2. Victimology: Basic Concepts
• Victim: The concept of a “victim” can be traced back to ancient
societies. It was connected to the notion of sacrifice. In the original
meaning of the term, a victim was a person or an animal put to death
during a religious ceremony in order to appease some supernatural
power or deity. Over the centuries, the word has picked up additional
meanings. Now it commonly refers to individuals who suffer injuries,
losses, or hardships for any reason. People can become victims of
accidents, natural disasters, diseases, or social problems such as
warfare, discrimination, political witch hunts, and other injustices.
3. • Victimization: Victimization is an asymmetrical interpersonal relationship that is
abusive, painful, destructive, parasitical, and unfair. While a crime is in progress,
offenders temporarily force their victims to play roles (almost as if following a
script) that mimic the dynamics between predator and prey, winner and loser,
victor and vanquished and even master and slave.
• Many types of victimization have been outlawed over the centuries—specific
oppressive and exploitative acts, like raping, robbing, and swindling. But not all
types of hurtful relationships and deceitful practices are forbidden by law. It is
permissible to overcharge a customer for an item that can be purchased for less
elsewhere; or to underpay a worker who could receive higher wages for the same
tasks at another place of employment; or impose exorbitant interest rates and
hidden fees on borrowers who take out mortgages and use credit cards; or to
deny food and shelter to the hungry and the homeless who cannot pay the
required amount.
4. • Victimology: The word “victim” has its roots in many ancient
languages that covered a great distance from northwestern Europe to
the southern tip of Asia and yet had a similar linguistic pattern:
victima in Latin; víh,wéoh, wíg in Old European; wíh, wíhi in Old High
German; vé in Old Norse; weihs in Gothic; and, vinak ti in Sanskrit
(Webster’s 1971). Victimology as an academic term contains two
elements:
• One is the Latin word “Victima” which translates into “victim”.
• The other is the Greek word “logos” which means a system of
knowledge, the direction of something abstract, the direction of
teaching, science, and a discipline
5. • Victimology is the scientific study of the physical, emotional, and
financial harm people suffer because of illegal activities.
Victimologists first and foremost investigate the victims’ plight: the
impact of the injuries and losses inflicted by offenders on the people
they target.
• In addition, victimologists carry out research into the public’s political,
social, and economic reactions to the plight of victims. Victimologists
also study how victims are handled by officials and agencies within
the criminal justice system, especially interactions with police officers,
detective’s prosecutors, defense attorneys, judges, probation officers,
and members of parole boards.
6. • Victimologists want to know whether and to what degree crime
victims experience physical wounds, economic hardships, or
emotional turmoil. One aim, of course, is to devise ways to help them
recover. In the aftermath of the incident, are they frightened,
terrorized, depressed, traumatized, infuriated, or embittered? Also,
victimologists want to find out how effectively the injured parties are
being assisted, served, accommodated, rehabilitated, and educated
to avoid further trouble.
• Victimologists are equally curious to determine the extent to which
their plight is being ignored, neglected, belittled, manipulated, and
commercially or politically exploited.
7. • Some individuals who sustain terrible injuries and devastating losses
might be memorialized, honored, and even idolized, while others
might be mocked, discredited, defamed, demeaned, socially
stigmatized, and even condemned for bringing about their own
misfortunes. Why is this so? Victimologists also want to examine why
some injured parties find their ordeals life transforming. Some
become deeply alienated and withdraw from social relationships.
• They may become burdened by bouts of depression, sleep disorders,
panic attacks, and stress-related illnesses. Their healing process may
require overcoming feelings of helplessness, frustration, and self-
blame.
8. • Others might react to their fear and fury by seeking out fellow
sufferers, building alliances, and discovering ways to exercise their
“agency”—to assess their options and make wise decisions, take
advantage of opportunities, regain control of their lives, rebuild their
self-confidence, and restore a sense of trust and security. Why do
people experience such a wide range of responses and what
personality and social factors determine how a person reacts?
9. • II. KEY CONCEPTS IN VICTIMOLOGY
• A. Concepts
• 1. “Victim” has it roots in the early religious notions of suffering, sacrifice
and death. This concept of “victim” was well known in the ancient
civilizations, especially in Babylonia, Palestine, Greece, and Rome. In each
of these civilizations the law mandated that the victim should be
recognized as a person who deserved to be made whole again by the
offender.
• 2. “Crime victim” is a person who has been physically, financially or
emotionally injured and/or had their property taken or damaged by
someone committing a crime. 3. “Victimogenesis” refers to the origin or
cause of a victimization; the constellation of variables which caused a
victimization to occur.
10. • 4. “Victim Precipitation” a victimization where the victim causes, in
part or totally, their own victimization.
• 5. “Vulnerability” is a physical, psychological, social, material or
financial condition whereby a person or an object has a weakness
which could render them a victim if another person or persons would
recognize these weaknesses and take advantage of them.
• 6. “General Victim” is a person who has been physically, financially or
emotionally injured and/or had their property taken or damaged by
someone, an event, an organization or a natural phenomenon.
11. • 7. “Victimization” refers to an event where persons, communities and
institutions are damaged or injured in a significant way. Those
persons who are impacted by persons or events suffer a violation of
rights or significant disruption of their well being.
• 8. “Victimology” is an academic scientific discipline which studies
data that describes phenomena and causal relationships related to
victimizations. This includes events leading to the victimization, the
victim’s experience, its aftermath and the actions taken by society in
response to these victimizations. Therefore, victimology includes the
study of the precursors, vulnerabilities, events, impacts, recoveries,
and responses by people, organizations and cultures related to
victimizations.
12. • 9. “Abuse of Power” is the violation of a national or international
standard in the use of organized powerful forces such that persons
are injured physically, mentally, emotionally, economically, or in their
rights, as a direct and intentional result of the misapplication of these
forces.
• 10. “Victim Assistance, Support or Services” are those activities which
are applied in response to victimizations with the intention of
relieving suffering and facilitating recovery. This includes offering
information, assessments, individual interventions, case advocacy,
system advocacy, public policy and programme development.
13. • 11. “Victim Recovery” is the resumption of the same or better level of functionality as
was enjoyed prior to victimization. Persons who have been victimized vary in their level
of mental health and wellbeing prior to their victimization. Consequently, victimization
affects each person in a different way and causes differing degrees of injury or trauma.
• In their recovery it is necessary for victims to first try to regain their previous level of
functioning plus learn from their misfortune and hopefully exceed their previous level of
functionality. To be recovered suggests that a person has at least regained their prior
level of well-being and at best, has exceeded it.
• This state may be measured by identifying their previous mental condition and
determining if they have at least regained that prior status using the criteria of: trust in
others, autonomy of self, individual initiative, competency in daily activities, self-identity,
interpersonal intimacy, control over personal situations, successful relationships, safety
in daily activities, acknowledgment of memory, trauma symptoms have become
manageable, self esteem is restored, resourcefulness is achieved, and there is an
improved ability to ward off potential threats.
14. • 12. “Child Abuse” is the intentional application of sexual, physical, emotional or
psychological injury to a child to include neglect at the hands of her or his parents
or care-provider within the confines of their family or place of care.
• 13. “Victim Offender Mediation” (VOM) is a formal process for face-to-face
meetings in the presence of a trained mediator between a victim of a crime and
his/her offender who committed that crime. This is also called victim-offender
dialogue, victim-offender conferencing, victim-offender reconciliation, or
restorative justice. Often the victim and the offender are joined by their
respective families and community members or other persons related to the
crime event. In these meetings, the offender and the victim talk to each other
about the victimization, the effects it had on their lives, and their feelings about
it. The aim is to create a mutually agreeable plan to repair any damage or injury
that occurred as a result of the crime in the hopes of permanently eliminating the
conflict that caused the crime in the first place.
15. • 14. “Restorative Justice” is a systematic formal legal response to crime
victimization that emphasizes healing the injuries that resulted from the
crime and affected the victims, offenders and communities. This process is
a departure from the traditional retributive form of dealing with criminals
and victims which traditionally have generally perpetuated the conflict
which resulted in the original crime.
• 15. “Victim Trauma” includes emotional and physical experiences that
produce pain and injuries. Emotional injury is a normal response to an
extremely abnormal event. It results from the pairing of a painful or
frightening emotional experience with a specific memory which emerge
and have a long lasting effect on the life of a person. The more direct the
exposure to the traumatic event, the higher the risk for emotional harm
and prolonged effects.
16. • 16. “Crisis Intervention” is the provision of emergency psychological
care to traumatized victims so as to help them return to an adaptive
level of functioning and to prevent or mitigate the negative impact of
psychological and emotional trauma.
• 17. “Compensation” is a formal administrative procedure provided by
law which provides only money to victims for “out of pocket” real
expenses directly resulting from the victimization to be paid by the
state after the victim is found to qualify according to specific criteria
determined by the respective state or federal law.
17. • 18. “Restitution” is a formal judicial procedure used by a judge after guilt is
determined as part of a sentence which can provide money and/or services
to the victim for damages or suffering which resulted from the
victimization to be paid or performed by the offender.
• 19. “Victim Survey” is a periodic data collection and analysis process
conducted usually by a government entity within the general population to
study information about crime victims regardless whether they reported
their victimization to the police or not. It typically uses a face-to-face or
telephone interview (or sent questionnaire) and covers 19. “Victim Survey”
is a periodic data collection and analysis process conducted usually by a
government entity within the general population to study information
about crime victims regardless whether they reported their victimization to
the police or not. It typically uses a face-to-face or telephone interview (or
sent questionnaire) and covers
18. • 20. “Victim Rights” are privileges and procedures required by written
law which guarantee victims specific considerations and treatment by
the criminal justice system, the government and the community at
large.
19. • Historical step of victimology
• Critical date of Victimology: Critical Dates in Victimology
• 1924 Edwin Sutherland includes a chapter on victims in his criminology textbook.
• 1937 Beniamin Mendelsohn publishes his writings on the rapist and his victim.
• 1941 Hans von Hentig publishes article on victim and criminal interactions.
• 1947 Beniamin Mendelsohn coins the term “victimology” in a French journal.
• 1948 Hans von Hentig publishes his book The Criminal and His Victim.
• 1949 Frederic Wertham first used the word “victimology” in a book Show of
Violence. • 1957 Margery Fry proposes victim compensation in the London
Times.
20. • 1958 Marvin Wolfgang studies homicide victims; uses the term
“victim precipitation”.
• 1963 New Zealand enacts the first Criminal Compensation Act.
• 1965 California is the first state in the USA to start Victim
Compensation.
• 1966 Japan enacts Criminal Indemnity Law.
• 1966 USA starts to survey crime victims not reported to the police
• 1967 Canada creates a Criminal Compensation Injuries Act as does
Cuba and Switzerland.
21. • 1968 Stephan Schafer writes the first victimology textbook The Victim and
His Criminal.
• 1972 The first three victim assistance programmes are created in St. Louis,
Missouri, San Francisco,California and in Washington, D. C.
• 1973 the first international symposium on victimology is held in Jerusalem,
Israel.
• 1974 the first police-based victim advocate project is started in Fort
Lauderdale, Florida, USA.
• 1975 The first “Victim Rights’ Week” is organized by the Philadelphia
District Attorney, Pennsylvania, USA.
• 1976 John Dussich launches the National Organization of Victim Assistance
(NOVA) in Fresno,California, USA.
22. • 1976 Emilio Viano launches the first scholarly journal devoted to victimology.
• 1976 James Rowland creates the first Victim Impact Statement in Fresno,
California, USA.
• 1979 The World Society of Victimology is founded in Munster, Germany.
• 1980 Mothers Against Drunk Drivers (MADD) is founded by Candi Lightner after
one of her twin daughters was killed by a drunk driver who was a repeat offender.
• 1981 President Ronald Reagan proclaims the first national Victims’ Rights Week in
April.
• 1982 the first Victim Impact Panel established by MADD to educate drunk drivers
about how their victims suffered, started in Rutland, Massachusetts, USA.
• 1984 The Victims of Crime Act (VOCA) establishes the national Crime Victims
Fund from federal crime fines to pay for state victim compensation and services.
23. • 1985 The United Nations unanimously adopts the Declaration of Basic
Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power.
• 1987 The US Department of Justice opens the National Victims
Resource Centre in Rockville, Maryland.
• 1988 The first “Indian Nations: Justice for Victims of Crime”
conference is held by the Office for Victims of Crime in Rapid City,
South Dakota, USA.
24. • • 1990 The European Forum for Victim Services was founded by all the
national organizations in Europe working for victims of crime in
consultative status with the Council of Europe and the UN.
• 1999 The United Nations and the US Office for Victims of Crime publish the
Guide for Policymakers on the Implementation of the United Nations
Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of
Power and the Handbook on Justice for Victims: On the Use and
Application of the United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice
for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power.
• 2002 On 11 April, 66 the Rome Statute was ratified & went into force on 1
July at which time the International Criminal Court became effective and it
included the creation of a Victim and Witness Unit.
25. • 2003 On October 2nd the Tokiwa International Victimology Institute, in
Mito Japan opened its doors to promote victim rights, to conduct seminars,
courses, publish an international journal, and host annual symposia and
lectures and research about victimology.
• 2004 The World Society of Victimology at its annual Executive Committee
meeting in Orlando, Florida adopts a dramatic new strategic plan to
commit itself to the ideals and promises of the UN Declaration .
• 2005 Japan puts the UN Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and
Abuse of Power into their national legislation by adopting a new
fundamental law for crime victims. To ensure that the principles would be
initiated, the Prime Minister established a cabinet level committee. The
new law includes services for victims, restitution from the offender,
information about criminal justice and a right to formally participate in the
criminal justice process.
26. National and International concern for victims
of crime
• Victims’ rights in India The rights of victim of crime are defined in Criminal
Procedure Code 1973 section 2(wa).
• The rights of victims of crime are elaborately defined in Indian Criminal
Justice System. The right of the victim of crime can access the justice to
have the availability of relief to the victim by various judicial or non judicial
institutions in India.
• When the victim approaches the police station it is the primary duty of the
inspector to accept the complaint and register the complaint.
• If the station house officer is refused to register the complaint, then the
victim can complain this matter to the superintendent of police. The victim
can also demand the FIR copy from the police station at free of cost from
the police station practice but not effectively serving the poor victims of
crime.
27. • When the criminal justice system is implemented in proper manner
according to the rule of law, democracy, development and human
rights by the government reveals the success. The protection of
victims of crime is the one of the main objective of the criminal
justice system. It is the primary responsibility to implement the Cr.P.C
with good motive and objectives.
• Though the law and order was well defined the punishment to the
culprit of rape with severe punishments, the law response to the
needs of the victims of rape is in shifting the burden of proof. The law
fails to address the needs of victims of rape to be treated with dignity
and in providing the protection from intimidation. This has been
announced by the Delhi Domestic Working Women’s Forum.
28. • Victims’ rights UNO
• The general Assembly of the United Nations Organisation declared
the basic principles of Justice for Victims of Crime in its 96th plenary
on November 29th, 1985.
• The predominant components of the rights of victims of crime are
access to justice and fair treatment, establishment of restitution for
the victims of crime, fair and reasonable compensation to the victims
of crime and Legal assistance to the victims of crime until they are
justified.
29. • The international norms for the human rights is developed a mandate to
support the victims of torture and related crimes. This mandate is made
compulsory for all nations to follow to safeguard the rights of victims of
crime by the International Law Commission.
• The international norms have been headed by the topic ‘Crimes against
humanity’ and they have focused on the rights of victims of crime in May
2017.
• The United Nations of Organization has established the International
Criminal Courts and Tribunals to implement the statutes and regulations
and array of measures to positively engage victims in the criminal justice
progress. These International criminal courts are facilitating the direct
participation to deliver the reparation to the victims of crime.
30. • The International Law Commission has well designed and developed a
special Rapporteur on the crimes against humanity.
• This regulations are mandatory for all criminal justice systems of the
countries in the world. Article 31(1) of the legal procedures, their
rights and role in the proceedings.
• The victims should be informed with the progress of the investigation
and the prosecution. In addition to that it has made declarations to
recognize the victims of road crashes should be treated as the victims
of crime.
31. • The governments of respective countries should provide the
information guides on the legal procedures. The governments should
also provide the compensation to the victims of the road crashes to
provide immediate medical aid and support to help them cope. The
governments of all nations should reserve a fund to safeguard the
victims. The fund also can be collected from the offenders and
violators of the road rules.
• The General Assembly of United Nations resolution 217/A article 8
and resolution 30/3452 has stated in the basic principles with the
description of rights for the victims of crime, abuse of power and
terrorism.
32. • This regulations have clearly mentioned the scope, timing and
progress of the criminal proceedings against the terrorism. According
to this article the victims should be provided with the proper
assistance throughout the judicial proceedings.
• It also insisted the local judiciary system to avoid unnecessary delay in
the disposition of cases and the execution of orders or granting
compensations and awards to the victims.
33. Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and
Abuse of Power Adopted by General Assembly resolution 40/34
of 29 November 1985
• A. Victims of crime
• 1. "Victims" means persons who, individually or collectively, have suffered
harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering, economic
loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through acts or
omissions that are in violation of criminal laws operative within Member
States, including those laws proscribing criminal abuse of power.
• 2. A person may be considered a victim, under this Declaration, regardless
of whether the perpetrator is identified, apprehended, prosecuted or
convicted and regardless of the familial relationship between the
perpetrator and the victim. The term "victim" also includes, where
appropriate, the immediate family or dependants of the direct victim and
persons who have suffered harm in intervening to assist victims in distress
or to prevent victimization.
34. • 3. The provisions contained herein shall be applicable to all, without
distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, age, language,
religion, nationality, political or other opinion, cultural beliefs or
practices, property, birth or family status, ethnic or social origin, and
disability.
35. • Access to justice and fair treatment
• 4. Victims should be treated with compassion and respect for their
dignity. They are entitled to access to the mechanisms of justice and
to prompt redress, as provided for by national legislation, for the
harm that they have suffered.
• 5. Judicial and administrative mechanisms should be established and
strengthened where necessary to enable victims to obtain redress
through formal or informal procedures that are expeditious, fair,
inexpensive and accessible. Victims should be informed of their rights
in seeking redress through such mechanisms
36. • 6. The responsiveness of judicial and administrative processes to the needs
of victims should be facilitated by:
• ( a ) Informing victims of their role and the scope, timing and progress of
the proceedings and of the disposition of their cases, especially where
serious crimes are involved and where they have requested such
information;
• ( b ) Allowing the views and concerns of victims to be presented and
considered at appropriate stages of the proceedings where their personal
interests are affected, without prejudice to the accused and consistent with
the relevant national criminal justice system;
• ( c ) Providing proper assistance to victims throughout the legal process;
37. • ( d ) Taking measures to minimize inconvenience to victims, protect
their privacy, when necessary, and ensure their safety, as well as that
of their families and witnesses on their behalf, from intimidation and
retaliation;
• ( e ) Avoiding unnecessary delay in the disposition of cases and the
execution of orders or decrees granting awards to victims.
• 7. Informal mechanisms for the resolution of disputes, including
mediation, arbitration and customary justice or indigenous practices,
should be utilized where appropriate to facilitate conciliation and
redress for victims.
38. • Restitution
• 8. Offenders or third parties responsible for their behaviour should, where
appropriate, make fair restitution to victims, their families or dependants. Such
restitution should include the return of property or payment for the harm or loss
suffered, reimbursement of expenses incurred as a result of the victimization, the
provision of services and the restoration of rights.
• 9. Governments should review their practices, regulations and laws to consider
restitution as an available sentencing option in criminal cases, in addition to other
criminal sanctions.
• 10. In cases of substantial harm to the environment, restitution, if ordered,
should include, as far as possible, restoration of the environment, reconstruction
of the infrastructure, replacement of community facilities and reimbursement of
the expenses of relocation, whenever such harm results in the dislocation of a
community.
39. • 11. Where public officials or other agents acting in an official or quasi-
official capacity have violated national criminal laws, the victims
should receive restitution from the State whose officials or agents
were responsible for the harm inflicted. In cases where the
Government under whose authority the victimizing act or omission
occurred is no longer in existence, the State or Government successor
in title should provide restitution to the victims.
• Compensation
• 12. When compensation is not fully available from the offender or
other sources, States should endeavour to provide financial
compensation to:
40. • ( a ) Victims who have sustained significant bodily injury or
impairment of physical or mental health as a result of serious crimes;
( b ) The family, in particular dependants of persons who have died or
become physically or mentally incapacitated as a result of such
victimization.
• 13. The establishment, strengthening and expansion of national funds
for compensation to victims should be encouraged. Where
appropriate, other funds may also be established for this purpose,
including in those cases where the State of which the victim is a
national is not in a position to compensate the victim for the harm.
41. • Assistance
• 14. Victims should receive the necessary material, medical, psychological and
social assistance through governmental, voluntary, community-based and
indigenous means.
• 15. Victims should be informed of the availability of health and social services and
other relevant assistance and be readily afforded access to them.
• 16. Police, justice, health, social service and other personnel concerned should
receive training to sensitize them to the needs of victims, and guidelines to
ensure proper and prompt aid.
• 17. In providing services and assistance to victims, attention should be given to
those who have special needs because of the nature of the harm inflicted or
because of factors such as those mentioned in paragraph 3 above.
42. • B. Victims of abuse of power
• 18. "Victims" means persons who, individually or collectively, have suffered
harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering, economic
loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through acts or
omissions that do not yet constitute violations of national criminal laws but
of internationally recognized norms relating to human rights.
• 19. States should consider incorporating into the national law norms
proscribing abuses of power and providing remedies to victims of such
abuses. In particular, such remedies should include restitution and/or
compensation, and necessary material, medical, psychological and social
assistance and support.
43. • 20. States should consider negotiating multilateral international
treaties relating to victims, as defined in paragraph 18.
• 21. States should periodically review existing legislation and practices
to ensure their responsiveness to changing circumstances, should
enact and enforce, if necessary, legislation proscribing acts that
constitute serious abuses of political or economic power, as well as
promoting policies and mechanisms for the prevention of such acts,
and should develop and make readily available appropriate rights and
remedies for victims of such acts.
44. Handbook of Justice for Victims1998
• Victims of crime have often been forgotten or faced ‘secondary victimisation’
by the criminal justice system. Should victims of crime be involved in decision
making relating to their case? Is this empowering, or will it cause the victim
stress and lead to unfair sentencing? The 1985 United Nations (UN)
Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of
Power recommends measures to be taken on behalf of victims of crime. This
UN Centre for International Crime Prevention Handbook on Justice for Victims
covers the use and application of the Declaration. One effective way to
address the needs of crime victims is to establish programmes that provide
many types of support.
45. • The Handbook is designed as a tool for implementing victim service programmes
and for developing victim-sensitive policies in criminal justice agencies. Few nations
have implemented the declaration fully, and support services and counselling for
victims are widespread in only a minority of countries.
• Victimisation has physical, financial, psychological and social impacts. Key findings
are that:
• Financial impacts of victimisation may involve replacing property and possessions,
installing security measures, health costs, participating in the justice system,
counselling, time off work and funeral costs.
• Psychological impacts may involve post-traumatic stress disorder.
46. • Restorative justice is becoming increasingly popular, and can have a
preventative effect. However, there is concern that some restorative
approaches may not give sufficient attention to the victim.
• The dignity and healing of victims depends on the respect and assistance
extended to them by the professionals and others who come into contact with
them.
• The first intervention between the police and the victim is critical to how the
victim copes and recovers.
47. • All victim assistance providers and policy makers should understand the impact of victimisation in
order to promote the understanding of the need for assistance. Government and community
agencies should establish victim service programmes dedicated to providing services to victims.
Victim assistance programmes should assist victims to deal with emotional traumas, participate in
the criminal justice process, obtain reparation and cope with problems associated with victimisation.
Many suggestions are given and key recommendations are that:
• There needs to be a comprehensive strategy that coordinates efforts at all levels. Regional and
subregional strategies in a broader international context are useful.
• Victim support services should provide emotional support, direct assistance and information.
• An assessment should be done to determine which services are lacking and what the service
priorities are.
48. • All victims should have access to the justice system and support throughout the
judicial process and the justice system should be designed to minimise obstacles
that they may face.
• Crisis intervention, counselling, advocacy, support during investigation and
prosecution are all important services for victims.
• Support should also be provided for the victim assistance professional.
• Professionals, volunteers and others who come into contact with victims should be
trained and sensitised about victim issues, crisis response and violence prevention.
49. Guide for Policy Makers, 1998
• Victims of crime are often forgotten as more attention is paid to ensuring due process for
the defendant. The United Nations (UN) Centre for International Crime Prevention has
designed a guide for policymakers who are responsible for providing victims of crime with
assistance and access to justice. The guide sets out lines of work that can be pursued by
countries implementing the 1985 Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of
Crime and Abuse of Power.
• Some governments have made significant progress implementing the declaration, but
others have only begun to make their justice and support systems more accessible to
victims. Victimisation studies have shown that urban dwellers in African and Latin American
megacities are the least satisfied with the response of their police force to crimes. Studies
have also shown that the business community carries a large part of the economic burden
of crime.
50. • Effective programmes will reduce the cost of crime and will prevent victims’ alienation from the
criminal justice system and the community. Many examples of programmes and measures are
given and key ones include:
•
Extensive training of the police so that the victim is treated as a human being first and not just a
source of evidence, and training regarding rights and referrals for victims.
• A review of basic medical, psychological and social services to ensure they are responsive to the
needs of victims.
• Special programmes for more vulnerable victims, such as those who have experienced sexual
assault, battered women, child victims and victims of ‘hate crimes’.
• Victim service programmes that may include: crisis intervention, counselling, advocacy, support
during crime investigation, prosecution and after the case, training, violence prevention and public
education.
51. • State compensation to victims, paid where restitution is not fully available from the
offender or other sources.
• Developing guidelines for judicial and administrative personnel where the
inconvenience and personal interests of the victim is considered, especially in terms
of police questioning and timing of hearings.
• It is the responsibility of governments to develop support programmes to challenge
victimisation in society. Efforts and resources devoted to programmes should
provide significant short- and long- term benefits and bring together the government,
intergovernmental and non-governmental organisations and the community at large.
Many recommendations are made and key ones are that:
52. • Policies to implement the declaration should be based on a comprehensive strategy, and if there are no
policies a high-level committee should be established to carry out a needs assessment.
• It is essential to strengthen the existing administrative structures and voluntary organisations dealing with
victim issues in countries where victim policies have been put in place.
• The state should provide for a wide dissemination of the declaration in local languages, promote public
initiatives and cooperate with intergovernmental and non-governmental organisations.
• The state should develop and ratify international and regional conventions aimed at preventing victimisation.
• Planning economic and social development or planning peacekeeping should include mechanisms designed
to identify victimisation risks and help forestall them. Training programmes should be promoted.
• Legislative change may be necessary to ensure consistent and equitable services and a periodic review of
legislation should occur.
53. • The analysis reveals that serious crimes, especially violent events,
are relatively rare events and that accidental injuries at home and
work are more likely than a victimization by a violent crime.
• The NCVS and the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) differ in their
trends; NCVS indicates that overall crime declined between 1973
the UCR revealed large percentage increases in many crime
same time period.
• In addition, the risk of victimization varies across population groups,
space. Young persons, males, black persons, and low-income
risk of both personal and household victimization than are other
because of their typical daily behavior.
54. • Homicide rates have increased since the mid-1980's; homicide is now the
leading cause of death for young black males. The victim-offender relationship
and the consequences of victimization vary considerably by the type of crime
and somewhat by the characteristics of the victim.
• Finally, although the direct economic costs of crime for individual victims are
generally not large, the indirect costs for the criminal justice system and
communities as a whole are enormous. The indirect costs of fear of crime are
believed to be enormous, even though they are difficult to quantify.
55. Role of victims in Criminal Occurrence
• 3. Types of Victims
• The perpetrator's profile involves his evaluation of the victim. Studying the
victim's differentiating abilities is called as Victimolgy. Victimolgy is basically
founding a point of that individual's threat of becoming a victim as a purpose of
his or her individual, specialized, or social life. Possessing closeawareness of the
victim's existence and habits delivers concepts as why this specificvictim was
selected at a set time and place. This information divides victims into following
three categories:
• Low-risk victims tend to remain close to work and home. They incline not to
common places they do not know properly. They lock their entrances at nighttime.
They grip stable works and have numerous friends.
• Medium-risk victims may work close to home and lock their doors at night.
However, these individuals are indiscriminate and at times venture out at night by
themselves
56. • High-risk victims most of the time living in high-risk conditions. Prostitutes,
particularly persons who walk on the lanes, noticeably fall into this group. They
typically work during the night hours, interact with strangers regularly, willing
climb into cars with strangers, and therefore are easy targets. Other high-risk
activities include drug use, sexually energetic lifestyles, night time jobs, and
congregations with other people who possess criminal tendencies.
• Perpetrators choose their particular victims based on their individual fantasies
and their victim's susceptibility. Some victims are just grabbed as victims of
opportunity. Low-risk victims are less prone to place their selves in
vulnerablepositions than high-risk victims. Though anyone one can merely be on
the incorrect location at the wrong time. Other victims are swift as they suitable
for the role in the criminal's imagination. Committers may devote a little of time,
possibly days or weeks, planning for the perfect victim-the individual who most
possibly matches his fantasy. Other hypothetically vulnerable objectives are
unnoticed as they are not reasonably right
57. • Psychological autopsy is an important form of victim profiling. A
psychological autopsy is done when the method of the victim's death
is not indistinct. Criminal investigators are uncertain whether the
victim's expiry was unintentional, suicidal, or homicidal. To aid, make
this resolve, the forensic psychiatrist digs into the victim's school,
work, medical, and army histories. The forensic psychiatrist interviews
family, friends, and associates. He/she evaluates autopsy, police, and
witness reports. The objective is to regulate whether the victim was
the type of person who was living in a high-stress situation to take his
or her own life or living a lifestyle that made him or her easy prey for
a killer
58. • Different criminologists have given various forms of victims on the basis of
different
• criteria.
• Mendelsohn (quoted by Krishna and Singh, 1982: 48) has given six types of
victims according to the degree of their contribution guilt in crime. These are:
• (i) Entirely blameless sufferers (e.g. small babies/offspring who are raped or
• killed or abducted devoid of their comprehending what is being done to them);
• (ii) Victims with negligible guilt (like pregnant women who goes to quacks for
• abortion and pay for it with their survives);
• (iii) Victims more guilty than the offenders (such as those who provoke others to
• commit crime)
59. • (iv) The most embarrassed kinds of victims who commit crimes
contrary to others and get injured or destroyed themselves (e.g., a
rapist who gets murdered by his victim who response in self-
protection); and
• (v) Faking (or imagining) victims (such as paranoids, over excited and
confused persons) who give evidence in the courts in order to obtain
sentence against an accused person
60. • Walter Reckless (1961) has talked of two types of victims.
• (i) Reporting and
• (ii) Non-reporting victims.
• The latter is one who is unwilling to report because he/she fears
reprisals or social consequences of doing so; the former is one who
does not bother for the consequences of recording his discrimination
but is relatively interested in receivingthe offender punished or
receiving some relief for his suffering.
61. • Fattah (1967) has described five types of victims.
• i. Non-participating,
• ii. Latent,
• iii. Provocative,
• iv. Participating, and
• v. False victims.
• Wolfgang (1967) has mentioned five types of victimisation.
• (i) Primary victimisation, including personalised or single victims,
• (ii) Secondary victimisation, in this the victim is an impersonal target of the
offender (e.g., a robber in a department store, a person roaming without a ticket
on a roadways bus, etc.);
• (iii) Tertiary victimisation, which affects the public or the administration of society
62. • (iv) Mutual victimisation, which concerns those victims who
themselves are offenders in a given mutually consensual act (e.g.,
adultery); and
• (v) No victimisation, which is an action of insignificant impact where
there is no immediately recognisable victim.
63. • Von Hentig (The Criminal and His Victim, Yale University Press, New
Haven, 1948) has given four types of victims.
• (i) Victims whose wound might be the price of a greater gain, e.g., in
abortion;
• (ii) Victims who carry about the unfavourable result partly by their
own concurrent effort; e.g., prostitutes;
• (iii) Victims who provoke or instigate the offence, e.g., by challenging
the opponent to kill him if he can and in an emotional state of mind,
the opponent accepts the challenge and attacks;
• (iv) Victims who desire the injury.
64. • Hentig has further classified the attitudes of victims as:
• (i) Lethargic attitude;
• (ii) Submissive or conniving attitude;
• (iii) Cooperative or contributory attitude, and
• (iv) Provocative or investigative attitude
65. • The U.S. Department of Justice, Workplace for Sufferers of Crime
identified the following types of Victim/victimization:
• Adult Molested as Child
• Adult of group age of 18 or older that is sexually abused as a child.
• Adult Sexual Assault
• Sexual offense comprises rape, incest, fondling, exhibitionism, or
pornography of an adult age 18 or older
66. • Aggravated Assault
• Deliberately causing chronic wound by a deadly weapon, unlawful intended
struggling, frightening to cause chronic injury with a dangerous weapon.
• Arson
• Any deliberate or malevolent burning or effort to burn, with or without
intending to deceive, a dwelling, house, public building, motor vehicle or
aircraft, or personal property of another.
• Assault
• Illegal outbreak by one individual on another with or without a weapon,
that imposes, or efforts or threatens to wreak physical injury
67. • Child
• Any individual who is below the age of 18 or as otherwise defined by state
law.
• Child Physical Abuse
• Due to severe beatings, burns, strangulation, or human bites Non-
accidental injury caused to a child or other adult by his/her parent.
• Child Sexual Abuse
• These are sexual offenses by parents against a child or other adult.
• Domestic Violence
• Violent acts involving a current of former spouse or domestic partne
68. • DUI/DWI Crash
• Accident involving one or more motor vehicles in which at least one driver was
under the influence of alcohol and/or drugs (DUI) or was legally intoxicated (DWI)
at the time of the crash
• Elder Abuse
• Abuse perpetrated done by a caretaker on an elderly individual who depends on
others for support and assistance.
• Fraud
• Deliberate deception perpetrated for unlawful or unfair gain.
• Gang Violence
• Criminal acts committed by a group of three or more individuals who regularly
engage in criminal activity and identify themselves with a common name or sign.
69. • Human Sex Trafficking
• Sex trafficking in which a commercial or act is induced by force fraud,
or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such act has
not attained 18 years of age; or the recruitment, harboring,
transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for labor or
services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion, for the purpose
of subjection to involuntary servitude, personage, debt bondage, or
slavery.
70. • Identity Theft
• A crime in which an imposter gets the information about the personal
information like social security or driver's license numbers in order to
impersonate.
• Other Violent Crimes Other crimes not listed, not including property
crimes (which is the taking of money or property without force or
threat of force).
71. • Robbery
• Taking or attempting to take anything of value from the care, custody,
or control of a person or persons by force or threat, and/or threat of
force or violence.
• Sexual Offense Forcible rape, attempted rape, statutory rape, sexual
harassment, prostitution, or other unlawful sexual contact and other
unlawful behavior intended to result in sexual gratification or profit
from sexual activity.
72. • Stalking
• Any unwanted contact between two people that directly or indirectly
communicate a or place the victim in fear.
• White-Collar Crime
• Nonviolent crime for financial gain committed by means of deception
by persons with Special technical and professional knowledge of
business or government.
73. • 4. Victim Protection If you're a victim of crime or a witness, you shouldn't
be afraid to go the police or give evidence in court. There are laws and
services to protect you. Find out what they are and how they can help you.
• If you're afraid to come forward
• If you've been a victim of crime or witnessed one, you may be feeling upset
or worried. You may have doubts about coming forward to the police or
giving evidence in court.
• No law says you have to report a crime to the police or give evidence. But
remember, by coming forward you could bring a criminal to justice. You
could also stop the same thing happening to others.
• You don't have to report the crime to contact Victim Support, a charity that
helps victims and witnesses. You can talk things through with them and
discuss your options with someone confidentially.
74. • The police will keep your details private
• If you give a statement about a crime to the police, they will write down
your address on the back of it. The defendant or their solicitor will only
acquire a replica of the front, so they won't see where you live. Also,
victims and witnesses are not generally inquired to provide their address
out loud in court.
• When the police examine a crime, they can give certain facts to local
reporters, radio and TV stations. They do this to find out if there are
witnesses who could help them solve the crime.
• However if you are the victim, they'll normally ask you before they do this.
Also, if you have been sexually attacked, they won't pass on any details that
could identify you, like your name or address.
75. • Protecting you from threats and harassment
• It's contrary to the law to intimidate (threaten or bully) a witness or anyone
else helping the police.
• If you feel in danger in some way, at any time, speak to your witness
caution office or the police officer in charge of that case. If you're truly
threatened, call 999.
• If the pressure proceeds in court, inform your solicitor or a court official
who will report it to the police.
• You can get further assistance if the lawbreaker had been caught, laid in
prison, free on bail or sentenced. The criminal court can form a command
to halt them approaching near you, threatening you or frightening you
again. If they move on, they might suffer another crime and even be put
into jail.
76. • The Police and the Crown Prosecution Service can defend your individuality
throughout the investigation and the initial days of a trial. In certain cases, they
can even protect your identity during the trial itself.
• Witness relocation
• In special cases, if the threat to you is very serious then it may be possible to
relocate you (move house) to another area where you feel safer. This is organized
by the police.
• Protection if you have to go to court
• There are a several of methods by which court can protect you when you have to
give evidence.
• The law indicates that at any place it is thinkable; you must be given a distinct
waiting zone and a chair in court away from the offender's family. If there is no
separate area, the court will make other arrangements to keep you safe.
77. • You can get extra help in court if you're under 17 or afraid to give
evidence. Also, if you possess a learning or physical incapacity or you
are a victim of a sexual crime. In such cases, you can enquire the
police to apply for special measures.
• This can include screens to stop you from having to see the
defendant, or someone to help you understand what you're being
asked.
78. • Protection when a criminal is released from prison In serious cases,
the criminal justice system continues to protect victims of crime, even
after the offender is released from prison.
• If they have been put in prison for more than a year for a sexual or
violent offence, you'll be told when they're about to be set free.
• You will be allotted (given) a victim link officer at the Probation
Service. In severe cases you can ask this liaison officer for special
terms when the offender is out. For example, this could be a
command (legal order) to make certain they halt away from you.
79. • 5. Science of Victimolgy
• Many persons consider that Victimolgy is an objectively new
conception of theories. The discipline essentially eras back to around
1880. Though to be reasonable Victimolgy turn out to be
comprehensive known of in Europe not long after World War II. This
specific discipline goal is employed in the direction of understanding
the association between criminals and victims.
80. • By reviewing victims facts experts increase evidence against the
criminals which supports in outlining or identification of the criminal.
Trends and statistics give information such as social status (the kind of
area someone lives in) work and working conditions which often plays
a significant role in why someone has become a victim; the
information also helps in our understanding of victims, and the
criminal. Local authorities rely on statistics to work towards
implementing action that will prevent or reduce diverse kinds of
crime. (McGuire, 2010) (McGuire, 2007, 243-246)
81. • Profilers are certain that it is significant to collect details/history on
the victim. The victim’s source, physical look, traits and features has
appreciated data which can be estimated at and after departure of a
crime scene. In the occurrence that a number of victims have been
establish above a sequence of months or year’s facts such as this well
may explain why the victims had become targets. Victims will likely
have been chosen because of their surroundings, their psychical
appearance and capabilities and their social standing. (Homeless
adults and offspring, prostitutes, refugee workers, homosexuals,
unmarried females nevertheless of age) They will every so often be
incapable to protect themselves and incapable of calling for help
because to their surrounding or their sensibility.
82. VICTIM OFFENDER RELATIONSHIP
• VICTIM OFFENDER RELATIONSHIP Victim-offender relationship is one
of the most important notions in victimology. Mendelsohn calls the
victim and his offender the "penal couple." For Schafer (1976:157)
victim-offender relationships may contain the origin of victimisation.
"The marital status of the offender and that of the victim - or the fact
that one person is the spouse or a friend or an acquaintance or just a
stranger (third person) - may contain the seeds of crime. Married
persons of both sexes are more often victims, than persons in any
other marital status. It has also been observed that legally divorced
individuals are less often victims of violent crimes than those who are
in other relationships with the criminal" (Schafer, 1976:157-158) .
83. • It is found by the President's Commission on Crime that primary
group relationships seems more important in crime against person,
especially in homicide cases. It was also found that 80 per cent of the
murder and aggravated assault victims belonged to primary group
relationships. In England little over 40 per cent of female murder are
suspected to be committed by huSbands. In .25 per cent of female
murder cases, the suspect was either a relative or a lover (Schafer,
1976: 156-161) .
84. • Wolfgang (1958:213) states that when a man is killed by a woman "he
was most likely to be killed by his wife" and it is also found that a
woman was more likely than a man to kill her mate. According to
Schafer, "female criminals commit violent crimes against their spouse
three times more often than do males, and nine times more often
against their children" (Schafer, 1976: 158) . Let us now analyse the
different dimensions of victim offender relationship.
85. • 1. Nature of Victim-Offender Relationship: According to Hentig (1948) the
relationship between the victimiser and the victim are very intricate. The
victim, one who suffers and the victimiser, one who harms, appear in
victimisation in a close interpersonal relationship and the victim plays a
determinant role with the victimiser. For Cho (1974: 96), "the victim and
victimiser should be understood in terms of victimisation incidence and
relationship. Both "affinity" and "propinquity" factors should be considered
for the differentials in participation, commitment and involvement in
victimisation. Though not intended for creating an impression that the
victim and victimiser are "guilty by association," we are suggesting that the
interaction and relationship should be explored rather than assumed, and
that guilt should be understood objectively, rather than assumed to be a
hallmark of the victimiser."
86. • So victimisation occurs in interpersonal interaction between the
victim and the victimiser and the situation. So the issues are:
• Is victimity an exclusive characteristic of the victimiser?
• Is it a depending quality or a developed personal trait?
• Is it dispatchable genetically or culturally?
• Is victimity additive, substractive, transferable or coextensive with
anti or non-victimity?
• Is victim a dynamic participant in victimisation?
• and Does victimity emerge from assigned criminal status and role
expectations?
87. • . Grades of Victim-Offender Relationship:
• There are different grades of victim-offender relationship.
• The victim has no prior knowledge of the crime. He dislikes very much
being made a victim. He informs the police about the victimisation.
• The victim has no prior knowledge of the crime and he disapproves
being made a victim, but refrains from calling the police.
• The victim has some prior awareness of the possible crime.
88. • The first of these might be called victim non-acceptance. The second and
third might be termed as victim-acquiescence, unwilling, with or without
previous knowledge. According to Mack (1974: 127) these three envelop a
number of social situations of which the major ones are:
• The victim himself is a criminal.
• The victim is a near criminal.
• The victim has no open criminal associations.
• The victim 'belongs to an enthnic minority group.
• Hence, victimisation is a problem of relationship and responsibility. Who is
responsible for what and to what extent?
89. • A Shared Responsibility:
• The victimizer and the victim act on each other directly by sharing a
common place, or indirectly by symbolic relationship.
• Hence, the victim can be viewed as a dependent variable by examining the
effects of being victimised or as an independent variable by examining the
conditions which predispose certain kinds of persons to victimisation.
• For Hudson and Galway (1975:xii) "the central thrust of the study of victim-
criminal relationships i's that to some variable extent the officially labelled
'victim' of criminal act may directly share in responsibility for -the
victimisation." Therefore, the performance of the victimiser should be seen
as a shared responsibility. From this point of view, who may take on the
role of victim or victimiser in particular situations may have more to do
with sheer chance than with anything else (Wolfgang, 1958:265).
90. Impact of Victimization– Physical and financial
impact.
• The physical and financial impact of victimization
• At the time of a crime, or upon discovering that a crime has occurred, victims are likely to
experience a number of physical reactions to the event. These may include an increase in
the adrenalin in the body, increased heart rate, hyperventilation, shaking, tears, numbness,
a feeling of being frozen or experiencing events in slow motion, dryness of the mouth,
enhancement of particular senses, such as smell, and a "fight or flight" response. It is
common for people to lose control over their bowel movements. Some of these physical
reactions may not occur until after the danger has passed. They may recur at a later stage
when the memory of the crime returns.
• After the crime, victims may suffer a range of physical effects, including insomnia,
appetite disturbance, lethargy, headaches, muscle tension, nausea and decreased libido.
Such reactions may persist for some time after the crime has occurred.
• Physical injuries resulting from victimization may not always be immediately apparent.
This may be particularly true in cases of domestic violence where the injuries occur on
parts of the body that are normally clothed.
91. • Facial injuries are by far the most frequent in other forms of assault.
Victims may suffer a range of physical damage, including abrasions
and bruises, broken nose, cheekbone or jawbone and damage to or loss
of teeth. Other injuries will be associated with assaults involving
knives or firearms.
• Physical injuries may be a permanent effect of crime and there is
evidence that this has a negative effect on long-term psychological
recovery, since the physical scars serve as a constant reminder of the
crime. Cultural, gender and occupational factors may affect the
individual's reaction to permanent scarring or disability, as will the
reaction of others.
92. The financial impact of crime is less well documented. Victims may incur costs
Repairing property or replacing possessions,
Installing security measures,
Accessing health services,
Participating in the criminal justice process, for example, attending the
Obtaining professional counselling to come to terms with the emotiona
Taking time off work or from other income-generating activities,
Funeral or burial expenses
93. • In some cases, victims may feel a need to move, a process likely to entail financial costs. As a
result of the crime, the value of property may decrease.
• In the long term, crime can adversely impact the victim's employment. The victim may find it
impossible to return to work or their work performance may be adversely affected, resulting in
demotion, loss of pay and possibly dismissal. This is particularly likely where the crime occurred at
work, as it may be difficult for the victim to avoid people or situations that led to the initial
victimization.
• The marital and other relationships of crime victims are also likely to be affected and this may have
a significant effect on the family's financial position.
• Research shows that the shock waves from victimization touch not only the victim but also the
victim's immediate family and relatives, neighbours and acquaintances. This holds true for the
emotional as well as the financial consequences, and the effects can endure for years or even a
lifetime. In the case of genocide, child abuse, exposure to violence and abuse of power, the effects
can be passed on from one generation to the next. While this is to be expected in connection with
offences such as murder, torture and rape, the crimes of assault, robbery and burglary can also
leave lasting feelings of powerlessness, insecurity, anger and fear. Not only individuals but also
communities and organizations can be victimized, leading to their deterioration over time as
confidence ebbs, fear increases and the economic burden of victimization becomes insupportable.
94. • The effects of victimization strike particularly hard at the poor, the powerless, the
disabled and the socially isolated. Research shows that those already affected by
prior victimization are particularly susceptible to subsequent victimization by the
same or other forms of crime. These repeat victims are often found in many
countries to reside in communities with high crime levels and are also a common
phenomenon during times of war.
• As for the impact of abuse of power, during recent years armed conflict has
claimed innumerable victims, largely among civilian populations, with women and
children often the primary targets. Tribal warfare, ethnic strife and other fratricidal
conflicts, mass rapes, kidnappings or expulsions, "ethnic cleansing", torture,
arbitrary detention and killings have greatly added to the human toll. The Office of
the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees estimates that at the
beginning of 1996 there were approximately 13.2 million refugees, 3.4 million
returnees, 4.6 million internally displaced persons and 4.8 million victims of
armed conflict worldwide.
95. • The use of child soldiers (10 years of age or even younger) in some places, child bondage
and new forms of slavery, the sale and sexual exploitation of children, also in connection
with "sex tourism", and the kidnapping and murder of street children have further
increased the scale of victimization. It is estimated by the United Nations Children's Fund
that during this last decade some 1.5 million children have been killed in armed conflicts,
another 4 million children have been disabled, maimed, blinded or brain-damaged, and
many more have been psychologically traumatized. At least 5 million children have been
uprooted from their communities; between 100 million and 200 million children are being
used in exploitative forms of labour; and many are living and working in the streets,
where they have often been victims of unscrupulous operatives and vigilante killings.
• Their very status makes refugees and internally displaced persons easy prey for abuse and
they are often subject to secondary victimization. This is the case, for example, with
violence against migrant workers,1 who may become victims of physical abuse and mental
and sexual harassment by employers, intermediaries or the police, quite apart from being
subjected to economic servitude. Refugees and migrants have also become targets of
"hate crimes" and exploitative practice.
