Machine
Mechanical may refer to:
Mechanical system, a system that manages power to accomplish a task that involves forces and movement
Machine (mechanical), a system of mechanisms that shape the actuator input to achieve a specific application of
output forces and movement
Mechanism (engineering), a portion of a mechanical device
Mechanical energy, the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy
A mechanical system manages power to accomplish a task that involves forces and
[1]
movement. Mechanical is derived from the Latin word machina, which in turn derives from the Doric
[2]
Greek μαχανά (machana), Ionic Greek μηχανή(mechane) "contrivance, machine, engine" and that
[3]
from μῆ χος (mechos), "means, expedient, remedy".
[4]
The Oxford English Dictionary defines the adjective mechanical as skilled in the practical application of an art or
science, of the nature of a machine or machines, and relating to or caused by movement, physical forces, properties or
[5]
agents such as is dealt with by Mechanics. Similarly Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines "mechanical" as relating to
machinery or tools.
A mechanical system consists of (i) a power source and actuators that generate forces and movement, (ii) a system of
mechanisms that shape the actuator input to achieve a specific application of output forces and movement, and (iii) a
controller with sensors that compares the output to a performance goal and then directs the actuator input. This can be
seen in Watt's steam engine (see the illustration) in which the power is provided by steam expanding to drive the
piston. The walking beam, coupler and crank transform the linear movement of the piston into rotation of the output
pulley. Finally, the pulley rotation drives the flyball governor which controls the valve for the steam input to the piston
cylinder.
Power flow through a mechanical system provides a way to understand the performance of devices ranging from levers
and gear trains to automobiles and robotic systems.
Machines employ power to achieve desired forces and movement (motion). A machine has a power source and
actuators that generate forces and movement, and a system of mechanisms that shape the actuator input to achieve a
specific application of output forces and movement. Modern machines often include computers and sensors that
monitor performance and plan movement, and are called mechanical systems.
[1]
The meaning of the word "machine" is traced by the Oxford English Dictionary to an independently functioning
[2]
structure and by Merriam-Webster Dictionary to something that has been constructed. This includes human design
into the meaning of machine.
The adjective "mechanical" refers to skill in the practical application of an art or science, as well as relating to or caused
[1]
by movement, physical forces, properties or agents such as is dealt with by mechanics. Similarly Merriam-Webster
[3]
Dictionary defines "mechanical" as relating to machinery or tools.
Power flow through a machine provides a way to understand the performance of devices ranging from levers and gear
[4]
trains to automobiles and robotic systems. The German mechanician Franz Reuleaux wrote "a machine is a
combination of resistant bodies so arranged that by their means the mechanical forces of nature can be compelled to
do work accompanied by certain determinate motion." Notice that forces and motion combine to define power.
[5]
More recently, Uicker et al. state that a machine is "a device for applying power or changing its direction." And
[6]
McCarthy and Soh describe a machine as a system that "generally consists of a power source and a mechanism for
the controlled use of this power."
A mechanism is a device designed to transform input forces and movement into a desired set of output
forces and movement. Mechanisms generally consist of moving components such as gears and gear trains, belt and

9. chain drives, cam and followermechanisms, and linkages as well as friction devices such as brakes and clutches, and
structural components such as the frame, fasteners, bearings, springs, lubricants and seals, as well as a variety of
[1]
specialized machine elements such as splines, pins and keys.
[2]
The German scientist Reuleaux provides the definition "a machine is a combination of resistant bodies so arranged
that by their means the mechanical forces of nature can be compelled to do work accompanied by certain determinate
[3]
motion." In this context, his use ofmachine is generally interpreted to mean mechanism.
The combination of force and movement defines power, and a mechanism is designed to manage power in order to
achieve a desired set of forces and movement.
A mechanism is usually a piece of a larger process or mechanical system. Sometimes an entire machine may be
referred to as a mechanism. Examples are the steering mechanism in a car, or the winding mechanism of a wristwatch.
Multiple mechanisms are machines.
In the physical sciences,
mechanical energy is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy. It is the
energy associated with the motion and position of an object. The law of conservation of mechanical energy states that
in an isolated system that is only subject to conservative forces the mechanical energy is constant. If an object is
moved in the opposite direction of a conservative net force, the potential energy will increase and if the speed (not
the velocity) of the object is changed, the kinetic energy of the object is changed as well. In all real systems,
however, non-conservative forces, like frictional forces, will be present, but often they are of negligible values and the
mechanical energy's being constant can therefore be a useful approximation. In elastic collisions, the mechanical
energy is conserved but in inelastic collisions, some mechanical energy is converted into heat. The equivalence
between lost mechanical energy and an increase in temperature was discovered by James Prescott Joule.
Many modern devices, such as the electric motor or the steam engine, are used today to convert mechanical energy
into other forms of energy, e.g. electrical energy, or to convert other forms of energy, like heat, into mechanical energy.
Plumbing is the system of pipes, drains fittings, valves, valve assemblies, and devices installed in a building for
the distribution of water for drinking, heating and washing, and the removal of waterborne wastes, and the skilled trade
of working with pipes, tubing and plumbing fixtures in such systems. A plumber is someone who installs or
repairs piping systems, plumbing fixtures and equipment such as water heaters and backflow preventers. The plumbing
industry is a basic and substantial part of every developed economy due to the need for clean water, and sanitary
[1]
collection and transport of wastes. The word "plumbing" comes from the Latin plumbum for lead, as pipes were once
[2]
made from lead.
Plumbing is usually distinguished from water supply and sewage systems, in that a plumbing system serves one
[3]
building, while water and sewage systems serve a group of buildings.
History[edit]
Roman lead pipe with a folded seam, at the Roman Baths in Bath, England
Plumbing originated during ancient civilizations such as the Greek, Roman, Persian, Indian, and Chinese cities as they
developed public bathsand needed to provide potable water and drainage of wastes, for larger numbers of
[4]
people. Standardized earthen plumbing pipes with broadflanges making use of asphalt for preventing leakages
[5]
appeared in the urban settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization by 2700 B.C. The Romans used lead pipe
inscriptions to prevent water theft.
Improvement in plumbing systems was very slow, with virtually no progress made from the time of the Roman system
of aqueducts and lead pipes. Plumbing was extremely rare until the growth of modern densely populated cities in the
1800s. During this period, public health authorities began pressing for better waste disposal systems to be installed, to
prevent or control epidemics of disease. Earlier, the waste disposal system had merely consisted of collecting waste
and dumping it on the ground or into a river. Eventually the development of separate, underground water and sewage
systems eliminated open sewage ditches and cesspools.
Most large cities today pipe solid wastes to sewage treatment plants in order to separate and partially purify the water,
before emptying into streams or other bodies of water. For potable water use, galvanized iron piping was commonplace
in the United States from the late 1800s until around 1960. After that period, copper piping took over, first soft copper
with flared fittings, then with rigid copper tubing utilizing soldered fittings.
The use of lead for potable water declined sharply after World War II because of increased awareness of the dangers
[6][7]
of lead poisoning. At this time, copper piping was introduced as a better and safer alternative to lead pipes.

10. ]
Water systems of ancient times relied on gravity for the supply of water, using pipes or channels usually made
of clay, lead, bamboo, wood, or stone. Hollowed wooden logs wrapped in steel banding were used for plumbing pipes,
particularly water mains. Logs were used for water distribution in England close to 500 years ago. US cities began
[6]
using hollowed logs in the late 1700s through the 1800s.
Present-day water-supply systems use a network of high-pressure pumps, and pipes in buildings are now made of
[8]
copper, brass, plastic (particularly cross-linked polyethylenecalled PEX, which is estimated to be used in 60% of
[9]
single-family homes ), or other nontoxic material. Due to its toxicity, lead has not been used in modern water-supply
[10]
piping since the 1930s in the United States, although lead was used in plumbing solder for drinking water until it was
[10]
[11][12][13]
banned in 1986. Drain and vent lines are made of plastic, steel, cast-iron, or lead.
The straight sections of plumbing systems are called "pipes" or "tubes". A pipe is typically formed
via casting or welding, whereas a tube is made through extrusion. Pipe normally has thicker walls and may be threaded
or welded, while tubing is thinner-walled and requires special joining techniques such as brazing, compression
fitting, crimping, or for plastics, solvent welding. These joining techniques are discussed in more detail in the piping and
plumbing fittings article.
Equipment and tools[edit]
A plumber uses two wrenches to tighten the fitting on a gas supply line.
Plumbing equipment includes devices often hidden behind walls or in utility spaces which are not seen by the general
public. It includes water meters, pumps, expansion tanks, backflow arrestors, water filters, UV sterilization lights, water
softeners, water heaters, heat exchangers, gauges, and control systems.
Specialized plumbing tools include pipe wrenches, flaring pliers, and joining tools such as soldering torches and crimp
tools. New tools have been developed to help plumbers fix problems more efficiently. For example, plumbers use video
cameras for inspections of hidden leaks or problems, they use hydro jets, and high pressure hydraulic pumps
connected to steel cables for trench-less sewer line replacement.
TYPES OF ADMIXTURES
Air entraining agents – AEA
Water reducers
Plasticisers
Superplasticisers
Retarders
Accelerators
Air entraining agents
Foaming agents, gas producing chemicals
o
Introduces millions of tiny, stable bubbles of uniform size that are uniformly distributed
throughout the mix (usually about 5% of the volume).
Improves properties of fresh concrete
o Workability, cohesion
o
Reduces segregation and bleeding .
Properties of hardened concrete
o
For every 1% of air there is a 4% loss in strength.

Minimised by the reduction in water content

11. o
Improves durability

frost, de-icing salts
Improves durability
o
frost, de-icing salts
Water reducers & plasticisers
Properties
increases the dispersion of cement particles and a reduction in viscosity
Improve workability with same water
Reduce water required for equal slump
Do not affect shrinkage
Mechanism
Superplasticisers
Properties
Produce flowing concrete
o
no reduction in strength
o
Assist placing when heavy reinforcement
flowing characteristics
o
short duration (30 mins) old technology
o
New generation can tailor made
Usually added at site immediately before placing
Can produce high strength concrete
o
reduce w/c ratio
o
maintain the same workability
Amount of fines in mix usually increased
Take care with rapid pouring in high walls (hydraulic pressure)
Retarders
Properties
Longer setting times
Slower strength gains

12. Prevents the formation of cold joints
Assist with long transit times
Main uses
o
large concrete pours
o
sliding formwork
o
hot weather concreting
Retarding water-reducing admixtures are also available
Overdosing can cause problems
o
Excessive retardation
o
Excessive bleeding
Accelerating agents
Properties
Quicker setting times
Higher early strength development
Types
CaCl2 most effective
Chloride free use in
Main uses
winter conditions
emergency repair work
early removal of formwork
Disadvantages
increased drying shrinkage
reduced resistance to sulphate attack
CaCl2 high risk of corrosion of steel – not permitted in RC
Cl free
o
o
more expensive
less effective