The document discusses immunological disorders and focuses on HIV/AIDS. It provides an overview of HIV/AIDS, including:
- The structure and life cycle of HIV. HIV infects and destroys CD4+ T cells, weakening the immune system.
- The stages of HIV infection from primary infection to AIDS. As HIV destroys more immune cells, it progresses to later stages.
- Common transmission routes like unprotected sex, needle sharing, mother-to-child.
- Diagnosis methods like ELISA and Western blot that detect HIV antibodies. Viral load tests monitor treatment effectiveness.
- Complications of advanced HIV/AIDS like opportunistic infections and cancers.
- Prevention strategies including condoms, treatment
The document provides information about the lymphatic system and immune system. It discusses the organs and tissues that are part of the lymphatic system, including the thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, and tonsils. It describes the barrier defenses of the skin, mucous membranes, and other internal defenses like interferon and phagocytes. It also discusses lymphocytes and the specific immune response involving B cells, T cells, antigens, antibodies, and memory cells. It provides information on immunity and how it can be acquired naturally or artificially through vaccination.
HIV attacks and destroys CD4 cells, weakening the immune system and leaving the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections. There are three main stages of HIV infection: (1) Primary infection where viremia is high and symptoms may occur; (2) Clinical latency where the virus establishes itself and the CD4 count declines slowly; (3) AIDS where the CD4 count is low and opportunistic infections take hold. The natural history and pathogenesis of HIV involves direct viral killing of CD4 cells as well as indirect mechanisms like syncytium formation that further weaken immunity over time.
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus and can be transmitted through sexual contact, blood transmission, or from mother to child. There are two types of HIV, HIV-1 being more prevalent. HIV progresses to AIDS by weakening the immune system over time. Prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) aims to prevent HIV transmission from mother to child during pregnancy, birth, or breastfeeding through testing, treatment, and replacement feeding. Antiretroviral therapy can suppress HIV and slow disease progression.
Immunodeficiency diseases are caused by defects in the immune system that lead to increased susceptibility to infections. There are two types: primary immunodeficiency caused by defective genes, and secondary immunodeficiency caused by external factors like drugs or malnutrition. AIDS is a common secondary immunodeficiency disease caused by the HIV virus that attacks immune cells.
The document provides an overview of HIV and AIDS, including:
- HIV is a virus that weakens the immune system and can lead to AIDS if untreated. There are two types, HIV-1 being more prevalent.
- It is typically transmitted sexually, through blood/needles, or mother-to-child. Diagnosis involves antibody tests like ELISA and confirmation with Western Blot.
- If left untreated, it can take 10-15 years for HIV to develop into AIDS. Antiretroviral treatment can slow disease progression. Current global statistics and highest prevalence areas are mentioned.
HIV is a retrovirus that infects CD4+ T cells and causes AIDS by destroying the immune system. It enters the body through sexual contact, blood transmission, or during birth. Once inside it spreads to lymphoid tissues where it replicates within T cells and macrophages. This causes cell dysfunction and death, damaging the immune system over time. Despite an immune response, HIV evolves rapidly and establishes reservoirs that allow lifelong persistence. Without treatment, this progressive immune destruction ultimately results in AIDS.
This document discusses hypo-sensitivity (immunodeficiency) disorders and provides examples of immunodeficiency diseases including HIV/AIDS. It describes how HIV works by damaging the immune system, infecting cells which then replicate and spread HIV. People are initially HIV-positive before developing AIDS, a condition with no cure that is often fatal. Multiple sclerosis is provided as an example of an autoimmune disease.
HIV attacks and destroys CD4 cells, weakening the immune system and leading to AIDS. It is transmitted through bodily fluids like blood, breastmilk, semen and vaginal secretions. The infection progresses from HIV infection to AIDS in stages - first, the window period when antibodies are not detectable. It is then followed by asymptomatic phase that can last 10-15 years before HIV-related illnesses and infections emerge. Untreated, it culminates in AIDS when the immune system is severely compromised. Risk groups include those with multiple sexual partners and intravenous drug users. Testing involves pre- and post-test counseling and uses ELISA or Western Blot confirmatory tests.
The document provides information about the lymphatic system and immune system. It discusses the organs and tissues that are part of the lymphatic system, including the thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, and tonsils. It describes the barrier defenses of the skin, mucous membranes, and other internal defenses like interferon and phagocytes. It also discusses lymphocytes and the specific immune response involving B cells, T cells, antigens, antibodies, and memory cells. It provides information on immunity and how it can be acquired naturally or artificially through vaccination.
HIV attacks and destroys CD4 cells, weakening the immune system and leaving the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections. There are three main stages of HIV infection: (1) Primary infection where viremia is high and symptoms may occur; (2) Clinical latency where the virus establishes itself and the CD4 count declines slowly; (3) AIDS where the CD4 count is low and opportunistic infections take hold. The natural history and pathogenesis of HIV involves direct viral killing of CD4 cells as well as indirect mechanisms like syncytium formation that further weaken immunity over time.
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus and can be transmitted through sexual contact, blood transmission, or from mother to child. There are two types of HIV, HIV-1 being more prevalent. HIV progresses to AIDS by weakening the immune system over time. Prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) aims to prevent HIV transmission from mother to child during pregnancy, birth, or breastfeeding through testing, treatment, and replacement feeding. Antiretroviral therapy can suppress HIV and slow disease progression.
Immunodeficiency diseases are caused by defects in the immune system that lead to increased susceptibility to infections. There are two types: primary immunodeficiency caused by defective genes, and secondary immunodeficiency caused by external factors like drugs or malnutrition. AIDS is a common secondary immunodeficiency disease caused by the HIV virus that attacks immune cells.
The document provides an overview of HIV and AIDS, including:
- HIV is a virus that weakens the immune system and can lead to AIDS if untreated. There are two types, HIV-1 being more prevalent.
- It is typically transmitted sexually, through blood/needles, or mother-to-child. Diagnosis involves antibody tests like ELISA and confirmation with Western Blot.
- If left untreated, it can take 10-15 years for HIV to develop into AIDS. Antiretroviral treatment can slow disease progression. Current global statistics and highest prevalence areas are mentioned.
HIV is a retrovirus that infects CD4+ T cells and causes AIDS by destroying the immune system. It enters the body through sexual contact, blood transmission, or during birth. Once inside it spreads to lymphoid tissues where it replicates within T cells and macrophages. This causes cell dysfunction and death, damaging the immune system over time. Despite an immune response, HIV evolves rapidly and establishes reservoirs that allow lifelong persistence. Without treatment, this progressive immune destruction ultimately results in AIDS.
This document discusses hypo-sensitivity (immunodeficiency) disorders and provides examples of immunodeficiency diseases including HIV/AIDS. It describes how HIV works by damaging the immune system, infecting cells which then replicate and spread HIV. People are initially HIV-positive before developing AIDS, a condition with no cure that is often fatal. Multiple sclerosis is provided as an example of an autoimmune disease.
HIV attacks and destroys CD4 cells, weakening the immune system and leading to AIDS. It is transmitted through bodily fluids like blood, breastmilk, semen and vaginal secretions. The infection progresses from HIV infection to AIDS in stages - first, the window period when antibodies are not detectable. It is then followed by asymptomatic phase that can last 10-15 years before HIV-related illnesses and infections emerge. Untreated, it culminates in AIDS when the immune system is severely compromised. Risk groups include those with multiple sexual partners and intravenous drug users. Testing involves pre- and post-test counseling and uses ELISA or Western Blot confirmatory tests.
This document provides information on immunodeficiency and HIV/AIDS. It discusses the immune system and defines primary and secondary immunodeficiency. Primary immunodeficiency is inherited and results in defective immunity from birth. Secondary immunodeficiency is acquired through disease, malnutrition or medical treatment. The document then focuses on HIV, describing its structure, infectivity stages, diagnosis methods and vaccine targets. It outlines the three phases of HIV infection and defines AIDS as developing when CD4 counts drop below 200.
This document discusses immunological disorders such as HIV/AIDS and hypersensitivity disorders. It begins with an introduction to the immune system and immunopathology. It then discusses immunodeficiency disorders, distinguishing between primary and secondary immunodeficiencies. The document goes on to describe HIV/AIDS in detail, including what HIV is, how it progresses to AIDS, its life cycle and transmission. It also discusses the risks, stages and clinical manifestations of HIV/AIDS as well as its medical, nursing and preventative management. Finally, it provides an overview of hypersensitivity disorders and their diagnostic tests and treatments.
Immunity and immune system: Defense mechanism of the bodysanjayduttainbox
The document summarizes the defense mechanisms of the body. It discusses innate immunity as the body's first line of defense against pathogens. It then describes acquired or adaptive immunity, which involves lymphocytes that provide long-lasting protection. Specifically, it notes that acquired immunity has two components: humoral immunity mediated by antibodies from B cells, and cell-mediated immunity involving T cells and cytokines. The document also briefly discusses autoimmune diseases, immune deficiency diseases like AIDS, and the roles of T cells and B cells in the immune response.
The immune system protects the body from pathogens through a variety of defences. It contains specialized cells like phagocytes and lymphocytes that recognize and eliminate pathogens. Lymphocytes include B cells which produce antibodies and T cells such as cytotoxic T cells that kill infected cells and helper T cells that coordinate the immune response. The immune system also contains physical, physiological, cellular and cytokine barriers as part of the innate immune system. When these are breached, the acquired immune system responds through cellular and humoral immunity mediated by T and B cells. Autoimmune diseases occur when this system mistakenly attacks the body's own cells.
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which impairs the immune system. HIV specifically targets CD4+ T cells (helper T cells). The virus can be transmitted through bodily fluids like blood, semen, vaginal fluids. The natural course of HIV infection progresses from primary infection with flu-like symptoms, to asymptomatic latency period that can last 10 years, to symptomatic stage as the immune system deteriorates, and finally AIDS when opportunistic infections take hold. While there is no cure for HIV/AIDS, antiretroviral treatment can control the virus and prevent transmission.
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which weakens a person's immune system. HIV infects and damages CD4 cells (T cells), leaving an infected person vulnerable to opportunistic infections and malignancies. Over time, HIV can destroy so many of these cells that it prevents the immune system from protecting the body. No cure currently exists for AIDS.
Viruses are very small infectious agents that can only replicate inside host cells. They contain genetic material (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat. There are many types of viral infections that affect different body systems like the respiratory, gastrointestinal, liver, nervous and skin. Respiratory viruses commonly cause infections like influenza and COVID-19. Some viruses are also associated with certain cancers through their ability to insert their genetic material into host cells. Proper hygiene practices, vaccination and antiviral treatment can help prevent and treat viral infections.
Primary immunodeficiencies are present at birth and can affect adaptive or innate immune functions. The most common secondary immunodeficiency is acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1). HIV-1 infects and kills CD4+ T cells, eventually leaving the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections. While antiretroviral drugs can suppress HIV-1 and prolong life, developing an effective vaccine remains the best option to prevent the spread of AIDS.
The document provides information about AIDS/HIV including:
- HIV infects and destroys CD4 cells, weakening the immune system over time.
- It has several phases from acute infection to AIDS if untreated.
- It is transmitted through certain bodily fluids and can be prevented through condom use, medication, and needle safety.
- Complications increase as the immune system weakens, allowing opportunistic infections.
- Treatment involves antiretroviral therapy to suppress the virus with various drug classes.
1) The document describes the origin, virology, immunology, pathogenesis and natural course of HIV. It began as an unknown disease in the 1980s and has since caused a global pandemic.
2) HIV infects CD4 cells of the immune system, evades detection, and over time destroys the immune response. This allows opportunistic infections and cancers to develop, defining AIDS.
3) The four phases of the HIV epidemic moved from rural areas to urban populations, involved risk groups through sexual and needle-based transmission, then escalated globally before stabilizing in some regions through control efforts.
Vaccines provide immunity against diseases and help prevent their spread through communities. COVID-19 vaccines work by stimulating antibody and T-cell production to provide protection. There are currently 8 COVID-19 vaccines approved for emergency use by WHO, including mRNA, viral vector, inactivated, and subunit vaccines. All approved COVID-19 vaccines provide strong protection against severe disease and death.
The document discusses the immune system and opportunistic infections in HIV patients. It notes that opportunistic infections are AIDS-defining events in 75% of HIV cases and eventually occur in virtually all AIDS patients. It lists the most common opportunistic infections, including Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in 65% of cases and oral and esophageal herpes infection in 6% of initial cases. The immune system consists of organs like the spleen, tonsils, bone marrow and lymph nodes that produce B and T cells to fight pathogens.
HIV causes AIDS by infecting and destroying CD4+ T cells. It is transmitted sexually or through blood/bodily fluids. After entering the body, HIV binds to CD4 receptors on T cells, integrates into the host cell DNA, and uses the cell's machinery to replicate. This leads to the destruction of infected T cells and ultimately a collapse of the immune system as CD4+ T cell counts decline severely. As the immune system is compromised, opportunistic infections and cancers then develop, characterizing the onset of AIDS.
What is HIV? How an HIV infections advances to AIDS? What is AIDS? What are the medicine to stop HIV replication? What are the diagnostic tests? What are the medical managements for AIDS? What are the categories of HIV infection? Symptoms of HIV infection? What should be the nurse care plan for an AIDS patient? How can people prevent HIV infection? All these questions are answered in this presentation.
HIV/AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which attacks CD4+ cells in the immune system. There are two types, HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is further divided into groups M, N, O, and P. HIV infects and destroys CD4+ T cells leading to immunosuppression and increased risk of opportunistic infections. HIV progresses from primary infection to clinical latency to early signs of infection like candidiasis and lymphadenopathy to late stage AIDS with life threatening infections when CD4+ counts fall below 200 cells/mm3. HIV is transmitted through unprotected sex, contaminated blood or needles, mother-to-child transmission, and other bodily
This document provides information on human health and diseases. It discusses key topics like the definition of health, factors that affect health, common human diseases and their causes. Some diseases covered include typhoid, pneumonia, common cold, malaria, amoebiasis, ascariasis, elephantiasis and ringworm. It also discusses immunity, the immune system, vaccination, allergy, autoimmunity and infectious diseases like AIDS.
The document summarizes key information about HIV and AIDS, including:
- HIV infects and replicates within CD4 immune cells, weakening the immune system and potentially causing AIDS.
- HIV progresses through three main phases: asymptomatic, symptomatic, and AIDS. It is transmitted through bodily fluids and can be tested for through antibody and viral load tests.
- While there is no cure for HIV/AIDS, treatment involves antiretroviral drugs that target different stages of the HIV lifecycle to suppress viral replication and slow disease progression.
The document discusses the transmission of HIV/AIDS through various modes:
1) Sexual transmission is the most common mode, occurring through unprotected vaginal, anal and oral sex. Anal intercourse poses the highest risk while oral sex has a lower but present risk.
2) Transmission can also occur through blood, such as transfusions or sharing needles. Procedures involving piercing of skin like tattoos or circumcision can also transmit HIV.
3) Mother-to-child transmission is another mode, where the virus can be passed during pregnancy, delivery or through breastfeeding. The risk of transmission from an HIV-positive mother to her newborn ranges from 12-35%.
NPF: AIDS 2010 Refresher for Vienna JournalistsDaric Snyder
This document provides a summary of a refresher course on HIV/AIDS for journalists. It covers HIV/AIDS from both a medical/scientific perspective and a public health perspective. From a medical perspective, it explains how HIV infects and destroys CD4 cells, eventually overcoming the immune system. From a public health perspective, it discusses populations vulnerable to HIV, modes of transmission, and prevention strategies at both personal and societal levels. It emphasizes that until a vaccine or cure is developed, prevention must be the focus. The document compares the perspectives of medicine and public health and stresses journalists' important role in educating the public about HIV/AIDS.
This document provides information on immunodeficiency and HIV/AIDS. It discusses the immune system and defines primary and secondary immunodeficiency. Primary immunodeficiency is inherited and results in defective immunity from birth. Secondary immunodeficiency is acquired through disease, malnutrition or medical treatment. The document then focuses on HIV, describing its structure, infectivity stages, diagnosis methods and vaccine targets. It outlines the three phases of HIV infection and defines AIDS as developing when CD4 counts drop below 200.
This document discusses immunological disorders such as HIV/AIDS and hypersensitivity disorders. It begins with an introduction to the immune system and immunopathology. It then discusses immunodeficiency disorders, distinguishing between primary and secondary immunodeficiencies. The document goes on to describe HIV/AIDS in detail, including what HIV is, how it progresses to AIDS, its life cycle and transmission. It also discusses the risks, stages and clinical manifestations of HIV/AIDS as well as its medical, nursing and preventative management. Finally, it provides an overview of hypersensitivity disorders and their diagnostic tests and treatments.
Immunity and immune system: Defense mechanism of the bodysanjayduttainbox
The document summarizes the defense mechanisms of the body. It discusses innate immunity as the body's first line of defense against pathogens. It then describes acquired or adaptive immunity, which involves lymphocytes that provide long-lasting protection. Specifically, it notes that acquired immunity has two components: humoral immunity mediated by antibodies from B cells, and cell-mediated immunity involving T cells and cytokines. The document also briefly discusses autoimmune diseases, immune deficiency diseases like AIDS, and the roles of T cells and B cells in the immune response.
The immune system protects the body from pathogens through a variety of defences. It contains specialized cells like phagocytes and lymphocytes that recognize and eliminate pathogens. Lymphocytes include B cells which produce antibodies and T cells such as cytotoxic T cells that kill infected cells and helper T cells that coordinate the immune response. The immune system also contains physical, physiological, cellular and cytokine barriers as part of the innate immune system. When these are breached, the acquired immune system responds through cellular and humoral immunity mediated by T and B cells. Autoimmune diseases occur when this system mistakenly attacks the body's own cells.
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which impairs the immune system. HIV specifically targets CD4+ T cells (helper T cells). The virus can be transmitted through bodily fluids like blood, semen, vaginal fluids. The natural course of HIV infection progresses from primary infection with flu-like symptoms, to asymptomatic latency period that can last 10 years, to symptomatic stage as the immune system deteriorates, and finally AIDS when opportunistic infections take hold. While there is no cure for HIV/AIDS, antiretroviral treatment can control the virus and prevent transmission.
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which weakens a person's immune system. HIV infects and damages CD4 cells (T cells), leaving an infected person vulnerable to opportunistic infections and malignancies. Over time, HIV can destroy so many of these cells that it prevents the immune system from protecting the body. No cure currently exists for AIDS.
Viruses are very small infectious agents that can only replicate inside host cells. They contain genetic material (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat. There are many types of viral infections that affect different body systems like the respiratory, gastrointestinal, liver, nervous and skin. Respiratory viruses commonly cause infections like influenza and COVID-19. Some viruses are also associated with certain cancers through their ability to insert their genetic material into host cells. Proper hygiene practices, vaccination and antiviral treatment can help prevent and treat viral infections.
Primary immunodeficiencies are present at birth and can affect adaptive or innate immune functions. The most common secondary immunodeficiency is acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1). HIV-1 infects and kills CD4+ T cells, eventually leaving the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections. While antiretroviral drugs can suppress HIV-1 and prolong life, developing an effective vaccine remains the best option to prevent the spread of AIDS.
The document provides information about AIDS/HIV including:
- HIV infects and destroys CD4 cells, weakening the immune system over time.
- It has several phases from acute infection to AIDS if untreated.
- It is transmitted through certain bodily fluids and can be prevented through condom use, medication, and needle safety.
- Complications increase as the immune system weakens, allowing opportunistic infections.
- Treatment involves antiretroviral therapy to suppress the virus with various drug classes.
1) The document describes the origin, virology, immunology, pathogenesis and natural course of HIV. It began as an unknown disease in the 1980s and has since caused a global pandemic.
2) HIV infects CD4 cells of the immune system, evades detection, and over time destroys the immune response. This allows opportunistic infections and cancers to develop, defining AIDS.
3) The four phases of the HIV epidemic moved from rural areas to urban populations, involved risk groups through sexual and needle-based transmission, then escalated globally before stabilizing in some regions through control efforts.
Vaccines provide immunity against diseases and help prevent their spread through communities. COVID-19 vaccines work by stimulating antibody and T-cell production to provide protection. There are currently 8 COVID-19 vaccines approved for emergency use by WHO, including mRNA, viral vector, inactivated, and subunit vaccines. All approved COVID-19 vaccines provide strong protection against severe disease and death.
The document discusses the immune system and opportunistic infections in HIV patients. It notes that opportunistic infections are AIDS-defining events in 75% of HIV cases and eventually occur in virtually all AIDS patients. It lists the most common opportunistic infections, including Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in 65% of cases and oral and esophageal herpes infection in 6% of initial cases. The immune system consists of organs like the spleen, tonsils, bone marrow and lymph nodes that produce B and T cells to fight pathogens.
HIV causes AIDS by infecting and destroying CD4+ T cells. It is transmitted sexually or through blood/bodily fluids. After entering the body, HIV binds to CD4 receptors on T cells, integrates into the host cell DNA, and uses the cell's machinery to replicate. This leads to the destruction of infected T cells and ultimately a collapse of the immune system as CD4+ T cell counts decline severely. As the immune system is compromised, opportunistic infections and cancers then develop, characterizing the onset of AIDS.
What is HIV? How an HIV infections advances to AIDS? What is AIDS? What are the medicine to stop HIV replication? What are the diagnostic tests? What are the medical managements for AIDS? What are the categories of HIV infection? Symptoms of HIV infection? What should be the nurse care plan for an AIDS patient? How can people prevent HIV infection? All these questions are answered in this presentation.
HIV/AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which attacks CD4+ cells in the immune system. There are two types, HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is further divided into groups M, N, O, and P. HIV infects and destroys CD4+ T cells leading to immunosuppression and increased risk of opportunistic infections. HIV progresses from primary infection to clinical latency to early signs of infection like candidiasis and lymphadenopathy to late stage AIDS with life threatening infections when CD4+ counts fall below 200 cells/mm3. HIV is transmitted through unprotected sex, contaminated blood or needles, mother-to-child transmission, and other bodily
This document provides information on human health and diseases. It discusses key topics like the definition of health, factors that affect health, common human diseases and their causes. Some diseases covered include typhoid, pneumonia, common cold, malaria, amoebiasis, ascariasis, elephantiasis and ringworm. It also discusses immunity, the immune system, vaccination, allergy, autoimmunity and infectious diseases like AIDS.
The document summarizes key information about HIV and AIDS, including:
- HIV infects and replicates within CD4 immune cells, weakening the immune system and potentially causing AIDS.
- HIV progresses through three main phases: asymptomatic, symptomatic, and AIDS. It is transmitted through bodily fluids and can be tested for through antibody and viral load tests.
- While there is no cure for HIV/AIDS, treatment involves antiretroviral drugs that target different stages of the HIV lifecycle to suppress viral replication and slow disease progression.
The document discusses the transmission of HIV/AIDS through various modes:
1) Sexual transmission is the most common mode, occurring through unprotected vaginal, anal and oral sex. Anal intercourse poses the highest risk while oral sex has a lower but present risk.
2) Transmission can also occur through blood, such as transfusions or sharing needles. Procedures involving piercing of skin like tattoos or circumcision can also transmit HIV.
3) Mother-to-child transmission is another mode, where the virus can be passed during pregnancy, delivery or through breastfeeding. The risk of transmission from an HIV-positive mother to her newborn ranges from 12-35%.
NPF: AIDS 2010 Refresher for Vienna JournalistsDaric Snyder
This document provides a summary of a refresher course on HIV/AIDS for journalists. It covers HIV/AIDS from both a medical/scientific perspective and a public health perspective. From a medical perspective, it explains how HIV infects and destroys CD4 cells, eventually overcoming the immune system. From a public health perspective, it discusses populations vulnerable to HIV, modes of transmission, and prevention strategies at both personal and societal levels. It emphasizes that until a vaccine or cure is developed, prevention must be the focus. The document compares the perspectives of medicine and public health and stresses journalists' important role in educating the public about HIV/AIDS.
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2. Objectives
• At the end of this session students will be able to:
• Review the following concepts of immune response
*Components of immune response
*Humoral versus cell mediated immunity
• Discuss the disorder of immune response including.
AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency syndrome)
• Discuss the epidemiology, pathogenesis & clinical
manifestation of HIV infection.
11/20/2020 2
3. Immune System
• Immune system is made of complex group of cells and
organs that are found throughout the body.
• The system includes primary organs such as the thymus
gland and bone marrow, and the secondary organs
such as the lymph nodes, spleen, liver and the tonsils.
• The lymphocytes, the major cells of the immune
system, arise and develops in the primary organs.
• The secondary organs are responsible for filtering
foreign substances and for providing the space for
antigen reactions.
Imran Waheed 3
11/20/2020
4. Conti…
• The cells of the immune system includes four types of
leucocytes:
• Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs)
• Monocytes
• Macrophages
• Lymphocytes
• Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) also known as
granulocytes, and these cells are active in inflammatory
process.
• Some leucocytes react when infection threatens the body,
while others respond when there is an allergic reaction
preventing damage to cells and tissues.
Imran Waheed 4
11/20/2020
5. Conti…
• The monocytes and macrophages become phagocytic in
the presence of pathogens and foreign substances.
• The lymphocytes are the major players in the immune
response.
• Lymphocytesare formed in the bone marrow.Those
remaining and maturing in the bone marrow become B
lymphocytes.
• Others migrate and mature in the thymus and become T
lymphocytes.
• Once mature, both B and T lymphocytes enter the blood
and circulate and colonize the lymphatic organs-
predominantly the spleen and lympnodes.
Imran Waheed 5
11/20/2020
6. Conti…
• T lymphocytes are responsible for the cell mediated
response.
• These cells destroys microorganisms that invade the
body.
• These reactions do not requires antibodies produced by
the B cells because the T cells have been previously
sensitized by circulating antigens.
• There are several different types of T cells functioning to
stimulate B cells to produce antibodies, destroy foreign
cells in the body, stop the immune response, and
remember previous exposure to antigens.
Imran Waheed 6
11/20/2020
7. Conti…
• B lymphocytes are responsible for humoral
immunity.
• Humoral immunity is associated with circulating
antibodies, in contrast to cell mediated immunity.
• The B lymphocytes enlarge and divide to become
mature plasma cells.
• The plasma cells secrete antibodies into the
blood and lymph to protect the body against
infections and toxins produced by microorganism.
Imran Waheed 7
11/20/2020
8. Types of immune response
• There are two types of immune responses in the body:
specific and non-specific.
• Specific immune response is associatedwith
antigens and the antibody reaction.
• It is the body watch-guard systemfor foreign invaders.
The antibody response occurs after exposure to an
antigen.
• Antibodies may neutralize, kill or cause clumping of the
foreign microorganisms.
• The complement systemalso works with the antibodies
to destroy the invader.
Imran Waheed 8
11/20/2020
9. Conti…
• The complement system is a group of proteins that
are formed in the liver and circulate in the serum.
• They enhance the work of the antibodies in
destroying foreign cells.
• The non-specific immune response includes
inflammation, phagocytosis, physical barriers (the
skin and mucous membranes), and chemical barriers
(acids and other secretions).
• These immune response defenses are the body's first
line of protection against foreign invaders.
Imran Waheed 9
11/20/2020
11. HIV
• HIV was first Identified in 1981 in USA among
homosexuals
• In 1983, French investigator named
Lymphadenopathy associated virus (LAV).
• In 1984 virus was isolated by Gallo and coworkers
from national institute of health in United States.
• They named Human T-cell Lymphotropic virus
III (HTLV-III).
• 1987- AZT is the first drug approved for treating AIDS
Imran Waheed 11
11/20/2020
12. Conti…
• Thailand was the first country in the SEAR to
report a case of AIDS, in 1984.
• In 1986, a new strain of HIV was isolated in West
African patient with AIDS which is called HIV-2.
• In May 1986, international committee on
taxonomy gave a new name called Human
immune deficiency virus.
• Since its identification, HIV/AIDS is devastating
disease of mankind
Imran Waheed 12
11/20/2020
13. Etiology
• Human Immuno Deficiency Virus
• Size: 1/10,000th of a millimeter in diameter.
• It is a protein capsule containing two short
strands of genetic material (RNA) and
enzymes.
• Two types: HIV-1 and HIV-2
• HIV-1 causes most HIV infections worldwide,
but HIV-2 causes a substantial proportion of
infections in parts of West Africa
Imran Waheed 13
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15. Structure of HIV
Imran Waheed 15
11/20/2020
• Enveloped RNA retrovirus
• Spherical 120 nm in diameter envelope proteins make the
spikes on the membrane.
• Enveloped truncated conical capsid
• Electron dense core
• Two copies of the single stranded (+) RNA
• Has enzymes: Reverse transcriptase, Integrase & Protease
• Has three structural proteins gag, pol and env (structural
genes)
• Has LTR (long terminal repeats) rev and neg regulatory
genes
16. Reservoir
• Once a person gets infected virus remains in his body
lifelong. And the person is a symptomless carrier for
years before the symptoms actually appear.
• The virus is found in great concentrations in blood, CSF
and semen.
• Lower concentrations have been found in tears, saliva,
breast milk, urine, cervical and vaginal secretions.
• Also isolated from brain tissue, lymph nodes, bone
marrow cells and skin.
• However only blood and semen are known to transmit
the virus.
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17. HIV in Body Fluids
Semen
11,000
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V
aginal
Fluid
7,000
Blood
18,000
Amniotic
Fluid
4,000 Saliva
1
Average number of HIV particles in 1 ml of these body fluids
19. HIV Life Cycle
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1. HIV binds to the T-cell
2. Viral RNA is released into the host cell
3. Reverse transcriptase converts viral RNA into
viral DNA.
4. Viral DNA enters the T-cells nucleus and inserts
itself into the T-cell’s DNA.
5. The T-cell begins to make copies of the HIV
components.
6. Protease helps create new virus particles.
7. The new HIV virion is released from the T-cell.
21. Pathogenesis of HIV Infection
7
HIV Virus
CD4 cells
Uncoating and
reverse transcription
Proviral DNA
Budding of virus particles
and cytopathic phase
22. High Risk Groups
• Age: Most cases are among sexually active
people aged between 20- 49 years.
• High risk groups: Male homosexuals, hetero
sexual partners, i.v. drug abusers, blood
transfusion recipients, hemophiliacs and
patients having STDs.
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23. HIV Transmission
• HIV enters the bloodstream through:
• Open Cuts Breaks in the skin
• Mucous membranes
• Direct injection
• HIV is not transmitted by casual nonsexual
contact as may occur at work, school, or
home.
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24. Routes of Transmission of HIV
Sexual Contact: Male-to-male
Male-to-female orvice versa
Female-to-female
Blood Exposure: Injecting drug use/needlesharing
Occupationalexposure Transfusion
of blood products
Perinatal:
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Transmissionfrom mother tobaby
Breastfeeding
25. Routes of Transmission of HIV
OccupationalTransmission
Health care worker/ hospital staff
Laboratory workers
Other Routes
Organ transplantation Artificial
insemination Needle-prick
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26. AIDS
• Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease of the
human immune system caused by the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
• The infection causes progressive destruction of the
cell-mediated immune (CMI) system, primarily by
eliminating CD4+ T-helper lymphocytes.
• AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is the
final stage of HIV disease, which causes severe damage
to the immune system.
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27. Earlier Four Stages Classification
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Initial Infection
Asymptomatic CarrierState
AIDS-relatedComplex(ARC)
AIDS
28. New Stages of HIV Infection
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• Stage I – Primary HIV Infection
• Stage II – HIV Asymptomatic
• Stage III – HIV Symptomatic
• Stage IV - AIDS
29. ST
AGE I : Primary HIV infection
⚫This stagelastsfor a fewweeks
⚫ Accompaniedby a short flu-likeillness
⚫ Diagnosis of HIV infection is frequentlymissed.
⚫During this stagethere is a large amount of HIV in
the peripheral blood
⚫Immune system begins to respond to the virus by
producing HIV antibodies and cytotoxiclymphocytes.
This process is known asseroconversion.
⚫CD4(Clusterof differentiation4) cell + TLymphocyte
count will be normal i.e., 500 – 1500cells/cubicmm
30. STAGE II : HIV Asymptomatic
⚫This stagelastsfor an averageof tenyears
⚫ Freefrom major symptoms,although there may be
swollenglands
⚫People remain infectious and HIV antibodies are
detectablein the blood, so antibodytestswill showa
positive result.
⚫CD4 cells+ T lymphocytes– little above
500 cells/cubicmm
31. ST
AGE III : HIV Symptomatic
⚫ Immune systembecomes severely damagedby HIV.
⚫The lymph nodes and tissuesbecomedamaged
⚫HIV mutatesand becomes morepathogenic- moreT
helper celldestruction
⚫The body fails tokeepup with replacing the T helper
cells that arelost
⚫ Immunesystemfailsand symptomsdevelop
⚫Initially many of the symptoms are mild, but as the
immunesystem deteriorates the symptoms
worsen.
⚫Multi-system disease and infectionscan occur
in almost all bodysystems
⚫CD4 cells+ T lymphocytes– 200 – 499cells/cubicmm
32. ST
AGE IV : AIDS
⚫ Individual develops increasingly severe
opportunistic infections andcancers
⚫CD4 cells+ T lymphocytes - <200 cells/cubicmm
33. HIV Infection And AntibodyResponse
6 month ~ Years ~ Years ~ Years ~ Ye
Virus
Antibody
Infection
Occurs
AIDS Symptoms
Initial Stage---------------- --------Intermediate or Latent Stage-----------------Illness Stage
Flu-like Symptoms
Or
No Symptoms Symptom-free
----
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35. Diagnosis
• ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay):
• Done to detect HIV antibodies in patient’s serum
(antigens used are p24, p17, gp160, gp120, and
gp41).
• Anti-p24 is the first reliably detected antibody but
declines as viral titers rise in late infection
• Envelope antibodies rise more slowly but stay
high at the end
• Env antigens show major antigenic variation
• ELISA for p24 useful early
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36. Confirmation
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• Western blot for antibodiesspecific to HIV
• Immunoelectrofluorescence
• HIV DNA PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction):
• Qualitative to detect HIV infection in
newborns of mothers are HIV+
• Quantitative HIV DNA PCR to determine viral
load to assess treatment
37. Complications
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• There are numbers of complications in HIV/AIDS. And these
complications include :-
• Recurrent infections
• Opportunistic infections
• Acute and chronic ENT infections (Hearing loss Tooth and
gum diseases)
• Tuberculosis
• Malabsorption and wasting, developmental delays
• Cardiomyopathy
• Nephropathy, Neuropathy
• Neutropenia, anemia, thrombocytopenia
• Psychological crisis
39. Prevention
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• Numerous prevention interventions exist to combat
HIV, and new tools, such as vaccines, are currently
being researched.
• As AIDS is sexually transmitted disease so , can be
preventedby avoiding sexual abuse.
• Usage of condom while intercourse is recommended
when any of the life partner is affected.
• Special care must be taken while come across needles.
• Be careful in blood transfusion.
• A mother with AIDS should avoid to breastfeed her
baby.
40. Conti…
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• Effective prevention strategies include behavior
change programs, condoms, HIV testing, blood supply
safety, harm reduction efforts for injecting drug users,
and male circumcision.
• Additionally, recent research has shown that providing HIV
treatment to people with HIV significantly reduces the risk
of transmission to their negative partners and the use of
antiretroviral-based microbicide gel has been found to
reduce the risk of HIV infection in women.
• Pre-exposure antiretroviral prophylaxis (PrEP) has also been
shown to be an effective HIV prevention strategy in
individuals at high risk for HIV infection.
41. Treatment
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• HIV treatment includes the use of combination
antiretroviral therapy to attack the virus itself,
and medications to prevent and treat the many
opportunistic infections that can occur when the
immune system is compromised by HIV.
• Nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTIs)
– block virus replication . E.g. : Zidovudine,
Abacavir
• Protease inhibitors .E.g. Amprenavir, Indinavir
• HAART ( Highly Active Antiretroviral Treatment)
42. Nursing diagnosis
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• Deficient fluid volume related to persistent diarrhea
associated with opportunistic infections
• Deficient knowledge (symptoms of disease
progression, risk factors, transmission of disease, home
care, and treatment options) related to lack of
exposure to information
• Grieving related to uncertain prognosis and change in
health status
• Imbalanced nutrition: Less than body requirements
related to:–anorexia–diarrhea–medication adverse
effects–nausea and vomiting
43. Conti…
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• Ineffective family coping related to parenteral
guilt and nature of disease.
• Fear related to frequent invasive procedures,
diagnosis, stigmatization.
• Risk of infection related to immunodeficiency,
neutropenia
• Impaired gas exchange related to:–respiratory
failure
44. Nursing interventions
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• Assess mucous membranes and document all oral
lesions. Note reports of pain, swelling, difficulty
with chewing and swallowing.
• Monitor daily weight when diarrhoea is present.
• Maintain intake output and assess skin and
mucus membrane for turgor and dryness.
• Encourage verbalization and interaction with
family.
• Discuss extent and rationale for isolation
precautions and maintenance of personal
hygiene.
45. Conti…
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• Limit food that induce nausea and vomiting or
are poorly tolerated by patient because of
mouth sores or dysphagia. Avoid serving very
hot liquids and foods.
• Administer medications as indicated
46. References
• 1. Rodger AJ et al (2019) Risk of HIV transmission
through condomless sex in serodifferent gay couples
with the HIV-positive partner taking suppressive
antiretroviral therapy (PARTNER): final results of a
multicenter, prospective, observational study. The
Lancet; 393: 10189, 2428-2438.
• 2. Sharp PM, Hahn BH (2011) Origins of HIV and the
AIDS pandemic. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in
Medicine; 1: 1, a006841.
• 3. WHO (2018) Number of Deaths Due to HIV/AIDS.
WHO.
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47. 11/20/2020
If you cannot do
great things, do
small things in a
great way. Napoleon Hill
THANK YOU !
47