Petruchio, a man from Verona, Italy, travels to Padua seeking to marry a wealthy woman. He learns of Katherina, who has a fierce reputation and whose marriage will allow her younger sister Bianca to also wed. Undeterred by warnings of Katherina's temper, Petruchio insists on marrying her in hopes of gaining her wealth. After their wedding, Petruchio begins mentally and verbally tormenting Katherina in an attempt to "tame" her behavior, which eventually succeeds by the play's end.
Este documento presenta una historia resumida de la escritura y los libros desde la antigüedad hasta la actualidad. Comienza con las primeras formas de escritura como las tablillas de barro sumerias y hititas, y continúa explicando la evolución de los soportes como el papiro, pergamino y papel. También describe los cambios en los estilos de escritura como la mayúscula y minúscula, y los factores que influyeron en la preservación de la literatura clásica a través de los siglos, como las
The document provides commentary on cultural trends in America regarding gender roles and relationships. It argues that:
1) Past practices like using Miss, Mrs, or a woman taking her husband's last name better reflected biblical principles and heavenly realities compared to modern trends.
2) The term "Ms" does not fit into biblical understandings of relationships as it represents an independent woman not under male authority.
3) Women dressing in men's attire violates Deuteronomy 22:5 and does not accurately reflect heavenly realities, being something God finds repulsive.
This document contains excerpts from Aristotle's works on marriage, reproduction, and childbearing. It discusses the ideal ages for marriage, signs that virgins and widows are ready for marriage, the ages at which men and women are capable of conceiving children, and ways to influence whether a child is male or female based on a woman's positioning after intercourse and the drinks she consumes. The excerpts provide historical medical advice on human reproduction and early concepts of physiology.
Homosexuality refers to exclusive or predominant attraction to the same sex. The Catholic Church teaches that homosexual acts are intrinsically disordered and close the sexual act to the gift of life. However, homosexual persons themselves are not condemned and should be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity. They are called to chastity and gradual approach to Christian perfection through self-mastery, friendship, prayer and sacraments. While homosexual acts cannot be approved, homosexual persons are not condemned as long as they live chaste lives in accordance with God's will.
This document summarizes the customs of the Tagalog people in the Philippines as recorded by Juan de Plasencia, a Franciscan missionary, between 1578 and 1590. It describes the tribal system of independent barangays led by local chiefs or datos. Slavery was an established part of their social hierarchy, with inheritance and marriage determining one's social status. Their religious practices involved worship of various gods and spirits through festivals, sacrifices, and shamans. Burial rites and beliefs about the afterlife are also detailed. The document aims to provide the Spanish monarchy information about Tagalog society and culture at the time of early colonization.
2. seminar on the holy sacrament (special)Leonard Guiang
This document outlines a seminar on the sacrament of matrimony. It discusses key concepts like the biblical foundations of marriage, what constitutes a valid marriage, grounds for marriage nullity, and the rite of the sacrament. It also covers topics like natural family planning methods, the meaning of marital intercourse, and the four aspects of responsible parenthood according to church teaching. The seminar aims to explain church doctrine around marriage and family planning.
Petruchio, a man from Verona, Italy, travels to Padua seeking to marry a wealthy woman. He learns of Katherina, who has a fierce reputation and whose marriage will allow her younger sister Bianca to also wed. Undeterred by warnings of Katherina's temper, Petruchio insists on marrying her in hopes of gaining her wealth. After their wedding, Petruchio begins mentally and verbally tormenting Katherina in an attempt to "tame" her behavior, which eventually succeeds by the play's end.
Este documento presenta una historia resumida de la escritura y los libros desde la antigüedad hasta la actualidad. Comienza con las primeras formas de escritura como las tablillas de barro sumerias y hititas, y continúa explicando la evolución de los soportes como el papiro, pergamino y papel. También describe los cambios en los estilos de escritura como la mayúscula y minúscula, y los factores que influyeron en la preservación de la literatura clásica a través de los siglos, como las
The document provides commentary on cultural trends in America regarding gender roles and relationships. It argues that:
1) Past practices like using Miss, Mrs, or a woman taking her husband's last name better reflected biblical principles and heavenly realities compared to modern trends.
2) The term "Ms" does not fit into biblical understandings of relationships as it represents an independent woman not under male authority.
3) Women dressing in men's attire violates Deuteronomy 22:5 and does not accurately reflect heavenly realities, being something God finds repulsive.
This document contains excerpts from Aristotle's works on marriage, reproduction, and childbearing. It discusses the ideal ages for marriage, signs that virgins and widows are ready for marriage, the ages at which men and women are capable of conceiving children, and ways to influence whether a child is male or female based on a woman's positioning after intercourse and the drinks she consumes. The excerpts provide historical medical advice on human reproduction and early concepts of physiology.
Homosexuality refers to exclusive or predominant attraction to the same sex. The Catholic Church teaches that homosexual acts are intrinsically disordered and close the sexual act to the gift of life. However, homosexual persons themselves are not condemned and should be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity. They are called to chastity and gradual approach to Christian perfection through self-mastery, friendship, prayer and sacraments. While homosexual acts cannot be approved, homosexual persons are not condemned as long as they live chaste lives in accordance with God's will.
This document summarizes the customs of the Tagalog people in the Philippines as recorded by Juan de Plasencia, a Franciscan missionary, between 1578 and 1590. It describes the tribal system of independent barangays led by local chiefs or datos. Slavery was an established part of their social hierarchy, with inheritance and marriage determining one's social status. Their religious practices involved worship of various gods and spirits through festivals, sacrifices, and shamans. Burial rites and beliefs about the afterlife are also detailed. The document aims to provide the Spanish monarchy information about Tagalog society and culture at the time of early colonization.
2. seminar on the holy sacrament (special)Leonard Guiang
This document outlines a seminar on the sacrament of matrimony. It discusses key concepts like the biblical foundations of marriage, what constitutes a valid marriage, grounds for marriage nullity, and the rite of the sacrament. It also covers topics like natural family planning methods, the meaning of marital intercourse, and the four aspects of responsible parenthood according to church teaching. The seminar aims to explain church doctrine around marriage and family planning.
The document proposes an assignment analyzing how The Wife of Bath challenges gender roles of her time. The analysis will: 1) summarize The Wife of Bath's tale; 2) provide context on Chaucer's social circles; 3) describe accepted female norms; and 4) show how The Wife of Bath refutes ideals of female piousness. The character defies expectations of female behavior and asserts women's dominance through her defiance and reinterpretation of the Bible.
The document provides an analysis of Geoffrey Chaucer's character The Wife of Bath from his work The Canterbury Tales. It discusses how the Wife of Bath challenged gender norms of the medieval period by refusing to conform to expectations of female subservience, piety, and domesticity. Through her interpretation of the Bible, she justified having five husbands and asserted her sexual desires and sovereignty over men. While some of her actions would not be considered feminist by today's standards, she represented a bold challenge to the patriarchal order and lack of power and agency for women during the Middle Ages.
The document discusses ethics and morality regarding sex and sexuality from a Christian perspective. It provides summaries of responses to arguments about pornography and art, reviews biblical passages about marriage and sexuality, and gives examples of both misguided and appropriate discussions of intimacy within marriage. The overall message is that Christianity bases its ethics on an absolute moral standard from God as revealed in the Bible.
This is the narrative of the By-Laws, Structures and Mandatory Electives of Covenant Creations for High Priest/ess, House Witch. Gratoo Coutisen Initiate.
World Literature Essay - PHDessay.com. World Literature Paper 2B - IB English HL Essay. World Literature Research Paper Example Topics and Well Written .... WORLD LITERATURE: A Brief Introduction. Essay websites: Sample literature essay. Edexcel English Literature A Level - Poetry Example Essays Teaching .... Evolution of World Literature Free Essay Example. World literature essay ib example. Students Service: World literature .... World Literature 1 Essay Example Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 .... Order Paper Writing Help 24/7 - ib english a1 world literature essay .... Pay for Essay and Get the Best Paper You Need - ib world literature 1 .... World literature essays - eyeofthedaygdc.web.fc2.com. Analytical Essay: Essay in english literature. World Literature Essay Example Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 .... Journal of World Literature Assignment Example Topics and Well .... Literature essay. World literature essay conclusion. World Literature Sample Masterpieces Summary. Essay Assessment: World Literature. World Literature Essay Example Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 .... 免费 Sample Literary Research Essay 样本文件在 allbusinesstemplates.com. Literary Analysis Essay: Tips to Write a Perfect Essay - wuzzupessay. Ib world literature essay - frudgereport585.web.fc2.com. Invitation to World Literature - Annenberg Learner. Literary e
1 women marriage certifcate reveal women's hidden storiesChinesedressonline
1. A folklore researcher in China collected 26 ancient marriage certificates from the late Qing Dynasty to the early People's Republic of China. These certificates provide historical insights into women's lives and the customs they followed, such as the "three obediences" and "four virtues".
2. One certificate documented a woman remarrying in 1942 after being widowed young. The new husband paid her late husband's family 3,000 silver dollars.
3. Another certificate from 1942 documented China's first recorded divorce, as the customs were changing to allow more progressive attitudes towards marriage and gender equality.
This document discusses the transition between eras and ages, how changes can happen suddenly without people realizing. It talks about entering a new era of unity between Cain and Abel after the coming of heaven. It discusses the owner of peace and lineage, and unificationism. It provides commentary on various topics including history, families, nations, and the philosophy of peace.
The document discusses the nature of marriage in Hinduism from ancient times to the present. It describes how marriage evolved from a state of sex promiscuity among early humans to an institution regulated through laws. In ancient Hindu scriptures like Manu Smriti, marriage was seen as making the wife half of the husband and establishing roles and duties of husband and wife. Marriage was viewed as both a sacred sacrament and a lifelong bond. However, in practice polygamy and easy divorce for men undermined the sanctity of marriage for women. The modern concept of marriage as a legal contract emerged with industrialization to establish free consent and remove practices like polygamy and concubinage. The Hindu Marriage Act of
This document discusses the development of sexuality from various perspectives. It defines sexuality broadly as including sex, gender, orientation, intimacy and reproduction. It then covers the history of sexuality from ancient India, Biblical times, and Foucault's work. It discusses Freud's psychosexual stages theory and the evolutionary perspective on sexuality, noting sex differences in arousal. The document takes a broad view of sexuality as a complex human phenomenon shaped by biological and socio-cultural factors over time.
The document discusses different types of marriage practices around the world. It notes there is no single definition of marriage, and that heterosexual monogamous marriages are just one type. Other types include plural spouses or same-sex marriages. The document outlines rights conferred by marriage like establishing legal parents and inheritance. It also discusses rules around who can marry, exchanges like bridewealth and dowry, residence patterns, and divorce customs. Marriage serves different functions in various societies.
Book Title The Emancipation of Women – An African PerspectiveVannaSchrader3
Book Title: The Emancipation of Women – An African Perspective
Author: Florence Abena Dolphyne
Chapter 1: Traditional Practices
Every human society has a body of beliefs that regulate the way people
behave and relate to each other in the society. Over the years, these beliefs and
modes of behaviour are modified to suit the changing circumstances of the society
concerned. African societies are no exception. What is different, however, is that
as a result of the contact with Western civilization and the uneven influence that
this civilization has had on African societies, one finds in every country a contrast
between a very Westernized society usually comprising the educated people in the
urban cent res and a traditional rural society whose beliefs and way 'of life often
show that they have hardly been touched by Western culture.
In this chapter, we will consider some aspects of African culture which have
a particular bearing on the issue of women's emancipation. These are customs,
traditions and beliefs which have, over the years, helped to keep women under
subjugation, and to make them feel generally inferior to men and incapable of
operating at the same level as men in society. These are: the institution of marriage
with its related issues of bride-wealth, child-marriage, polygamy, purdah,
widowhood and inheritance of property, high fertility and puberty rites with
specific reference to female circumcision.
Marriage
The institution of marriage is a very important one in all African societies. It
is primarily a union between two families, rather than between two individuals.
Traditionally, marriages are arranged between two families. When a young man
decides he wants a particular woman for his wife, he tells his parents about it, and
it then becomes the parents' responsibility and that of elders of the extended family
to ask for the woman's hand from her parents. Before this is done, the parents try to
find out all they can about the woman's family, whether there are any chronic or
hereditary illnesses such as mental disorders in the family, whether there are any
known criminals in the family, whether the women in the family are known to be
respectful and hardworking or not and so on. These are important matters that are
known to ensure the stability or otherwise of a marriage. Emotional attachment
between husband and wife was supposed to develop later, and therefore love
between a young man and a young woman was not in itself considered legitimate
grounds for marriage. If the young man's parents are not satisfied with what they
find out, they will tell their son that he should look for someone else, or suggest
somebody they approve of to him. In the same way, when a woman's family has
been approached with a proposal of marriage from the man's parents, they also
investigate the man's background and decide whether or not they would want their
daughter to marry into ...
What is marriage? Know how it is in the Philippines and on different cultures. This ppt also includes information about wedding rituals of different countries and of different religions. It also includes a list of the different types of marriages.
The document discusses a debate around same-sex marriage. It argues that allowing same-sex marriage would fundamentally change the traditional definition of marriage and could lead to further attempts to broaden the definition, such as allowing polygamous marriages. It asserts that marriage is based on the complementary nature of men and women and that redefining it could have negative social consequences.
The document provides an analysis of The Wife of Bath character from Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. It discusses how the Wife of Bath establishes her authority on marriage through her experience with five husbands. While she dominated the first three marriages, she struggled more for control in her last two marriages. The document examines how her prologue and tale both emphasize women's dominance over their husbands. It analyzes the similarities between the Wife of Bath's fifth husband and the knight in her tale, and how both men had to give their wives control to live happily.
Rituals are symbolic actions that are important in human societies. Rituals can be religious, social, or personal in nature. The ritual of marriage varies between religions but generally involves engagement, a wedding ceremony, and establishing a lifelong partnership and family. In Catholicism, marriage is considered a sacrament with specific requirements and impediments. For a Catholic marriage to be valid, there must be free consent between the partners and it cannot be dissolved once consummated.
The document discusses different aspects of marriage across societies, including definitions of marriage, reasons for its universality, and cultural variations. It defines marriage as a socially approved sexual and economic union between a man and a woman, presumed to be permanent. Though practiced universally, specific marriage customs vary. Rules govern how one marries, whom one marries, and how many spouses one has. Most societies prohibit incest within the nuclear family. Exceptions have included some royal families allowing marriage between close relatives.
Vestals were priestesses of the goddess Vesta in ancient Rome. They took vows of chastity and were responsible for maintaining the sacred fire of Vesta.
The document discusses the legal status and rights of Vestal Virgins. It was noted that when a woman became a Vestal Virgin, she left her father's power and gained her own legal rights, including the right to write a will. If a Vestal Virgin died without a will, her estate would pass to the public treasury rather than to heirs.
The document also provides biographical information about a pagan philosopher named Hypatia who lived in Alexandria in the 4th century CE. She taught philosophy and mathematics and had a
This document discusses Christianity's views on women and marriage based on passages from the Bible and writings of early Christian thinkers. It presents passages from Paul's letters that establish the hierarchy of man over woman. It also discusses views from other early Christian writers like Tertullian, who believed women should dress modestly as a sign of repentance, and Augustine, who argued that while some men in the Bible had multiple wives to promote larger families, it was never acceptable for women to have multiple husbands under Christian doctrine. The document examines early Christian teachings around the roles and appearance of women in the church and within marriage.
The document proposes an assignment analyzing how The Wife of Bath challenges gender roles of her time. The analysis will: 1) summarize The Wife of Bath's tale; 2) provide context on Chaucer's social circles; 3) describe accepted female norms; and 4) show how The Wife of Bath refutes ideals of female piousness. The character defies expectations of female behavior and asserts women's dominance through her defiance and reinterpretation of the Bible.
The document provides an analysis of Geoffrey Chaucer's character The Wife of Bath from his work The Canterbury Tales. It discusses how the Wife of Bath challenged gender norms of the medieval period by refusing to conform to expectations of female subservience, piety, and domesticity. Through her interpretation of the Bible, she justified having five husbands and asserted her sexual desires and sovereignty over men. While some of her actions would not be considered feminist by today's standards, she represented a bold challenge to the patriarchal order and lack of power and agency for women during the Middle Ages.
The document discusses ethics and morality regarding sex and sexuality from a Christian perspective. It provides summaries of responses to arguments about pornography and art, reviews biblical passages about marriage and sexuality, and gives examples of both misguided and appropriate discussions of intimacy within marriage. The overall message is that Christianity bases its ethics on an absolute moral standard from God as revealed in the Bible.
This is the narrative of the By-Laws, Structures and Mandatory Electives of Covenant Creations for High Priest/ess, House Witch. Gratoo Coutisen Initiate.
World Literature Essay - PHDessay.com. World Literature Paper 2B - IB English HL Essay. World Literature Research Paper Example Topics and Well Written .... WORLD LITERATURE: A Brief Introduction. Essay websites: Sample literature essay. Edexcel English Literature A Level - Poetry Example Essays Teaching .... Evolution of World Literature Free Essay Example. World literature essay ib example. Students Service: World literature .... World Literature 1 Essay Example Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 .... Order Paper Writing Help 24/7 - ib english a1 world literature essay .... Pay for Essay and Get the Best Paper You Need - ib world literature 1 .... World literature essays - eyeofthedaygdc.web.fc2.com. Analytical Essay: Essay in english literature. World Literature Essay Example Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 .... Journal of World Literature Assignment Example Topics and Well .... Literature essay. World literature essay conclusion. World Literature Sample Masterpieces Summary. Essay Assessment: World Literature. World Literature Essay Example Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 .... 免费 Sample Literary Research Essay 样本文件在 allbusinesstemplates.com. Literary Analysis Essay: Tips to Write a Perfect Essay - wuzzupessay. Ib world literature essay - frudgereport585.web.fc2.com. Invitation to World Literature - Annenberg Learner. Literary e
1 women marriage certifcate reveal women's hidden storiesChinesedressonline
1. A folklore researcher in China collected 26 ancient marriage certificates from the late Qing Dynasty to the early People's Republic of China. These certificates provide historical insights into women's lives and the customs they followed, such as the "three obediences" and "four virtues".
2. One certificate documented a woman remarrying in 1942 after being widowed young. The new husband paid her late husband's family 3,000 silver dollars.
3. Another certificate from 1942 documented China's first recorded divorce, as the customs were changing to allow more progressive attitudes towards marriage and gender equality.
This document discusses the transition between eras and ages, how changes can happen suddenly without people realizing. It talks about entering a new era of unity between Cain and Abel after the coming of heaven. It discusses the owner of peace and lineage, and unificationism. It provides commentary on various topics including history, families, nations, and the philosophy of peace.
The document discusses the nature of marriage in Hinduism from ancient times to the present. It describes how marriage evolved from a state of sex promiscuity among early humans to an institution regulated through laws. In ancient Hindu scriptures like Manu Smriti, marriage was seen as making the wife half of the husband and establishing roles and duties of husband and wife. Marriage was viewed as both a sacred sacrament and a lifelong bond. However, in practice polygamy and easy divorce for men undermined the sanctity of marriage for women. The modern concept of marriage as a legal contract emerged with industrialization to establish free consent and remove practices like polygamy and concubinage. The Hindu Marriage Act of
This document discusses the development of sexuality from various perspectives. It defines sexuality broadly as including sex, gender, orientation, intimacy and reproduction. It then covers the history of sexuality from ancient India, Biblical times, and Foucault's work. It discusses Freud's psychosexual stages theory and the evolutionary perspective on sexuality, noting sex differences in arousal. The document takes a broad view of sexuality as a complex human phenomenon shaped by biological and socio-cultural factors over time.
The document discusses different types of marriage practices around the world. It notes there is no single definition of marriage, and that heterosexual monogamous marriages are just one type. Other types include plural spouses or same-sex marriages. The document outlines rights conferred by marriage like establishing legal parents and inheritance. It also discusses rules around who can marry, exchanges like bridewealth and dowry, residence patterns, and divorce customs. Marriage serves different functions in various societies.
Book Title The Emancipation of Women – An African PerspectiveVannaSchrader3
Book Title: The Emancipation of Women – An African Perspective
Author: Florence Abena Dolphyne
Chapter 1: Traditional Practices
Every human society has a body of beliefs that regulate the way people
behave and relate to each other in the society. Over the years, these beliefs and
modes of behaviour are modified to suit the changing circumstances of the society
concerned. African societies are no exception. What is different, however, is that
as a result of the contact with Western civilization and the uneven influence that
this civilization has had on African societies, one finds in every country a contrast
between a very Westernized society usually comprising the educated people in the
urban cent res and a traditional rural society whose beliefs and way 'of life often
show that they have hardly been touched by Western culture.
In this chapter, we will consider some aspects of African culture which have
a particular bearing on the issue of women's emancipation. These are customs,
traditions and beliefs which have, over the years, helped to keep women under
subjugation, and to make them feel generally inferior to men and incapable of
operating at the same level as men in society. These are: the institution of marriage
with its related issues of bride-wealth, child-marriage, polygamy, purdah,
widowhood and inheritance of property, high fertility and puberty rites with
specific reference to female circumcision.
Marriage
The institution of marriage is a very important one in all African societies. It
is primarily a union between two families, rather than between two individuals.
Traditionally, marriages are arranged between two families. When a young man
decides he wants a particular woman for his wife, he tells his parents about it, and
it then becomes the parents' responsibility and that of elders of the extended family
to ask for the woman's hand from her parents. Before this is done, the parents try to
find out all they can about the woman's family, whether there are any chronic or
hereditary illnesses such as mental disorders in the family, whether there are any
known criminals in the family, whether the women in the family are known to be
respectful and hardworking or not and so on. These are important matters that are
known to ensure the stability or otherwise of a marriage. Emotional attachment
between husband and wife was supposed to develop later, and therefore love
between a young man and a young woman was not in itself considered legitimate
grounds for marriage. If the young man's parents are not satisfied with what they
find out, they will tell their son that he should look for someone else, or suggest
somebody they approve of to him. In the same way, when a woman's family has
been approached with a proposal of marriage from the man's parents, they also
investigate the man's background and decide whether or not they would want their
daughter to marry into ...
What is marriage? Know how it is in the Philippines and on different cultures. This ppt also includes information about wedding rituals of different countries and of different religions. It also includes a list of the different types of marriages.
The document discusses a debate around same-sex marriage. It argues that allowing same-sex marriage would fundamentally change the traditional definition of marriage and could lead to further attempts to broaden the definition, such as allowing polygamous marriages. It asserts that marriage is based on the complementary nature of men and women and that redefining it could have negative social consequences.
The document provides an analysis of The Wife of Bath character from Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. It discusses how the Wife of Bath establishes her authority on marriage through her experience with five husbands. While she dominated the first three marriages, she struggled more for control in her last two marriages. The document examines how her prologue and tale both emphasize women's dominance over their husbands. It analyzes the similarities between the Wife of Bath's fifth husband and the knight in her tale, and how both men had to give their wives control to live happily.
Rituals are symbolic actions that are important in human societies. Rituals can be religious, social, or personal in nature. The ritual of marriage varies between religions but generally involves engagement, a wedding ceremony, and establishing a lifelong partnership and family. In Catholicism, marriage is considered a sacrament with specific requirements and impediments. For a Catholic marriage to be valid, there must be free consent between the partners and it cannot be dissolved once consummated.
The document discusses different aspects of marriage across societies, including definitions of marriage, reasons for its universality, and cultural variations. It defines marriage as a socially approved sexual and economic union between a man and a woman, presumed to be permanent. Though practiced universally, specific marriage customs vary. Rules govern how one marries, whom one marries, and how many spouses one has. Most societies prohibit incest within the nuclear family. Exceptions have included some royal families allowing marriage between close relatives.
Vestals were priestesses of the goddess Vesta in ancient Rome. They took vows of chastity and were responsible for maintaining the sacred fire of Vesta.
The document discusses the legal status and rights of Vestal Virgins. It was noted that when a woman became a Vestal Virgin, she left her father's power and gained her own legal rights, including the right to write a will. If a Vestal Virgin died without a will, her estate would pass to the public treasury rather than to heirs.
The document also provides biographical information about a pagan philosopher named Hypatia who lived in Alexandria in the 4th century CE. She taught philosophy and mathematics and had a
This document discusses Christianity's views on women and marriage based on passages from the Bible and writings of early Christian thinkers. It presents passages from Paul's letters that establish the hierarchy of man over woman. It also discusses views from other early Christian writers like Tertullian, who believed women should dress modestly as a sign of repentance, and Augustine, who argued that while some men in the Bible had multiple wives to promote larger families, it was never acceptable for women to have multiple husbands under Christian doctrine. The document examines early Christian teachings around the roles and appearance of women in the church and within marriage.
This document discusses legal definitions and concepts of gender in Roman law. It provides sources from Roman jurists and legal texts that defined legal terms and addressed questions around how legal concepts applied to both men and women. For example, it discusses how terms like "father of the family" (paterfamilias) included women as beginning and ending their own family, and how terms like "son" were understood to include all children. It also examines debates around whether terms like "man" legally included women, as well as discussions of guardianship for women and how necessary that was considered.
The Woman in the Roman Society. Unit 3-4:
Legal standing of a woman in Roman law. The Twelve Tables and Beyond. Women under authority and autonomous. Guardianship
(Capacity to Legal Transactions / Legal Capacity)
The Woman in the Roman Society. Ideal - Law - Practice
Unit 2-3: A true Roman woman – a true woman? An ideal or a revolutionary factor? Lucretia – Virginia – Cornelia – Cleopatra – Messalina – Agrippina – Theodora and Elagabalus. Literary topos and reality
1. Verginius was distraught after Appius Claudius claimed his daughter was actually a slave and not a free citizen. When permission was granted, he took his daughter and her nurse aside and plunged a butcher's knife into her breast, saying this was the only way he could vindicate her freedom.
2. Verginius then looked toward Appius and vowed to devote his head to the infernal gods with his daughter's blood. There was an outcry as Verginius brandished the knife to clear a path through the crowd while protected by sympathizers.
3. Icilius and Numitorius displayed the girl's lifeless body to the people to deplore Appius'
Prescriptive analytics BA4206 Anna University PPTFreelance
Business analysis - Prescriptive analytics Introduction to Prescriptive analytics
Prescriptive Modeling
Non Linear Optimization
Demonstrating Business Performance Improvement
IMPACT Silver is a pure silver zinc producer with over $260 million in revenue since 2008 and a large 100% owned 210km Mexico land package - 2024 catalysts includes new 14% grade zinc Plomosas mine and 20,000m of fully funded exploration drilling.
Storytelling is an incredibly valuable tool to share data and information. To get the most impact from stories there are a number of key ingredients. These are based on science and human nature. Using these elements in a story you can deliver information impactfully, ensure action and drive change.
Starting a business is like embarking on an unpredictable adventure. It’s a journey filled with highs and lows, victories and defeats. But what if I told you that those setbacks and failures could be the very stepping stones that lead you to fortune? Let’s explore how resilience, adaptability, and strategic thinking can transform adversity into opportunity.
[To download this presentation, visit:
https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations]
This presentation is a curated compilation of PowerPoint diagrams and templates designed to illustrate 20 different digital transformation frameworks and models. These frameworks are based on recent industry trends and best practices, ensuring that the content remains relevant and up-to-date.
Key highlights include Microsoft's Digital Transformation Framework, which focuses on driving innovation and efficiency, and McKinsey's Ten Guiding Principles, which provide strategic insights for successful digital transformation. Additionally, Forrester's framework emphasizes enhancing customer experiences and modernizing IT infrastructure, while IDC's MaturityScape helps assess and develop organizational digital maturity. MIT's framework explores cutting-edge strategies for achieving digital success.
These materials are perfect for enhancing your business or classroom presentations, offering visual aids to supplement your insights. Please note that while comprehensive, these slides are intended as supplementary resources and may not be complete for standalone instructional purposes.
Frameworks/Models included:
Microsoft’s Digital Transformation Framework
McKinsey’s Ten Guiding Principles of Digital Transformation
Forrester’s Digital Transformation Framework
IDC’s Digital Transformation MaturityScape
MIT’s Digital Transformation Framework
Gartner’s Digital Transformation Framework
Accenture’s Digital Strategy & Enterprise Frameworks
Deloitte’s Digital Industrial Transformation Framework
Capgemini’s Digital Transformation Framework
PwC’s Digital Transformation Framework
Cisco’s Digital Transformation Framework
Cognizant’s Digital Transformation Framework
DXC Technology’s Digital Transformation Framework
The BCG Strategy Palette
McKinsey’s Digital Transformation Framework
Digital Transformation Compass
Four Levels of Digital Maturity
Design Thinking Framework
Business Model Canvas
Customer Journey Map
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During the budget session of 2024-25, the finance minister, Nirmala Sitharaman, introduced the “solar Rooftop scheme,” also known as “PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana.” It is a subsidy offered to those who wish to put up solar panels in their homes using domestic power systems. Additionally, adopting photovoltaic technology at home allows you to lower your monthly electricity expenses. Today in this blog we will talk all about what is the PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana. How does it work? Who is eligible for this yojana and all the other things related to this scheme?
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3. Why marry?
Pseudo-Demostenes, Against Neira:
This is matrimony: when a man begets children
and presents his sons to his phratry and deme,
and gives his daughters, as being his own in
marriage to their husbands. Hetaerae we keep for
our pleasure, concubines / servants (pallakai) for
daily attendance upon our person, but wives for
the procreation of legitimate children and to be
the faithful guardians of our households.
4. The Roman View
Modestinus....
D. 23.2.1 (Modestinus, [28] Rules, book 1).
Marriage is the union of male and female
and the sharing of life together (consortium
omnis vitae), involving both divine and
human law.
5. One must marry: Augustus’ reasoning
of his Laws on Marriage: a quote from 131BC
speech of Q. Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus:
... if we could survive without
a wife, citizens of Rome, all of
us would do without that
nuisance; but since nature has
so decreed that we cannot
manage comfortably with
them, nor live in any way
without them,we must plan for
our lasting preservation rather
than for our temporary
pleasure.
6. Cato and the Metaphor
of the Noble Soil
• Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis
• Marcia
• Quintus Hortensius Hortalus
• Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus
7. Plutarch, Life of Cato
Then he married a daughter of Philippus, Marcia, a
woman of reputed excellence, about whom there was
the most abundant talk; and this part of Cato's life, like a
drama, has given rise to dispute and is hard to explain.
Quintus Hortensius:
‘According to the opinion of men, he argued, such a
course was absurd, but according to the law of
nature it was honourable and good for the state that a
woman in the prime of youth and beauty should neither
quench her productive power and lie idle, nor yet,
by bearing more offspring than enough, burden and
impoverish a husband who does not want them’.
8. Plutarch, Life of Cato
Moreover, community in heirs among worthy men
would make virtue abundant and widely diffused in their
families, and the state would be closely cemented together
by family alliances.
Then Hortensius changed his tactics and boldly asked for
the wife of Cato himself, since she was still young enough to
bear children, and Cato had heirs enough.
However, seeing the earnestness and eager desire of
Hortensius, Cato would not refuse, but said that Philippus
also, Marcia's father, must approve of this step. Accordingly,
Philippus was consulted and expressed his consent, but he
would not give Marcia in marriage until Cato himself was
present and joined in giving the bride away.
11. Why do they bid the bride
touch fire and water?
12. Why do they bid the bride
touch fire and water?
• Is it that of these two, being reckoned as elements or first principles, fire
is masculine and water feminine, and fire supplies the beginnings of
motion and water the function of the subsistent element or the
material?
13. Why do they bid the bride
touch fire and water?
• Is it that of these two, being reckoned as elements or first principles, fire
is masculine and water feminine, and fire supplies the beginnings of
motion and water the function of the subsistent element or the
material?
• Or is it because fire purifies and water cleanses, and a married woman
must remain pure and clean?
14. Why do they bid the bride
touch fire and water?
• Is it that of these two, being reckoned as elements or first principles, fire
is masculine and water feminine, and fire supplies the beginnings of
motion and water the function of the subsistent element or the
material?
• Or is it because fire purifies and water cleanses, and a married woman
must remain pure and clean?
• Or is it that, just as fire without moisture is unsustaining and arid, and
water without heat is unproductive and inactive, so also male and
female apart from each other are inert, but their union in marriage
produces the perfection of their life together?
15. Why do they bid the bride
touch fire and water?
• Is it that of these two, being reckoned as elements or first principles, fire
is masculine and water feminine, and fire supplies the beginnings of
motion and water the function of the subsistent element or the
material?
• Or is it because fire purifies and water cleanses, and a married woman
must remain pure and clean?
• Or is it that, just as fire without moisture is unsustaining and arid, and
water without heat is unproductive and inactive, so also male and
female apart from each other are inert, but their union in marriage
produces the perfection of their life together?
• Or is it that they must not desert each other, but must share together
every sort of fortune, even if they are destined to have nothing other
than fire and water to share with each other?
16. Why do they not allow the bride
to cross the threshold of her
home herself, but those who
are escorting her lift her over?
17. Why do they not allow the bride
to cross the threshold of her
home herself, but those who
are escorting her lift her over?
• Is it because they carried off by force also the first Roman brides and
bore them in in this manner, and the women did not enter of their
own accord?
18. Why do they not allow the bride
to cross the threshold of her
home herself, but those who
are escorting her lift her over?
• Is it because they carried off by force also the first Roman brides and
bore them in in this manner, and the women did not enter of their
own accord?
• Or do they wish it to appear that it is under constraint and not of
their own desire that they enter a dwelling where they are about to
lose their virginity?
19. Why do they not allow the bride
to cross the threshold of her
home herself, but those who
are escorting her lift her over?
• Is it because they carried off by force also the first Roman brides and
bore them in in this manner, and the women did not enter of their
own accord?
• Or do they wish it to appear that it is under constraint and not of
their own desire that they enter a dwelling where they are about to
lose their virginity?
• Or is it a token that the woman may not go forth of her own accord
and abandon her home if she be not constrained, just as it was under
constraint that she entered it? So likewise among us in Boeotia they
burn the axle of the bridal carriage before the door, signifying that
the bride must remain, since her means of departure has been
destroyed.
20. Why do they, as they conduct the
bride to her home, bid her say,
“Where you are Gaius,
there am I Gaia”?
21. Why do they, as they conduct the
bride to her home, bid her say,
“Where you are Gaius,
there am I Gaia”?
• Is her entrance into the house upon fixed terms, as it were, at
once to share everything and to control jointly the
household, and is the meaning, then, "Wherever you are lord
and master, there am I lady and mistress"? These names are
in common use also in other connexions, just as jurists speak
of Gaius Seius and Lucius Titius, and philosophers of Dion
and Theon.
22. Why do they, as they conduct the
bride to her home, bid her say,
“Where you are Gaius,
there am I Gaia”?
• Is her entrance into the house upon fixed terms, as it were, at
once to share everything and to control jointly the
household, and is the meaning, then, "Wherever you are lord
and master, there am I lady and mistress"? These names are
in common use also in other connexions, just as jurists speak
of Gaius Seius and Lucius Titius, and philosophers of Dion
and Theon.
• Or do they use these names because of Gaia Caecilia,
consort of one of Tarquin's sons, a fair and virtuous woman,
whose statue in bronze stands in the temple of Sanctus? And
both her sandals and her spindle were, in ancient days,
dedicated there as tokens of her love of home and of her
industry respectively
29. Pre-requisites of marriage
Excerpts from the Works of Ulpian, 5.2: A valid (legitimate)
marriage is made, when there is conubium between the
contracting parties, and if the man is adult and the woman is
able to procreate, and if both of them agree, if they are
autonomous or also their fathers, if they are still in their power.
30. Pre-requisites of marriage
Excerpts from the Works of Ulpian, 5.2: A valid (legitimate)
marriage is made, when there is conubium between the
contracting parties, and if the man is adult and the woman is
able to procreate, and if both of them agree, if they are
autonomous or also their fathers, if they are still in their power.
Pre-requites of a legally recognised union (iustum
matrimonium):
31. Pre-requisites of marriage
Excerpts from the Works of Ulpian, 5.2: A valid (legitimate)
marriage is made, when there is conubium between the
contracting parties, and if the man is adult and the woman is
able to procreate, and if both of them agree, if they are
autonomous or also their fathers, if they are still in their power.
Pre-requites of a legally recognised union (iustum
matrimonium):
1. affectio maritalis
32. Pre-requisites of marriage
Excerpts from the Works of Ulpian, 5.2: A valid (legitimate)
marriage is made, when there is conubium between the
contracting parties, and if the man is adult and the woman is
able to procreate, and if both of them agree, if they are
autonomous or also their fathers, if they are still in their power.
Pre-requites of a legally recognised union (iustum
matrimonium):
1. affectio maritalis
which can be expressed between two people
33. Pre-requisites of marriage
Excerpts from the Works of Ulpian, 5.2: A valid (legitimate)
marriage is made, when there is conubium between the
contracting parties, and if the man is adult and the woman is
able to procreate, and if both of them agree, if they are
autonomous or also their fathers, if they are still in their power.
Pre-requites of a legally recognised union (iustum
matrimonium):
1. affectio maritalis
which can be expressed between two people
2. of legal age
34. Pre-requisites of marriage
Excerpts from the Works of Ulpian, 5.2: A valid (legitimate)
marriage is made, when there is conubium between the
contracting parties, and if the man is adult and the woman is
able to procreate, and if both of them agree, if they are
autonomous or also their fathers, if they are still in their power.
Pre-requites of a legally recognised union (iustum
matrimonium):
1. affectio maritalis
which can be expressed between two people
2. of legal age
having
35. Pre-requisites of marriage
Excerpts from the Works of Ulpian, 5.2: A valid (legitimate)
marriage is made, when there is conubium between the
contracting parties, and if the man is adult and the woman is
able to procreate, and if both of them agree, if they are
autonomous or also their fathers, if they are still in their power.
Pre-requites of a legally recognised union (iustum
matrimonium):
1. affectio maritalis
which can be expressed between two people
2. of legal age
having
3. conubium
36. Pre-requisites of marriage
Excerpts from the Works of Ulpian, 5.2: A valid (legitimate)
marriage is made, when there is conubium between the
contracting parties, and if the man is adult and the woman is
able to procreate, and if both of them agree, if they are
autonomous or also their fathers, if they are still in their power.
Pre-requites of a legally recognised union (iustum
matrimonium):
1. affectio maritalis
which can be expressed between two people
2. of legal age
having
3. conubium
in regard to one another
37. Creation of Marriage
Affectio maritalis
D. 23.2.2 (Paul, Edict, book 35) A marriage
can only exist if all agree, that is the parties
and those in whose power they are.
39. affectio maritalis and
its continuos character
Edoardo Volterra and his role in the modern view
on Roman marriage: from the initial consent to the
continuity of its expression.
40. affectio maritalis and
its continuos character
Edoardo Volterra and his role in the modern view
on Roman marriage: from the initial consent to the
continuity of its expression.
major arguments:
41. affectio maritalis and
its continuos character
Edoardo Volterra and his role in the modern view
on Roman marriage: from the initial consent to the
continuity of its expression.
major arguments:
informality of divorce
42. affectio maritalis and
its continuos character
Edoardo Volterra and his role in the modern view
on Roman marriage: from the initial consent to the
continuity of its expression.
major arguments:
informality of divorce
non-existence of bigamy in Roman law (Cicero
and the Spanish wife.)
43. affectio maritalis and
its continuos character
Edoardo Volterra and his role in the modern view
on Roman marriage: from the initial consent to the
continuity of its expression.
major arguments:
informality of divorce
non-existence of bigamy in Roman law (Cicero
and the Spanish wife.)
Marital liberty as the principle of ordre publique
44. the problems...
D. 24.1.64. Javolenus, On the Last Works of Labeo, Book VI.
A man gave something to his wife after a divorce had taken place,
to induce her to return to him; and the woman, having returned,
afterwards obtained a divorce. Labeo and Trebatius gave it as
their opinion in a case which arose between Terentia and
Maecenas, that if the divorce was genuine, the donation would be
valid, but if it was simulated, it would be void. However, what
Proculus and Caecilius hold is true, namely, that a divorce is
genuine, and a donation made on account of it is valid, where
another marriage follows, or the woman remains for so long a
time unmarried that there is no doubt of a dissolution of the
marriage, otherwise the donation will be of no force or effect.
46. the problems with
affectio maritalis
uncertainty of status (as legitimate
children enter under patria potestas and
automatically obtain citizenship)
47. the problems with
affectio maritalis
uncertainty of status (as legitimate
children enter under patria potestas and
automatically obtain citizenship)
financial problems (gifts and dowries!)
48. the problems with
affectio maritalis
uncertainty of status (as legitimate
children enter under patria potestas and
automatically obtain citizenship)
financial problems (gifts and dowries!)
penal issues (exemption from the
sanctions for stuprum and adulterium
49. The presumption
of marriage?
D. 23.2.24 (Modestinus, Rules, book 1). Cohabitation
with a free woman is to be considered marriage not
concubinage, unless she is a prostitute
D. 24.2.3. Paulus, On the Edict, Book XXXV.
It is not a true or actual divorce unless the purpose is
to establish a perpetual separation. Therefore,
whatever is done or said in the heat of anger is not
valid, unless the determination becomes apparent by
the parties persevering in their intention, and hence
where repudiation takes place in the heat of anger and
the wife returns in a short time, she is not held to have
been divorced.
50. the consent
of the father...
D. 23.2.21. Terentius Clemens, On the Lex Julia
et Papia, Book III. A son under paternal control
cannot be forced to marry.
D. 23.2.22 (Celsus, Digest, book 15). If under
pressure from his father a man takes a wife,
whom he would not have married if he had
followed his own inclination, still, though there
is no marriage without consent, he contracted a
marriage; he is regarded as having preferred to
do so.
52. the consent
of the father...
D. 23.1.11 (Julianus, Digest, book 16). Engagement like
marriage comes about by the consent of the parties, and so a
daughter-in-power's consent is needed for an engagement as it
is for a marriage.
53. the consent
of the father...
D. 23.1.11 (Julianus, Digest, book 16). Engagement like
marriage comes about by the consent of the parties, and so a
daughter-in-power's consent is needed for an engagement as it
is for a marriage.
23.1.12 (Ulpian, On Betrothal, sole book) (pr.) A daughter who
does not oppose her father's will [as regards her engagement] is
taken to agree. (1) She is free to disagree only if her father
chooses her a fiancé who is unworthy or of bad character.
54. the consent
of the father...
D. 23.1.11 (Julianus, Digest, book 16). Engagement like
marriage comes about by the consent of the parties, and so a
daughter-in-power's consent is needed for an engagement as it
is for a marriage.
23.1.12 (Ulpian, On Betrothal, sole book) (pr.) A daughter who
does not oppose her father's will [as regards her engagement] is
taken to agree. (1) She is free to disagree only if her father
chooses her a fiancé who is unworthy or of bad character.
23.1.7.1 (Paul, Edict, book 35) For an engagement the same
people have to agree as for a marriage. Nevertheless, Julian
writes that the father of a daughter-in-power is understood to
consent unless he explicitly disagrees.
56. Conubium
a relative capacity inherent to ius
civile
corresponds – even if negatively
and anachronistically – to the
canonistic-modern notion of
matrimonial impediments
58. lack of
conubium
• difference of genders: (legally irrelevant: Nero and Pytha-
goras)
59. lack of
conubium
• difference of genders: (legally irrelevant: Nero and Pytha-
goras)
• blood-relation
60. lack of
conubium
• difference of genders: (legally irrelevant: Nero and Pytha-
goras)
• blood-relation
• in direct line: totally
61. lack of
conubium
• difference of genders: (legally irrelevant: Nero and Pytha-
goras)
• blood-relation
• in direct line: totally
• in collateral line: up to the 4th grade (3rd grade)
62. lack of
conubium
• difference of genders: (legally irrelevant: Nero and Pytha-
goras)
• blood-relation
• in direct line: totally
• in collateral line: up to the 4th grade (3rd grade)
• why incest is forbidden?
63. Plutarch, Roman Questions 108:
Why do they not marry women who are closely
akin to them? Do they wish to enlarge their
relationships by marriage and to acquire many
additional kinsmen by bestowing wives upon
others and receiving wives from others? Or do
they fear the disagreements which arise in
marriages of near kin, on the ground that these
tend to destroy natural rights? Or, since they
observe that women by reason of their weakness
need many protectors, were they not willing to
take as partners in their household women
closely akin to them, so that if their husbands
wronged them, their kinsmen might bring them
succour?
65. Gnomon § 23
κγ οὐκ ἐξὸν Ῥωμαίοις ἀδελφὰς γῆμαι οὐδὲ τηθίδας,
ἀδελφῶν θυγατέρας συνκεχώρηται. Παρδαλᾶς μέντοι
ἀδελφῶν συνελθόντων τὰ ὑπάρχοντα/ ἀνέλαβεν.
§ 23 It shall not be allowed for the Romans to marry
sisters or aunts. It is permitted in case of brothers’
daughters. Pardalas indeed confiscated estates of
married siblings.
69. No conubium cnd.
•patricians and plebeians
•The law of XII Tables
•Liwius: ne incerta prole auspicia
turberentur.
70. No conubium cnd.
•patricians and plebeians
•The law of XII Tables
•Liwius: ne incerta prole auspicia
turberentur.
•the reasons of lex Canuleia.
71. No conubium cnd.
•patricians and plebeians
•The law of XII Tables
•Liwius: ne incerta prole auspicia
turberentur.
•the reasons of lex Canuleia.
•soldiers during their service
72. No conubium cnd.
•patricians and plebeians
•The law of XII Tables
•Liwius: ne incerta prole auspicia
turberentur.
•the reasons of lex Canuleia.
•soldiers during their service
•Roman officials and the women
in the province.
75. Lack of
conubium
• people from the senatorial estate and low-
class occupations as well as freedmen
• Jews and christians
76. Free Marriages:
how far do they go?
• D. 24.2.10. Modestinus, Rides, Book I. A
freedwoman, who has married her
patron, cannot separate from him without
his consent, unless she has been
manumitted under the terms of a trust,
for then she can do so even though she is
his freedwoman.
77. Freed-Women -
reconsidered
11. Ulpianus, On the Lex Julia et Papia, Book III. Where
the law says: “A freedwoman, who is married to her patron,
shall not be granted the right to divorce” this is not held to
have made the divorce ineffective, because marriage is
ordinarily dissolved by the Civil Law; therefore we cannot
say that the marriage exists, as a separation has taken place.
Again, Julianus says that a wife is not under such
circumstances entitled to an action to recover her dowry;
hence it is reasonable that when her patron desires her to
remain his wife she cannot marry anyone else. For, as the
legislator understood that the marriage was, to a certain
extent, dissolved by the act of the freedwoman, he
prevented her marriage with another, wherefore if she
should marry anyone else, she will be considered as not
married. Julianus, indeed, goes farther, for he thinks that
such a woman cannot even live in concubinage with anyone
except her patron.
78. Freed-Women -
reconsidered
11. Ulpianus, On the Lex Julia et Papia, Book III. Where
the law says: “A freedwoman, who is married to her patron,
shall not be granted the right to divorce” this is not held to
have made the divorce ineffective, because marriage is
ordinarily dissolved by the Civil Law; therefore we cannot
say that the marriage exists, as a separation has taken place.
Again, Julianus says that a wife is not under such
circumstances entitled to an action to recover her dowry;
hence it is reasonable that when her patron desires her to
remain his wife she cannot marry anyone else. For, as the
legislator understood that the marriage was, to a certain
extent, dissolved by the act of the freedwoman, he
prevented her marriage with another, wherefore if she
should marry anyone else, she will be considered as not
married. Julianus, indeed, goes farther, for he thinks that
such a woman cannot even live in concubinage with anyone
except her patron.
79. Freed-Women -
reconsidered
11. Ulpianus, On the Lex Julia et Papia, Book III. Where
the law says: “A freedwoman, who is married to her patron,
shall not be granted the right to divorce” this is not held to
have made the divorce ineffective, because marriage is
ordinarily dissolved by the Civil Law; therefore we cannot
say that the marriage exists, as a separation has taken place.
Again, Julianus says that a wife is not under such
circumstances entitled to an action to recover her dowry;
hence it is reasonable that when her patron desires her to
remain his wife she cannot marry anyone else. For, as the
legislator understood that the marriage was, to a certain
extent, dissolved by the act of the freedwoman, he
prevented her marriage with another, wherefore if she
should marry anyone else, she will be considered as not
married. Julianus, indeed, goes farther, for he thinks that
such a woman cannot even live in concubinage with anyone
except her patron.
80. (1) The law says: “As long as the patron desires her to remain his wife.” This
means that the patron wishes her to be his wife, and that his relationship
towards her should continue to exist; therefore where he either ceases to be
her patron, or to desire that she should remain his wife, the authority of the
law is at an end. (2) It has been most justly established that the benefit of this
law terminated whenever the patron, by any indication of his will whatsoever,
is understood to have relinquished his desire to keep the woman as his wife.
Hence, when he institutes proceedings against his freedwoman on the ground
of the removal of property, after she had divorced him without his consent,
our Emperor and his Divine Father stated in a Rescript that the party was
understood to be unwilling that the woman should remain his wife, when he
brings this action or another like it, which it is not customary to do unless in
case of divorce. Wherefore, if the husband accuses her of adultery or of some
other crime of which no one can accuse a wife but her husband, the better
opinion is that the marriage is dissolved; for it should be remembered that the
wife is not deprived of the right to marry another except where the patron
himself desires to retain her in that capacity. Hence, whenever even a slight
reason indicates that the husband does not desire her to remain his wife, it
must be said that the freedwoman has already acquired the right to contract
marriage with another. Therefore, if the patron has betrothed himself to, or
destined himself for some other woman, or has sought marriage with another,
he must be considered to no longer desire the freedwoman to be his wife. The
same rule will apply where he keeps the woman as his concubine.
81. (1) The law says: “As long as the patron desires her to remain his wife.” This
means that the patron wishes her to be his wife, and that his relationship
towards her should continue to exist; therefore where he either ceases to be
her patron, or to desire that she should remain his wife, the authority of the
law is at an end. (2) It has been most justly established that the benefit of this
law terminated whenever the patron, by any indication of his will whatsoever,
is understood to have relinquished his desire to keep the woman as his wife.
Hence, when he institutes proceedings against his freedwoman on the ground
of the removal of property, after she had divorced him without his consent,
our Emperor and his Divine Father stated in a Rescript that the party was
understood to be unwilling that the woman should remain his wife, when he
brings this action or another like it, which it is not customary to do unless in
case of divorce. Wherefore, if the husband accuses her of adultery or of some
other crime of which no one can accuse a wife but her husband, the better
opinion is that the marriage is dissolved; for it should be remembered that the
wife is not deprived of the right to marry another except where the patron
himself desires to retain her in that capacity. Hence, whenever even a slight
reason indicates that the husband does not desire her to remain his wife, it
must be said that the freedwoman has already acquired the right to contract
marriage with another. Therefore, if the patron has betrothed himself to, or
destined himself for some other woman, or has sought marriage with another,
he must be considered to no longer desire the freedwoman to be his wife. The
same rule will apply where he keeps the woman as his concubine.
82. Fritz Schulz (1879-1957)
and the “Humanity”
of Roman law
“The classical law of marriage is an imposing,
perhaps the most imposing, achievement of the
Roman legal genius. For the first time in the
history of civilization there appeared a purely
humanistic law of marriage, viz. a law founded
on a purely humanistic idea of marriage as
being a free and freely dissoluble union of two
equal partners for life”
85. Manus and Marriage
• Conventio in manu mariti:
• Confarreatio : ‘by spelt bread’
86. Manus and Marriage
• Conventio in manu mariti:
• Confarreatio : ‘by spelt bread’
• Coëmptio: ‘by ritual sale’
87. Manus and Marriage
• Conventio in manu mariti:
• Confarreatio : ‘by spelt bread’
• Coëmptio: ‘by ritual sale’
• Usus : ‘usucaption of power’.
88. Confarreatio
• § 112. Confarreation, another mode in
which subjection to hand originates, is a
sacrifice offered to Jupiter Farreus, in which
they use a cake of spelt, whence the
ceremony derives its name, and various
other acts and things are done and made in
the solemnization of this disposition with a
traditional form of words, in the presence
of ten witnesses: and this law is still in use,
for the functions of the greater flamens,
that is, the flamens of Jove, of Mars, of
Quirinus, and the duties of the ritual king,
can only be performed by persons born in
marriage solemnized by confarreation. Nor
can such persons themselves hold a priestly
office if they are not married by
confarreation.
89. Coemptio
• § 113. In coemption the right of hand over a
woman attaches to a person to whom she is
conveyed by a mancipation or imaginary sale:
for the man purchases the woman who comes
into his power in the presence of at least five
witnesses, citizens of Rome above the age of
puberty, besides a balance holder.
90. USUS
• 111. Use invested the husband with right of hand
after a whole year of unbroken cohabitation. Such
annual possession operated a kind of usucapion, and
brought the wife into the family of the husband,
where it gave her the status of a daughter.
Accordingly, the law of the Twelve Tables provided
that a wife who wished to avoid subjection to the hand
of the husband should annually absent herself three
nights from his roof to bar the annual usucapion: but
the whole of this law has been either partly abolished
by statute, or partly obliterated by mere disuse.
92. Lex Iulia et Pappia de maritandis
ordinibus; Lex Iulia de adulteris
Augustus' law. Rome, 18 B.C. (Suetonius, Life of Augustus 34. L)
He reformed the laws and completely overhauled some of them, such as the
sumptuary law, that on adultery and chastity, that on bribery, and marriage
of the various classes. Having shown greater severity in the emendation of
this last than the others, as a result of the agitation of its opponents he was
unable to get it approved except by abolishing or mitigating part of the
penalty, conceding a three-year grace-period (before remarriage) and
increasing the rewards (for having children). Nevertheless, when, during a
public show the order of knights asked him with insistence to revoke it, he
summoned the children of Germanicus, holding some of them near him
and setting others on their father's knee; and in so doing he gave the
demonstrators to understand through his affectionate gestures and
expressions that they should not object to imitating that young man's
example. Moreover, when he found out that the law was being sidestepped
through engagements to young girls and frequent divorces, he put a time
limit on engagement and clamped down on divorce.
93. Lex Iulia et Pappia de maritandis
ordinibus; Lex Iulia de adulteris
Prizes for marriage and having children. Rome, 1st
cent. A.D. (Dio Cassius, History of Rome 54.16.1-1.
Early 3rd cent. A.D. G)
[Augustus] assessed heavier taxes on unmarried men
and women without husbands, and by contrast offered
awards for marriage and childbearing. And since there
were more males than females among the nobility, he
permitted anyone who wished (except for senators) to
marry freedwomen, and decreed that children of such
marriages be legitimate.
94. ‘Lex Iulia et Papia’
• Sanctions
• Law of succession (ability to receive from
wills: cut to half for childless and entirely
for unmarried)
• Rewards:
• Ius trium liberorum (guardianship of
women, privileges for men).
95. Lex Iulia de adulteris
2.26 (1) In the second chapter of the lex Julia concerning
adultery, either an adoptive or a natural father is
permitted to kill with his own hands an adulterer caught
in the act with his daughter in his own house or in that of
his son-in-law, no matter what his rank may be.
(2) If a son under paternal power, who is the father,
should surprise his daughter in the act of adultery, while
it is inferred from the words of the law that he cannot kill
her, still, he ought to be permitted to do so.
(4) A husband cannot kill anyone taken in adultery except
persons who are infamous, and those who sell their
bodies for gain, as well as slaves. His wife, however, is
excepted, and he is forbidden to kill her.
96. Lex Iulia de adulteris
(5) It has been decided that a husband who kills his wife when
caught with an adulterer should be punished more leniently,
for the reason that he committed the act through impatience
caused by just suffering.
(6) After having killed the adulterer, the husband should at
once dismiss his wife, and publicly declare within the next
three days with what adulterer, and in what place he found his
wife.
(7) A husband who surprises his wife in adultery can only kill
the adulterer when he catches him in his own house.
(8) It has been decided that a husband who does not at once
dismiss his wife whom he has taken in adultery can be
prosecuted as a pimp.
(10) It should be noted that two adulterers can be accused at
the same time with the wife, but more than that number
cannot be.
(11) It has been decided that adultery cannot be committed
with women who have charge of any business or shop.
97. Lex Iulia de adulteris
C. 9.9.1: Severus/Caracalla to
Cassia (197 AD): The Julian Law
declares that wives have no right to
bring criminal accusations for
adultery, even as regards their own
marriage, for while the law grants
this privilege to men it does not
concede it to women….
99. Results? Res gestae divi Augusti
8. When I was consul the fifth time (29 B.C), I increased the
number of patricians by order of the people and senate. I
read the roll of the senate three times, and in my sixth
consulate (28 B.C.) I made a census of the people with
Marcus Agrippa as my colleague. I conducted a lustrum,
after a forty-one year gap, in which lustrum were counted
4,063,000 heads of Roman citizens. Then again, with
consular imperium I conducted a lustrum alone when
Gaius Censorinus and Gaius Asinius were consuls (8 B.C),
in which lustrum were counted 4,233,000 heads of Roman
citizens. And the third time, with consular imperium, I
conducted a lustrum with my son Tiberius Caesar as
colleague, when Sextus Pompeius and Sextus Appuleius
were consuls (AD 14), in which lustrum were cunted
4,937,000 of the heads of Roman citizens. By new laws
passed with my sponsorship, I restored many traditions of
the ancestors, which were falling into disuse in our age, and
myself I handed on precedents of many things to be
imitated in later generations.
103. August and his wives....
62. In his youth he was betrothed to the daughter of Publius Servilius
Isauricus, but when he became reconciled with Antony after their first
quarrel, and their troops begged that the rivals be further united by
some tie of kinship, he took to wife Antony's stepdaughter Claudia,
daughter of Fulvia by Publius Clodius, although she was barely of
marriageable age; but because of a falling out with his mother-in-law
Fulvia, he divorced her before they had begun to live together. Shortly
after that he married Scribonia, who had been wedded before to two
ex-consuls, and was a mother by one of them. He divorced her also,
"unable to put up with her shrewish disposition," as he himself writes,
and at once took Livia Drusilla from her husband Tiberius Nero,
although she was with child at the time; and he loved and esteemed her
to the end without a rival.
105. August and his daughter....
63 By Scribonia he had a daughter Julia, by Livia no children at all,
although he earnestly desired issue. One baby was conceived, but was
prematurely born. He gave Julia in marriage first to Marcellus, son of
his sister Octavia and hardly more than a boy, and then after his death
to Marcus Agrippa, prevailing upon his sister to yield her son-in-law to
him; for at that time Agrippa had to wife one of the Marcellas and had
children from her. When Agrippa also died, Augustus, after considering
various alliances for a long time, even in the equestrian order, finally
chose his stepson Tiberius, obliging him to divorce his wife, who was
with child and by whom he was already a father. Mark Antony writes
that Augustus first betrothed his daughter to his son Antonius and then
to Cotiso, king of the Getae, at the same time asking for the hand of the
king's daughter for himself in turn.
106. But at the height of his happiness and his confidence in his family
and its training, Fortune proved fickle. He found the two Julias, his
daughter and granddaughter, guilty of every form of vice, and
banished them. (...) For he was not greatly broken by the fate of
Gaius and Lucius, but he informed the senate of his daughter's fall
through a letter read in his absence by a quaestor, and for very
shame would meet no one for a long time, and even thought of
putting her to death. At all events, when one of her confidantes, a
freedwoman called Phoebe, hanged herself at about that same
time, he said: "I would rather have been Phoebe's father." After
Julia was banished, he denied her the use of wine and every form
of luxury, and would not allow any man, bond or free, to come
near her without his permission, and then not without being
informed of his stature, complexion, and even of any marks or
scars upon his body. It was not until five years later that he moved
her from the island to the mainland and treated her with somewhat
less rigour. But he could not by any means be prevailed on to recall
her altogether, and when the Roman people several times
interceded for her and urgently pressed their suit, he in open
assembly called upon the gods to curse them with like daughters
and like wives.
108. Why a Wife is not a
Prostitute?
For commonly ‘tis thought that wives conceive
More readily in manner of wild-beasts,
After the custom of the four-foot breeds,
Because so postured, with the breasts beneath
And buttocks then up-reared, the seeds can take
Lucretius,
Their proper places. Nor is need the least de rerum natura
For wives to use the motions of blandishment;
For thus the woman hinders and resists
Her own conception, if too joyously
Herself she treats the Venus of the man
With haunches heaving, and with all her bosom
Now yielding like the billows of the sea-
Aye, from the ploughshare’s even course and track
She throws the furrow, and from proper places
Deflects the spurt of seed. And courtesans
Are thuswise wont to move for their own ends,
To keep from pregnancy and lying in,
And all the while to render Venus more
A pleasure for the men- the which meseems
Our wives have never need of.