Women in the Indian Armed Forces: A History of Achievement

Chapter One
INTRODUCTION
"We record our homage and deep admiration for the womanhood of India who in the
hour of peril of the motherland forsook the shelter of their homes and with unfailing courage
and endurance stood shoulder to shoulder with their men folk, in the frontline of India's
National Army to share with them the sacrifices and triumphs of the struggle"
from a resolution passed on January 26, 1931.
General
In the modern world, there is no domain of work that women haven’t delved into.
Many a male dominated work places have crumbled under the power of the woman - her
spirit and energy. In recorded human history, no force of soldiery has ever travelled far
without its detachment of women camp followers, who cheerfully shouldered the
responsibility of ammunition carriers, picking up a weapon of a fallen soldier to fight,
washing, mending, cooking and generally pandering to the creature comforts.
The status of women in India has been a kaleidoscope of eventful changes and
varying societal facts affecting all strands of womanhood over past few millennia. Today she
stands at a new threshold with greater triumphs and achievements alongwith their male
counterparts. Fuelled by accessible globalisation and pervasive self-awareness,
contemporary Indian women are all set to understand their priorities in public space and
private domain. She is the victim neither of cultural expectations nor of biological
restrictions. She is not regressive but liberal, not confused but careful and happy to
embrace the benefits of shining modernity yet willing to pay her dues.
The Indian Armed Forces, which for long was considered a male dominated
workplace, now has confident, bold women, moulding into most roles and setting examples
for everyone. In keeping up with the changing times and trends, the Indian Armed Forces
started the induction of women from year 1992. The Indian Armed Forces, as of now, has
visualized the role for women only in the officer cadre and in limited occupational
specialities. Consequently, women are selected only as officers and granted commission
restrictively in Combat Support Arms and Services only. In the officer cadre till very recently,
they are offered only a Short Service Commission (SSC) - that is an initial compulsory
contractual tenure of five years extendable to a maximum term of fourteen years. The
recent policy changes have paved way for induction of women officers as permanent
1

commissioned officers in certain specialities of all three services of the Indian Armed
Forces.1
The Contemporary Battlefield
The battlefields and the conflict zones have been traditionally regarded as an exclusive
male bastion. It was always a male prerogative to charge or retreat, to kill or defend, to ride
back victorious or be among the countless who never came back - the heady riches of
victory or the untold sufferings of an ignominious defeat were always carried back home by
the surviving male soldiers. The children, the women, the old and the infirm either lined
up to welcome the victorious warrior or plunged into endless sorrows. Over the
years, this has naturally softened the environment's perspective of the war and
inadvertently made many develop misplaced notions of combat zone being a risky
but worthwhile place. The battle-dead, of course, never talk. The advent of cruise
missiles, smart bombs and stealth bombers may have exponentially raised the
technological threshold of the modern battlefields but has not converted them any
less deadly or friendly to human beings. Au contra ire, the battlefields are turning into very
fluid, uncertain and highly asymmetrical zones. However, this change in warfare techniques
is itself a part of the larger picture wherein the world is rapidly shrinking and globalising. In
this new world, women have shaken themselves loose from the rigid moulds of traditional
roles and are rightfully staking their claim to various professions, the armed forces being no
exception. This glorified spectre of a masculine world order exhorting men to fight and
sacrifice exemplifies the very essence of the armed forces. The primary aim and
responsibility of a nation's armed forces is to protect the territorial integrity and geographical
boundaries from external aggression at costs far exceeding the purely material. The entire
philosophy and force structure of the armed forces is, therefore, geared towards combat
necessitated by such threat perceptions and the need to establish supremacy by force and
military might. Towards this they are constantly prepared for the time when they shall fight
and win wars.
The Crossroads
1
In a path – breaking development, the Government of India decided to grant Permanent Commission,
prospectively to Short Service Commission officers, both men and women in branches and cadres of the three
services, which do not entail direct combat or possibility of physical contact with enemy. The long-standing
proposal of permanent commission to women officers received the approval of the Defence Minister, Shri AK
Antony on 26 Sep 2008. The branches where permanent commission would be granted include Judge
Advocate General, Army Education Corps and its corresponding branches in Navy and Air Force, Accounts
Branch of the Air Force and Naval Constructor of the Navy. The selection will be based on a common merit
and eligibility criteria, as decided by each Service Headquarters.
“Women Officers of Armed Forces to get Permanent Commission in Select Branches”, Press Information
Bureau, Government of India, Ministry of Defence, September 26, 2008.
2

Profound socio-economic changes in the country have joined hands with continuous
media spotlights to bring the armed forces to these unique crossroads earlier than
expected. The preposition of a gradual evolution competes with luring attractions of
rapid transformation now. On one hand is the conventional wisdom of allowing
gradual maturing of the existing roles and then taking affirmative steps. These
progressive actions will be guided by feedback and consensus. But it may be added
that to the media savvy generation-next, nestled in atmosphere of political
correctness and youth power, conventional wisdom is not the current flavour of the
season. On the other side of the spectrum is the possibility of rapid transformation,
which advocates mass experimentation and speedy execution. This road, though
less travelled, makes fabulous promises and an interesting copy. Not surprisingly
the malady of fashionable thought deeply affects many of its proponents whose
youthful impatience views even stepping stones as roadblocks. But rapid changes
are indeed sweeping the entire country with amazing results and thus per se their
promises cannot be held untenable. At these crossroads, the biggest reality check is
however the inherent nature of the warfare itself and the associated realities of a
conventional as well as unconventional battlefields. It is at this infallible crucible of
reality that the role of women in the Armed Forces needs to be ultimately defined.
Emerging Together - India and Feminism
The Indian Armed Forces cannot be viewed in isolation from the changes which are
sweeping the country and are transforming landscapes and attitudes with visible ease. The
story of the young nation and its womenfolk, which represent half of its populace, cannot be
anything but intertwined. From the ‘India Everywhere’ blitz of corporate India at Davos to the
ubiquitous ‘Incredible India’ posters of the Ministry of Tourism, which stare us from
billboards of New York City to the air-conditioned chair car compartments of the Indian
Railways - there is a buzz about the Nation. The Indian women, greatly assisted by the
rising income levels and educational standards are steadily moving to centre stage in
several occupations. Sunita Williams and late Kalpana Chawla, the famous United States
(US) astronauts of Indian origin, are household names even in the dusty villages of the cow
belt. Sania Mirza and Sainia Nehwal is the sports icon of an entire generation of crazed
teenage girls (and some cricket-sick boys too) while the Pepsi Co's India-born chairperson
Indra Nooyi has been named among the world's ten most powerful women by the US-based
business magazine Forbes.
3

Things are identical on the silver screen. In the 2007 super-hit film Chak de India, the
Indian women's hockey team, earlier portrayed as a rag-tag underdog struggling to form a
coherent team, dramatically sweeps the Women Hockey World Cup under the dynamic
guidance of its male coach Shah Rukh Khan. The symbolism of the film is unmistakeable -
all girls are the heroines of this saga and their victory is also the personal victory of their
male coach. On the small screen, it was Barkha Dutt who shot to fame as India's first
woman war correspondent and brought home India's first televised war while reporting from
the icy battle zones of Dras and Kargil, amid exploding shells and the roar of Bofors guns.
The recent advertisement for Godfrey Philips Bravery Awards showcases their ambassador
Preity Zinta inviting nominations for the acts of bravery. These representations are too
strong to be aberrations and announce the arrival of the Indian women as a new force.
An average Indian woman in urban India is definitely better educated, more
informed and has greater financial independence with decision making powers as
compared to yesteryears. Even in the rural areas things are beginning to look up
which has given women more control in chartering their own destiny. The Indian
women have learned to compete, share and laugh with men and are comfortable in
this new avatar. Their newly - found confidence is clearly palpable. Taking a spoof
at Dr John Gray's bestseller 'Men Are From Mars, Women Are From Venus' - a book
which extols the gender differences for better understanding among the two sexes,
the Indian women's magazine Femina had run a hoarding in Mumbai which
succinctly summed up the new feminine version : 'Men Are From Mars. Women Are
Just Down To Earth'.
Purpose of Study
Initiatives of expanding women’s military roles in several nations are an ongoing
process. Global, cultural and media revolution of democratic values, rights and equal
opportunity for women gained importance and influence on work environment in the
developed countries since the 20th Century.
The recent debate about women officers and there usefulness in the armed forces
has been highly ill-informed and subjective in nature. The debate has reached the highest
seat of democracy ie the parliament where people have taken stands and expressed
opinion without analysing the matter in its entirety. It is imprudent to consider it as an issue
of equality of sexes or gender bias or even women’s liberation. It is also not a question of
conquering the so-called ‘last male bastion’. This would amount to trifling a matter that
concerns the well-being and the war-potential of a nation’s armed forces. Armed forces
4

have been constituted with the sole purpose of ensuring defence of the country and all
policy decisions should be guided by this overriding factor. All matters concerning defence
of the country should be considered in a dispassionate manner. No decision should be
taken which even remotely affects the cohesiveness and efficiency of the military. Concern
for equality of sexes or political expediency should not influence defence policies.
Hence there is a necessity to delve into all aspects of women in Armed Forces from
a Human Resource Management (HRM) perspective. Analysis of the experience gained by
Indian and armed forces of other developed nations on the issues involved can lead to
formalises of a recommended model to address all future HRM needs from selection to
training, retention and career growth in the organisation for the involvement of women.
Objective of the Research.
Through the research project, an effort has been made to delve upon the following
issues with an aim to formulate a workable HR model for greater and a more meaningful
role of women in armed forces:-
(a) Large scale integration of women into Indian Armed Forces in the present
socio cultural and economic environment of the Indian society.
(b) Induction of women as Personnel below Officer Rank (PBOR).
(c) Does today’s combat environment based on network centric warfare provide
a strong case that all specialities should be open on a gender-neutral standard to
those who are qualified, capable and competent to undertake them.
(d) The training requirements to incorporate change in envisaged enlarged role
for women in the armed forces?
(e) Should the women be allowed on voluntary basis and competence into
combat arms? Will there be adequate voluntaries for such vacancies.
(f) Are women officers willing to lead the male troops on a patrol or ambush
duties?
(g) Is physical vulnerability and risk of sexual abuse if captured or on becoming
Prisoner of War (POW), a strong enough argument against women going to the front
line?
(h) Are women in armed forces psychologically prepared to handle
uncomfortable occupational situations, which they may be required, handle in their
day-to-day work.
5

(j) Are sexual harassment issues in the Indian armed forces so perplexed that
they force women to shy away from a career in armed forces.
(k) Sources of stress for women soldiers are society, organisations and women
themselves. Are these concerns insurmountable?
(l) Is non-acceptance of women as soldiers by men due to physical,
physiological, psychological, biological, masculine, social and logistical reasons
specific to women.
Research Methodology
This research study is a short-term analytical effort to evaluate the progress of
gender integration in the armed forces and its effects on long run integration. The
techniques of exploratory research have been used incorporating extensive literature review
and analysis of selected cases to bring out relevant inferences.
The views and responses of all the under mentioned stake holders who are
intimately connected with women’s presence in the services were seriously considered and
incorporated while recommending a model and policies :-
(a) Women officers themselves.
(b) Their commanding officers.
(c) Male officer colleagues.
(d) The soldiers they command.
The size and distribution of the focus group ie the women officers’ prelude extensive
use of technique of random sampling. Heavy reliance from personal experience of the
author gained during stint at Indian Military Academy, Dehradun as an instructor which
boasts of a large community of women officer and as a commanding officer of Girls
Battalion NCC, Dehradun, which is the largest feeder organisation for women officers to
Indian Armed Forces. Detailed personal interviews conducted with senior officers, lady and
gentlemen officers from the three services based in Delhi were collected which yielded
plethora of information on the involved issues. The opinion and viewpoint was collected
through a detailed questionnaire from gentlemen officers, women officers, woman cadets at
Officers Training Academy, Chennai and senior wing NCC cadets at Dehradun who aspire
to join the Armed Forces. This formed the cornerstone of the study. The women
questionnaire is at Appendix ‘A’ and gentle questionnaire at Appendix ‘B’.
Organisation of Research Paper
The research paper is organised in six chapters. The first chapter covers the introduction
6

followed by a chapter role of women in armed forces of the world. The third chapter covers
the Indian experience of women in Armed Forces. The next two chapters cover the combat
exclusion and issues of pre commission training. The final chapter covers the
recommendations and the Human Resource Model for smooth induction, integration and
retention of women in the armed forces.
Chapter Two
HISTORY OF WOMEN IN ARMED FORCES
The history of women in the military is one that extends over 4000 years into
the past, throughout a vast number of cultures and nations. Women have played
many roles in the military, from ancient warrior women, to the women currently
serving in conflicts like the Iraq War.
Indian women have often been on the battlefield. Rani Durgawati of
Gondwana and Chand Bibi of Ahmednagar (during Akbar's period), Rani Laxmi Bai
of Jhansi during the Mutiny in 1857, are a few examples of women fighters from our
history. Our freedom movement is replete with examples of courageous women
leaving the 'Chaar Diwari' of their households to secure freedom from the British.
Sarojini Naidu, Kamala Devi Chattopadhya, Aruna Asaf AIi, Sucheta Kriplani,
revolutionaries like Durga Bhabi, Bina Das, Shanti Ghosh and Suniti Chaudhary, are
just a few of the prominent names.
Subhash Chander Bose had even organised an all women's regiment - the Rani Laxmi
Bai Regiment in The Indian National Army (INA) to fight the British. INA had three
regiments of women recruits comprising of more than 1000 women who were called
Ranis. Most of Ranis were trained to fight as soldiers and some were imparted
nurse’s training. Attired in similar uniform as their male counterpart their level of
training was kept similar with the standards of male soldiers` rigorous training.
However, the ranis’ did not actively participate on the war-front. The ranis who were
found worthy of national service by colossal persona like Subhas Bose`s have
remained immortal in legends for stories of their dauntless dedication. The history of
the inclusion of women in Indian National Army highlights the aura of genius, related
7

to the meritorious Indian woman, who has the capability to become caring and
loving, to dear ones, and to take up arms against the malignant enemy2
.
Thus, historically the 'other gender' has played a very significant part
alongside men in our freedom struggle. Nationalism became a
metaphor for liberal, and at times radical, feminism in our past. In fact,
it can be said that had it not been for the 'picketing', 'courting arrests,'
'boycotting,' 'non-cooperation', and 'civil-disobedience' of Indian
women, we may not have won our independence when we did.
Recent History of Changes in Women's Roles in Various Armed Forces of the World
India has limited experience in regard with induction of women in the armed forces.
The first batch had joined the active service only in 1992. Therefore, our knowledge of the
complexities and long-term effects of the issues involved is highly limited. On the other
hand, women have been serving in the militaries of developed countries for a long time.
These countries have acquired a deep understanding of all the issues involved.
Australia
The first women became involved with the Australian Armed Forces with the
creation of the Army Nursing Service in 1899. Currently, women make up 12.8% of the
Australian Defence Force (ADF) (with 15.1% in the Royal Australian Air Force, 14.6% in the
Royal Australian Navy and 10.5% in the Australian Army and 17.5% of the reserves.3
However, only 74% of the total numbers of available roles in the Australian Armed Forces
are available to women4
. Despite this, using 1998-99 figures, the ADF had the highest
percentage of women in its employ in the world. In 1998 Australia became the second
nation in the world to allow women to serve on its submarines.
Like many other countries, Australia does not permit women to serve in the following
military positions involving 'direct combat', as defined by the 1983 Convention on the
Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) :-
• Clearance Diving Team (RAN).
• Special Operations Royal Australian Infantry Corps.
• Royal Australian Armoured Corps.
2
Women in Indian National Army, Internet www page at URL:< http://www.indianetzone.com/7/
women_netaji_subhash_chandra_bose_army.htm>(version current as of 09 Oct 2008)
3
Women armed, Internet www page at URL:< http://www.aph.gov.au/library/ intguide/
fad/women_armed.htm#7>(version current as of 02 Oct 2008).
4
Ibid.
8

• Royal Australian Artillery.
• Royal Australian Engineers.
• Airfield Defence Guards.
Health and safety reasons also exclude women from surface finishing and
electroplating within the Air Force due to the use of embryo-toxic substances. Australia was
the second country to permit female crew on submarines, doing so in June 1998 on board
Collins Class submarine. Australia's first deployment of female sailors in a combat zone was
aboard the HMAS Westralia (O 195) in the Persian Gulf during the Gulf War.
Britain
Women joined the British Armed forces in all roles except those whose "primary duty
is to close with and kill the enemy"; Infantry, Armoured warfare, Royal Marines, RAF
Regiment, Special Air Service or Special Boat Service. In addition medical reasons
preclude service in the Royal Navy Submarine Service or as Mine Clearance Divers.
Female personnel currently make up around 9% of the British armed forces5
. However,
female combatants can be found throughout Britain’s military history6
.An early example is
Queen Boudica, who led warriors of the Iceni tribe against Roman forces occupying Britain
around AD 62, her legacy being often quoted in support of arguments calling for the full
opening up of the British Armed forces to women. During the 1776 American War of
Independence, it is estimated that over 5000 women accompanied British forces. Many of
these would have been the wives of high-ranking officers with a large proportion being the
wives of serving soldiers. While as much as possible women were left in the camp, they
sometimes accompanied forces in their baggage trains serving as cooks or nurses, and
were occasionally caught in combat and killed or taken prisoner. Similarly, women
accompanied men in ships of the Royal Navy, in combat being employed as powder
monkeys or assisting surgeon.
During World War I the British Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps was formed. Women
served in the British Army during World War I as cooks, medical staff and clerical staff,
however women were not permitted to be officers, and there were many disputes over pay.
In 1917 the Women's Royal Naval Service (WRNS) was formed and subsequently
disbanded in 1919. It provided catering and administrative support, communications and
electrician personnel. Prior to World War II, in 1938 the Auxiliary Territorial Service was
5
Fact Sheets: Women in the Armed Forces. Internet www page at URL:<
http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/FactSheets/WomenInTheArmedForces.htm>(version
current as of 02 Oct 2008)
6
Women in Combat. BBC News, 2007, Mar 29. Internet www page at URL:<
"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6502847.stm>(version current as of 02 Oct 2008)
9

created, with 20,000 women serving in non-combat roles during the conflict as well as
serving as military police and gun crews. The First Aid Nursing Yeomanry was incorporated
into this service. In 1939 the WRNS was reformed with an increased range of shore-based
opportunities were included. In 1949, women were officially recognized as a permanent part
of British Armed forces, though full combat roles were still available only to men. In this
year, the Women's Royal Army Corps was created to replace the WAAC, and in 1950, the
ranks were normalised with the ranks of men serving in the British Army. In 1991 seagoing
opportunities were opened to WRNS personnel leading to the full integration of the WRNS
with the Royal Navy in 1993. To date several female personnel have commanded small
ships of the RN and the current Commanding Officer of HMNB Clyde is a former WRNS
Officer. In 1992, British Army units devoted only to women were disbanded, and women
were distributed amongst the same units in which men served. The 2007 Iranian seizure of
Royal Navy personnel of Royal Navy sailor Faye Turney in 2007 by the Navy of the Army of
the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution led to some media comment on the role of women
and mothers in the armed forces.
Canada
During the First World War, over 2300 women served overseas in the Canadian
Army Medical Corps. Canadian women were also organized into possible uniformed home
guard units, undertaking military training in Paramilitary groups. During the Second World
War, 5000 women of the Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps again served overseas,
however they were not permitted to serve on combat warships or in combat teams. The
Canadian Army Women's Corps was created during the Second World War, as was the
Royal Canadian Air Force (Women's Division). As well, 45,000 women served as support
staff in every theatre of the conflict, driving heavy equipment, rigging parachutes, and
performing clerical work, telephone operation, laundry duties and cooking. Some 5,000
women performed similar occupations during Canada’s part in the Korean War of 1950-
1953. In 1965, the Canadian government decided to allow a maximum of 1,500 women to
serve directly in all three branches of its armed forces, and the former "women's services"
were disbanded. In 1970, the government created a set of rules for the armed forces
designed to encourage equal opportunities. These included the standardization of
enlistment criteria, equal pay and pensions, and allowing women to enroll in all aspects of
the Canadian armed forces and making it possible for women to reach any rank. In 1974,
the first woman, Major Wendy Clay, earned her pilot's wings in the newly integrated
Canadian Forces, and four years later, the first woman qualified for the Canadian skydiving
demonstration team, the Skyhawks7
. Between 1979 and 1985, the role of women expanded
7
Canadian forces, Department of National Defence. Internet www page at URL:<
http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/home_e.asp >(version current as of 02 Oct 2008)
10

further, with military colleges allowing women to enroll. 1981 saw the first female navigator
and helicopter pilot, and in 1982 laws were passed ending all discrimination in employment,
and combat related roles in the Canadian armed forces were opened for women, with no
restrictions in place, with the exception of the submarine service. 1887 saw Canada’s first
female infantry soldier, first female gunner, and a female Brigadier-General. In 1990, the
Ministers Advisory Board on Women in the Canadian Forces was created, and in 1994, a
woman was promoted to Major General. In 2000 Major Micky Colton became the first
female to log 10000 flying hours in a C-130 Hercules. Women were permitted to serve on
board Canadian submarines in 2002 with the acquisition of the Victoria Class Submarine.
Master Seaman Colleen Beattie became the first female submariner in 20038
. Canadian
women have also become clearance divers, and commanded large infantry units and
Canadian warships. On 17 May 2006, Captain Nichola Goddard became the first Canadian
woman killed in combat during operations in Afghanistan.
Denmark
Women were employed in the Danish armed forces as early as 1934 with the
Ground Observer Corps, Danish Women’s Army Corps and Naval Corps in 1946 and the
Women’s Air Force since 1953. In 1962, the Danish parliament passed laws allowing
women to volunteer in the regular Danish armed forces as long as they did not serve in
units experiencing direct combat. 1971 saw the enlistment of women as non-commissioned
officers, with military academies allowing women in 1974. In 1978, based on the reports of
studies on the topic, women were allowed to enlist in an all areas of the Danish armed
forces, with combat trials in the eighties exploring the capabilities of women in combat. In
1998 laws were passed allowing women to sample military life in the same way as
conscripted men, however without being completely open to conscription. Women in the
Danish military come under the command of the Chief of Defense.9
As of 2002 the highest
rank reached by a woman in the Danish armed forces was Lieutenant Colonel, with 5%
(862) women in the services, 98 officers, 191 NCOs, and 571 privates. However recent
recruitment of women has been low in Denmark due to rising job opportunities elsewhere.
NATO reports also indicate that the Danish military does not promote women to positions of
leadership10
. As with many nations with women in their armed forces, Denmark has different
basic physical requirements for men and women in their armed forces, however the
requirements for the more physically demanding jobs do not differ for either sex.
8
Canada's military from The World Factbook. Internet www page at URL:<
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html#Military>(version current as of 02
Oct 2008)
9
NATO/IMS Committee on women in the NATO Forces: Denmark. Internet www page at URL:<
http://www.nato.int/ims/2001/win/denmark.htm >(version current as of 02 Oct 2008)
10
Ibid
11

Eritrea
Female soldiers in Eritrea played a large role in both the Eritrean civil war
and the border dispute with Ethiopia.11
Today they make up more than 25% of the
Eritrean military12
.
Finland
The Finnish Defence Forces does not conscript women. Since 1995, women
between 18 and 30 years of age have the possibility of voluntarily undertake military service
in the Defence Forces or in the Finnish Border Guard. Females serve under the same
conditions as men, with the exception that during the first 45 days of service they have the
option to leave the military without consequences. After that, they must complete the
service, which lasts 6, 9 or 12 months. After the service, the females face the same reserve
obligations as the males who have done the obligatory military service. If the female in
national service experiences a conscientious crisis, which prevents her from fulfilling her
military service or reserve obligations, she is ordered to the alternative civilian service,
which lasts 13 months.13
All services and units in the Finnish Defence Forces and the
Finnish Border Guard accept females. In garrison environment, the females are lodged in
separate rooms and are given separate toilet and bath facilities. In exercises and aboard
ships, women are lodged with men. The women in national service are given an extra
allowance of €0,40 per day for sanitary articles and smallclothes.14
The females in military
service are usually well motivated and some 60% of them receive either NCO or reserve
officer training. Yearly, some 500 women complete the voluntary military service, while
some 30.000 men complete the obligatory conscription.15
The women on completion of the voluntary military service are eligible for further
military employment. If they have at least NCO training, they can apply for career NCO
positions or for officer training. These career paths have been open since 1996, when the
first women completed the military service. In 2005, 32 female career officers were in
service. The number of female warrant officers was 16 and the number of female specialist
officers 7. In comparison, there were a total of 2.584 officers and 894 specialist officers in
service. The women made up about 16% of the total career NCO cadre. However, most of
these career NCOs were grandfathered (former female enlistees who had not undertaken
11
Killion, Tom (1998). Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. Internet www page at URL:< http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0810834375>(version current as of 02 Oct 2008).
12
Military statistics on Eritrea. Internet www page at URL:< www.nationmaster.com/country/er-eritrea/mil-
military>(version current as of 02 Oct 2008).
13
Law on voluntary military service for women (194/1995)
14
Finnish Defence Forces, Naiset armeijassa.
15
Finnish Defence Forces,2005 pp. 10–11.
12

military service). The history of women in the Finnish military is, however, far longer
than just since 1995. During the Finnish Civil War, the Reds had several Naiskaarti
(Women's Guard) units made of voluntary 16 to 35 year old women, who were given
rudimentary military training. They fought alongside with men, and were known for their
ferociousness, on occasion forcing even German regulars to retreat. After the Civil War the
reactions on women in military were ambivalent: on one hand, the fighting women of the
Reds were shunned, but also admired and compared to the Amazons of old". The Finnish
National Guard Suojeluskunta founded the female organization, Lotta Svärd in November
1918. While the Lottas were not front line fighting units per sé, as a paramilitary
organization they handled several important second-line duties freeing men to the actual
fighting service. A voluntary Lotta unit manned a searchlight battery of Finnish in defence of
Helsinki in 194416
. After the Continuation War, Lotta Svärd was declared a "paramilitary
organization" and absolved in 194417
. In 1961, the Finnish Defence Forces started to enlist
females for second-line duties. The duties available to women were radar operator and sea-
control person. In 1994, the female enlisted were given the same status as military persons
as the male enlisted. At the same time, the women who had undergone the voluntary
military service received the possibility to be recruited for all military careers. In the
beginning of the year 2007, the term enlisted (värvätty) was changed to NCO (aliupseeri) to
better recognize the change in the duties of this personnel group. The female enlistees who
had not undertaken military service were grandfathered. They remain in the rank of enlistee
unless they complete the conscript NCO course. The non-combat duties in Finnish Defence
Forces Peace-keeping operations opened to women in 1991. At first, the women without
previous military training experienced rather large problems in the Finnish peace-keeping
units, most remarkably in the Republic of Macedonia in mid-1990s. Since the introduction of
the voluntary military service, the women have mostly the same training as the men which
have lessened the problems. Only a handful of women without military training, mostly
nurses or social service personnel, are serving with the Finnish peace-keeping forces. All
duties in Finnish foreign operations are open to women, provided they have the necessary
military training18
.
France
A study (December 2006)19
showed that women represent 19% of all French military
personnel. They are allowed to serve in all posts (including combat infantry), except
submarines and riot control Gendarmerie. However, they still represent a small part of the
16
Ibid
17
Ibid
18
Ibid.
19
SGA. Internet www page at URL:< http://www.defense.gouv.fr/portal_repository/ 485447897 __0004
/fichier/getData>(version current as of 02 Oct 2008).
13

personnel in the following specialties: combat, security, mechanics, especially within the
infantry and marines (only 337 - 1.7% - combat infantry soldiers and 9 - 0.4% - marines are
female).
Germany
Since the creation of the Bundeswehr in 1955, Germany had employed one of the
most conservative gender-policies of any NATO country. That was generally regarded as a
reaction of the deployment of young women at the end of World War II. Though women
were exempt from direct combat functions in accordance with Nazi-ideology, several
hundred thousand German women, along with young boys and sometimes girls (as
Flakhelfer), served in Luftwaffe artillery units; their flak shot down thousands of Allied
warplanes.20
In the year 1975 the first women were appointed for the medical service of the
German Bundeswehr. In 1994 Verena von Weymarn accomplished the grade "Surgeon
General of the Air Force". However, it was not until January 2001 that women first joined
German combat units, following a court ruling by the European Court of Justice. The
change in the law was prompted after a female electronics operative argued her case to the
European Court of Justice. The court ruled that preventing women from occupying combat
roles in the armed forces was against sexual equality principles. 244 of the first 1,900
women who signed up following the law change were admitted on the first day of the new
rules, the majority of them joining the army and air force21
. Before the law change 4,400
women only occupied medical or musical roles within the German armed forces. The new
legislations initially did not receive full military support. Like many countries who have
accepted women into combat roles, Germany conducts special courses on preventing
sexual harassment.22
After several years of experience the commotion inside the
Bundeswehr has now remarkably decreased. Today women are regularly being sent to
foreign deployments23
. As of April 2008 about 15,200 female soldiers serve in the
Bundeswehr, representing a share of 8 percent of all troops except conscripted soldiers.
The German Bundeswehr now expects the percentage of all female personnel to rise to
about 15 percent in the middle-term future. It was recently released that the first woman in
the German air force received her jet fighter licence24
. Handfuls more are flying helicopters
and transport planes.
20
D'Ann Campbell, "Women in Combat: The World War Two Experience in the United States, Great Britain,
Germany, and the Soviet Union" Journal of Military History (April 1993), 57:301-323.
21
Women join the Defence Forces. Internet www page at URL:< http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world /europe/
1097492.stm >(version current as of 02 Oct 2008).
22
Ibid.
23
Germany Marks Five Years of Women in Armed Forces. Internet www page at URL:< http://www.dw-
world.de/dw/article/0,2144,1842630,00.html >(version current as of 02 Oct 2008).
24
First woman to attain air force qualification as jet pilot. Internet www page at URL:<
http://www.bundesregierung.de/nn_6562/Content/EN/Artikel/2006/09/2006-09-26-erste-frau-im-
jet-cockpit__en.html>(version current as of 02 Oct 2008).
14

Israel
Several women transport pilots served in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and 1956 Suez
War, but later the Air Force closed its ranks to female pilots. Both men and women are
conscripted for Israel defence forces. Most women serve in non-combat positions, and are
conscripted for less than two years (instead of three for men). However, they were largely
barred from combat until a landmark high court appeal in 1994, which forced the Air Force
to accept women air cadets. As of 2002, 33% of lower rank officers are women, 21% of
Captains and Majors, and 3% of the most senior ranks.25
In 2001, Israel's first female
combat pilot received her wings. Until 2005, up to 83% of positions in the Israeli army were
open to women, and today, they serve in combat positions in the Artillery, frontier guards
and on Navy ships. Combat duty is voluntary for women. Women serve in combat
support and light combat roles in the Artillery Corps, infantry units and armored
divisions. A few platoons, named Karakal Unit Karakal, were formed, in which men
and women serve together in light infantry on the borders with Egypt and Jordan.
Karakal became a brigade in 2004.26
The IDF abolished its "Women's Corps"
command in 2001, with a view that it had become an anachronism and an obstacle
towards integration of women in the army as regular soldiers with no special status.
However, after pressures from lobbies, The Chief of Staff was persuaded to keep an
"adviser for women's affairs". Female soldiers now fall under the authority of
individual units based on jobs and not on gender. This was the first time since 1948
that women were involved in field operations alongside men. Airborne helicopter
engineer Sergeant-Major (res.) Keren Tendler became the first female combat
soldier to be killed in action27
.
Libya
Libya is the only Islamic nation to have women in the military28
. The 200-strong unit
is Kadaffi personal bodyguard and is called variously the "Green Nuns" and "The
Amazonian Guard" or more commonly in Libya The Revolutionary Nuns.
New Zealand
25
Gelfond Feldinger, Lauren Gelfond (2008-09-21). Skirting History, Jerusalem Post. Internet www page at
URL:< http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite? pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%
2FShowFull&cid=1221489069566>(version current as of 30 Sep 2008).
26
Ibid.
27
Ibid.
28
Tao of defiance: Gadhafi’s Angels: The Green Nuns of the Revolution. Internet www page at URL:<
http://www.taoofdefiance.com/2007/06/01/gadhafis-angels-the-green-nuns-of-the-
revolution/>(version current as of 02 Oct 2008).
15

New Zealand has no restrictions on roles for women in its defence force. They are
able to serve in the Special Air Service, infantry, armour and artillery. This came into effect
in 2001 by subordinate legislation.
Nepal
Peoples Liberation Army, the armed forces of the CPN(M) have a 30% female
participation quota for their combat forces, and frequently claim 40% actual participation29
. A
proposal of a 40% female combat troop quota in the future Nepal Army has been frequently
forwarded publicly by Maoist leaders during their peace negotiations with the current
government.
Norway
Women in Norway have been able to fill military roles since 1938, and during the
Second World War both enlisted women and female officers served in all branches of the
military. However in 1947 political changes commanded that women only serve in civilian
posts, with reservists allowing women to join them in 1959. Between 1977 and 1984, the
Norwegian Parliament passed laws expanding the role of women in the Norwegian Armed
Forces, and in 1985 equal opportunities legislation was applied to the military. Norwegian
women are permitted to serve on a voluntary basis, however in the event of national
mobilization they will be under the same pressures as men. However, women who have not
undergone military training will not be asked to serve in a military capacity, but rather in a
civilian capacity. In 1995, Norway became the first country to allow women to serve on its
military Submarines, and to this date, there has been at least one female commander of a
Norwegian submarine. The first was Solveig Krey in 1995.30
The Norwegian government has set a target of 15% of their armed forces to consist
of women by 2008, from the 2006 value of 6.6%31
. This aim is accompanied by efforts to
increase the awareness of sexual exploitation and gender issues within the armed forces.
All women aged 18-20 years are given the opportunity to attend national conscription
selection. The number of women having the military as a career - as opposed to women
volunteering for military service as conscripts - was as follows:
• Army - 132.
• Navy - 115.
29
United We Blog! For a Democratic Nepal » Maoist Army in Writing: Interview With Comrade Commissar.
Internet www page at URL:< http://www.blog.com.np/united-we-blog/2006/07/04/maoist-army-in-writing-
interview-with-comrade-commissar/#more-1060>(version current as of 02 Oct 2008).
30
NATO Review. Internet www page at URL:< http://www.nato.int/docu/review /2002/issue4/english
/interview.html>(version current as of 02 Oct 2008).
31
Ibid.
16

• Air Force - 83.
• Home Guard - 13.
• Logistics - 111.
The highest rank currently attained by a woman in the Norwegian armed forces is
that of Rear Admiral.
Poland
Women have taken part in the battles for independence against occupiers and
invaders since at least the time of the Napoleonic Wars. During the occupation by the Nazi,
1939-1945, several thousand women took part in the resistance movement as members of
the Home Army. The Germans were forced to establish special Prisoner-of-war camp after
the Warsaw Rising in 1944 to accommodate over a thousand women prisoners.32
In April
1938 the law requiring compulsory military service for men included provisions for voluntary
service of women in auxiliary roles, in the medical services, in the anti-aircraft artillery and in
communications. In 1939 a Women's Military Training Organization was established under
the command of Maria Wittek. In present Poland a law passed 6 April 2004 requires all
women with college Nursing or Veterinary degrees to register for compulsory service. In
addition, it allows women to volunteer and serve as professional personnel in all services of
the army. As of 30 June 2007 there are 800 women in the army, of which 471 are officers,
308 non-commissioned officers and 21 other ranks, in addition 225 are in military training
schools33
.
Russia
Women have had the legal right to serve in the Russian Armed Forces throughout
the post Second World War period, with many all-female units existing as far back as World
War One. By the early 1990’s, 100,000 women made up 3% of the Russian Armed Forces,
with the current tally standing at around 115,000 to 160,000, representing 10% of Russia’s
military strength. During the First World War, heavy defeats led to the loss of millions of
Russian soldiers. To psychologically energize morale Alexander Kerensky (leader of Russia
after the February Revolution) ordered the creation of the Woman’s Death Battalion in May
1917. After three months of fighting, the size of this all-female unit fell from 2000 to 25034
. In
November 1917, the Bolsheviks dissolved the unit. During the Second World War, the
Soviet Union had a female military strength of over one million women who served as
32
Women in Home Army. Internet www page at URL:< http://www.polishresistance-ak.org/12%20
Article.html>(version current as of 02 Oct 2008).
33
Women in Polish Army. Internet www page at URL:< http://www.kadry.wp.mil.pl/ artykul.php? idartykul=20" o
>(version current as of 02 Oct 2008).
34
Women’s Death Battalion. Internet www page at URL:< http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/
Wdeath.html>(version current as of 02 Oct 2008).
17

snipers, machine gunners, and tank crewmembers. Very few of these women, however,
were ever promoted to officers. In 1942 the Soviet Union formed three regiments of
women combat pilots to fly night bombing missions over Germany. These women took part
in regular harassment bombing against the Germans in Polikarpov Po-2 biplanes, and
participated in the final onslaught against Berlin. The regiments, collectively known to the
Germans as the "Nachthexen" ("Night Witches "), flew more than 24,000 sorties and won in
total 23 Hero of the Soviet Union medals. Some of the most talented women pilots were
assigned day fighter duties. Lydia Litvyak and Katya Budanova became fighter aces flying
the Soviet Union's best fighter designs alongside men in day attacks. Both were killed in
their aircraft. Meanwhile, in the ground combat role Lyudmila Pavlichenko, one of the many
female snipers of the Soviet Army, made 309 confirmed kills including 36 enemy snipers. In
1967, the Russian Universal Military Duty Laws concluded that women offered the greater
source of available combat soldiers during periods of large scale mobilisation. Thus, several
programs during the height of the cold war were set up to encourage women to enlist.
Participation in military orientated youth programs and forced participation in the reserves
for ex-servicewomen up to the age of 40 are some examples. Universities contained
reservist officer training which accompanied a place in the reserves themselves.
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka Air Force (SLAF) was the first service of the Sri Lankan military to allow
women to serve, accepting female recruits to the Sri Lanka Volunteer Air Force in 1972.
The Sri Lanka Army followed in 1979 with the establishment of the Sri Lanka Army
Women's Corps. The Sri Lankan Army Women's Corps (SLAWC) was formed in 1980
as an unarmed, non-combatant support unit. Enlistment entailed a five-year service
commitment (the same as for men), and recruits were not allowed to marry during
this period. In the sixteen-week training course at the Army Training Centre at
Diyatalawa, cadets were put through a program of drill and physical training similar
to the men's program, with the exception of weapons and battle craft training.
Women recruits were paid according to the same scale as the men, but were limited
to service in nursing, communications, and clerical work. In late 1987, the first class
of women graduates from the Viyanini Army Training Center were certified to serve
as army instructors. Since then, each service for both administrative and practical reasons
has maintained separate units for women. These are the SLAWC and the SLAF Women's
Wing; the Sri Lanka Navy does not have a specific name for women's units. Women were
first admitted into the navy in 1985. New recruits were given six weeks of training
with the Sri Lankan Army Women's Corps. Although they were trained in the use of
18

weapons, they were not assigned to combat positions or shipboard duty. Instead,
they assisted in nursing, communications, stores, and secretarial work. In order to
maintain discipline, all three services have women Military police attached to their
respective military police/provost corps35
.
Currently, female personnel of all three services play an active part in ongoing
operations. However, there are certain limitations in 'direct combat' duties such as Special
Forces, pilot branch, naval fast attack squadrons. These are only a few restrictions; female
personnel have been tasked with many front line duties and attached to combat units such
as Paratroops, Sri Lanka Air Force Regiment, as well as undertaken support services such
as Control tower, Electronic warfare, radio material teletypewriters, Auto mechanic, Assault
Support, Cryptographers, Physician, Combat medic, Lawyers, Combat engineering and
Aerial photography. In the female personnel were at first limited to the medical branch,
however currently both lady officers and female rates are able to join any branch of service
including the executive branch. With the escalation of the Sri Lankan civil war, many female
personnel have come under enemy fire both directly and indirectly thus taking many
casualties including fatalities. As of 2008 there where three female officers of the rank of
Major General and one Commodore. The Department of Civil Defence (Sri Lanka, formerly
the Sri Lanka Home Guard, has been open to women recruits since 1988. In 1993, these
guardswomen were issued firearms and deployed to protect their home towns and villages
against attacks by LTTE terrorists. As a result, there have been many casualties (including
fatalities) from attacks.
Sweden
Since 1989 there are no gender restrictions in the Swedish military on access to
military training or positions. They are allowed to serve in all parts of the military and in all
positions, including combat36
.
Thailand
Thailand has recently begun recruiting and training women to conduct counter-
insurgency operations37
. Study conducted on the efficacy of women soldiers in counter
insurgency it has been substantially established that they are better in doing the talking.
35
Jone Johnson Lewis,1980, Sri Lankan Army Women's Corps Encyclopedia of Women's History. Internet www
page at URL:< http://womenshistory.about.com/library/ ency/blwh_sri_lanka_women_military.htm> (version
current as of 02 Oct 2008)
36
Internet www page at URL:< http://www.rekryc.mil.se/article.php?id=11756> (version current as of 02 Oct
2008).
37
Thailand Women in Army. Internet www page at URL:< http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/ asiapcf/03/
18/thailand.women.ap/> (version current as of 02 Oct 2008)
19

Male soldiers demure of being tough and aggressive gives an edge to women go and talk,
which results in people to be more relaxed.
United States
The first American woman soldier was Deborah Sampson of Massachusetts. She
enlisted as a Continental Army soldier under the name of "Robert Shurtlief". She served for
three years in the Revolutionary War and was wounded twice; During the Civil War, Sarah
Rosetta Wakeman enlisted under the alias of Private Lyons Wakeman. She served in the
153rd Regiment, New York State Volunteers. In the history of women in the military, there
are records of female U.S. Revolutionary and Civil War soldiers who enlisted using male
pseudonyms. Women's Army Corps was established in the United States in 1941. However,
political pressures stalled the waylaid attempts to create more roles for women in the
American Armed Forces. Women saw combat during World War II, first as nurses in the
Pearl Harbor attacks on 7 December 1941. The WAVES and United States Marine Corps
Women's Reserve were also created during this conflict. In July 1943, a bill was signed
removing ‘auxiliary’ from the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps, making it an official part of the
regular army. In 1944 WACs arrived in the Pacific and landed in Normandy on D-Day.
During the war, 67 Army nurses and 16 United States Navy Nurse Corps were captured and
spent three years as Japanese prisoners of war. Approximately 350,000 American women
served during World War II and 16 were killed in action; in total, they gained over 1,500
medals, citations and commendations.
After World War II, demobilization led to the vast majority of serving women being
returned to civilian life. Law 625, Women's Armed Services Integration Act of 1948, was
signed by Harry S. Truman, allowing women to serve in the armed forces in fully integrated
units during peace time, with only the WAC remaining a separate female unit. During the
Korean War of 1950–1953, many women served in the Mobile Army Surgical Hospital, with
women serving in Korea numbering 120,000 during the conflict. In the Vietnam War 600
women served in the country as part of the Air Force, along with 500 members of the WAC,
and over 6000 medical personnel and support staff. America’s involvement in Grenada in
1983 saw over 200 women serving; however, none of these took part in direct combat.
Some women, such as Lt Col Eileen Collins and Lt Celeste Hayes, flew transport aircraft
carrying wounded or assault teams, however they were not deemed to have been in direct
combat. Several hundred women also took part in operations in Panama in 1989, though
again in non-combat roles. On 20 Dec 1989, Capt Linda L. Bray, 29, became the first
woman to command American soldiers in battle, during the United States invasion of
Panama. She was assigned to lead a force of 30 men and women MPs to capture a kennel
holding guard dogs that was defended by elements of the Panamanian Defense force.
20

The 1991 Gulf War proved to be the pivotal time for the role of women in the
American Armed forces to come to the attention of the world media. A senior woman pilot at
the time, Colonel Kelly Hamilton, commented that "[t]he conflict was an awakening for the
people in the US. They suddenly realised there were a lot of women in the military." Over
40,000 women served in almost every role the armed forces had to offer. However, while
many came under fire, they were not permitted to participate in deliberate ground
engagements. Despite this, there are many reports of women engaging enemy forces
during the conflict.38
Today, women can serve on American combat ships, including in
command roles. However women are not permitted to serve on submarines or to participate
in Special Forces programs such as Navy Seals. Women enlisted soldiers are barred from
serving in Infantry, Special Operations, Artillery, Armour, and Forward Air Defence, however
female officers can hold staff positions in every branch of the army except infantry and
armor. Women can fly military aircraft and make up 2% of all pilots in the US military. So far
the position closest to combat open to women in the U.S. Army are in the Military Police,
where women man machine-guns on armoured Humvees, guarding truck convoys.
Although Army regulations bar women from infantry assignments, some female MPs are
detailed to accompany male infantry units to handle search and interrogation of Iraqi
suspects. The case United States v. Virginia, in which the Supreme Court ordered that
the Virginia Military Institute allow women to register as cadets, gave women soldiers a
weapon against laws which (quoting J. Ruth Bader Ginsburg) “[deny] to women, simply
because they are women, full citizenship stature—equal opportunity to aspire, achieve,
participate in and contribute to society.” As of now there are fifty thousand females serving
in Afghanistan and Iraq. Females make up about fifteen percent of the army. In 2003,
American soldier Jessica Lynch was captured while serving in Iraq. When surrounded by
Iraqi soldiers, she attempted to defend herself, but her M16 rifle jammed. In the same
action, Lori Piestewa, a U.S. soldier, died after driving her Humvee through enemy fire in an
attempt to escape an ambush, earning a Purple Heart. She had just rescued Jessica Lynch,
whose vehicle had crashed. In a recent scandal, U.S Army Reservists Lynndie England
and Sabrina Harman were convicted by Court martial of Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner
abuse at Abu Ghraib prison. SGT Leigh Ann Hester became the first woman to receive the
Silver Star, the third-highest US decoration for valour, for direct participation in combat.
Female medical personnel had been awarded the same medal, but not for actual combat.
Slovenia
38
Internet www page at URL:< http://userpages.aug.com/captbarb/femvetsds.html.> version current
as of 02 Oct 2008
21

Slovenia became an independent state in 1971 and inducted women in its armed
forces soon after. Presently, women account for 18 percent of the total strength of the
Slovenian Army.
Pakistan
Like all Islamic states, Pakistan does not permit women in the armed forces. It is
feared that women would create distraction and cause disruption of internal order. There is
also a great deal of concern for the safety of women from the organisational environment
itself.
Chapter Three
INDIAN EXPERIENCE OF WOMEN IN ARMED FORCES
Introduction
Despite the historical disruptions and distortions caused by rulers and invaders
belonging to other civilizations, the Indian civilisation can boast of not only equality between
two sexes but also much beyond as far as the emancipation of women is concerned.
Women in India have in fact been conferred superior status. In this country, Sita prefixes
Ram and Radha prefixes Krishna. Even Gods could not appease the beautiful and
benevolent Goddess Durga in her fury. Women in India have taken-up arms in times of
grave necessity. The Rani of Jhansi and Ahilya Bai are just a few examples. The
contribution of the women in freedom struggle was extraordinary. In fact, it served as a
means for rejuvenation of Indian women who had been compelled to take a back seat due
to some unpalatable forces of history. Having confidence in ones own civilization, demands
that women in emerging India must display their civilisational ingenuity in determining their
future role in nation building.
No other region in the world has produced as many heads of state prime ministers
as South Asia. It is essentially the impact of Indian civilisation that Sri Lanka threw up the
22

first women Prime Minister in the World i.e. Sirimavo Bhandarniake, who was elected in
1960 and dominated the country’s politics for nearly two decades. Seven years later, India
had its own woman Prime Minister Mrs Indira Gandhi. Had it not been for the Indian
influence, Islamic Pakistan and Bangladesh could never have produced women prime
ministers. Mrs Benazir Bhutto in Pakistan, and Begam Sheikh Hasina and later Begam
Zia (the current prime minister) in Bangladesh became prime ministers in face of
stiff opposition from the fundamentalists and religious clergy. Till date this has not
been replicated in USA which boasts of being the largest democracy in the world.
UK with its long history of democracy has had only one woman Prime Minister.
The Indian Experience of Women in Armed Forces
Women officers have been in the armed forces for about 80 years and served with
competence and distinction. They were inducted in the Military Nursing Service in 1927 and
in the Medical Officers Cadre since 1943. Induction of women officers in other branches in
the three Services started only in 1992. The recruitment drive to employ women in the
officer cadre was adopted on experimental basis in keeping with the challenging times and
trends to make up for the steep shortage of officers in the armed forces.39
With the
introduction of Women's Special Entry Scheme (WSES), recruitment of women in the non-
medical cadre as Short Service Commissioned (SSE) officers started for the minimum
period of five years, extendable to fourteen years of reckonable service at present.40
Eligible women have to qualify through various tests successfully and undergo pre-
commissioning training at the Officer's Training Academy for the Army and its equivalent
institutions for the Navy and the Air Force for the period of 24 weeks. On successful
completion of pre commission training they are inducted into the non-combat wings of the
armed forces as short-service commissioned service officers.
Presently, there are 1072 women officers in the Indian Army excluding Army
Medical Services. They are inducted into Engineers, Signals, Army Service Corps,
Ordnance, Education, Intelligence, Legal Branch and EME (Corps of Electrical and
Mechanical Engineers. In the Air Force, women are eligible to fill all vacancies in
branches of Ground Duties and transport and helicopter stream of the flying
branches. The current strength of women officers in IAF including Medical Services is 793.
Of these, 63 are from the Flying Branch, 132 from the Technical Branch, 126 from the
Medical and Dental Branch and the remaining from the Non-Technical Ground Duty
39
They Serve With Flying Colours, Minakshi Dr, Femina India, 01 May 2000, Pg 75.
40
Wing Commander TP Hariprased-(Retd), Should We Shun Women in the Armed Forces?, Internet www
page at URL:< http://www.expressindia.com > version current as of 02 Oct 2008.
23

Branches. In the Flying Branch, women officers have been flying AN-32, Avro and Dornier
aircrafts in the transport stream. There are plans of induction in advanced non combat
platforms like IL-76 transport aircraft. In the Indian Navy, women were inducted as officers
in the Education branch, Logistics and Law Cadres of the Executive Branch from
1992. In 1993, approval was also accorded for induction of women in the ATC cadre.
Women officers are however, presently not being posted to serve afloat. The present design
of ships, congested living conditions do not allow a mix crew onboard ships. The rest of the
training patterns are same as those for male officers. Women officers have not found any
major difficulty in adapting to the naval environment and their performance has been
satisfactory. At present, there are 258 women officers in the Indian Navy.
In the Armed Forces Medical Services, there are about 752 lady Medical
Officers, 86 lady Dental Officers and 2834 members of the All Women Military
Nursing Service. Out of the 752 lady Medical Officers, 490 are permanent
commission officers. Similarly, 38 % of lady Dental officers and 90% members of the
MNS hold the Permanent Commission.The details of women officer in various
services of the armed forces is given in Table No -1.
Table No - 141
WOMEN IN INDIAN ARMED FORCES
S.
No
Indian
Armed
Forces
Number
of
Women
Offrs
Total
Number of
Offrs
Percent Offr
left in
last 3
years
Branches
(a) Army 1072 35400 3.03 141 Electrical and Mechanical
Engineers (EME), Signals,
Army Education Corps (AEC),
Army Ordnance Corps(AOC),
Army Service Corps (ASC)
Intelligence and Judge
Advocate Generals Branch
(JAG) .
(b) Navy 258 8030 3.21 37 All branches of Navy except
Submarines and Divers.
(c) Air
Force
667 10560 6.31 111 Flying (Transport Aircraft and
Helicopters), Technical
Accounts, Administrative,
Education, Logistics and
Meteorology branches.
41
This information was given by the Defence Minister Shri AK Antony in a written reply to Smt Jyotirmoyee
Sikdar and others in Lok Sabha on 29 August, 2007.Women Officers In Defence Forces, Press Information
Bureau, Government of India, Ministry of Defence.
24

(Source: Indian Armed Forces)
Recently in a path – breaking development, permanent commission to
women has been permitted in branches and cadres of the three services, which do
not entail direct combat or possibility of physical contact with enemy. The branches
where permanent commission would be granted include Judge Advocate General,
Army Education Corps and its corresponding branches in Navy and Air Force,
Accounts Branch of the Air Force and Naval Constructor of the Navy. The
selection will be based on a common merit and eligibility criteria, which would be
decided by each Service Headquarters.42
The Armed Forces plans to induct
permanent commission women only into Army Education Corps and Judge
Advocate General as of now since they do not "involve command and control of
men", apart from "any special expertise" other than degrees in law or education.43
Motives or Causes for Induction of Women in Armed Forces
Most of the officers are of either the opinion that the induction of women into
the Indian Armed Forces was not done from the 'need for survival' motive (as is in a
country like Israel) or the 'socio-cultural-acceptance' motive (as is in Western
countries). In our nation, we have no dearth of men who are more than willing to
become soldiers and our nation is not in a constant war for sheer survival where
every citizen's services would become essential for the security of the country.
Further, our socio-cultural structure is not liberal enough at present to accommodate
the close interaction of the sexes at the most sensitive of professional spaces ie the
battlefield, where male bonding is the essence of the fighting spirit.44
There seems to
be a direct correlation between cause and effect, which is indeed essential for the
satisfactory fulfilment of all goals. This being the case, women are at present
recruited into the Services for a minimum of five years with an extension of other
five and four years. By that time most would have achieved the rank of a Maj or Lt
Cdr or Sqn Ldr, in the three Services.
42
“Women Officers of Armed Forces to get Permanent Commission in Select Branches”, Press Information
Bureau, Government of India, Ministry of Defence, 26 September, 2008.
43
Pandit Rajat, “National Defence Academy may let in women cadets” , Times of India,/TNN, 6 Aug 2008,
44
Apart from this, there are many myths attached to having a woman on or near the battlefield.
For example, the Times of India of 10 January 2001 stated in a lead story on the first page
entitled, "The Cost of a Soldier's Survival", about the Saichen Glacier: "strangely the
presence of women is considered ominous here, since a woman's visit always brings bad luck,
according to popular legend. Last August, a few soldiers were wounded soon after a lady
doctor visited the Siachen Base Camp. Earlier on April 13, one soldier was killed and 13
wounded in Pakistani shelling when a lady had similarly visited this place." If these kinds of
myths prevail, gender bias can never be removed. Mind' sets can be changed only if legends
that encourage disparities are demystified.
25

Causes for induction of women into the Indian Armed
Forces
Most of the officers especially the senior officers agree that whether men or women,
most officers should be weeded out within 10 to 12 years. Due to prevailing national
security situation between 1962 and 1973, there was unprecedented high intake of officers
who were granted emergency commission. As a result, there are too many senior officers at
one point of time. The AV commission on cadre review has appreciated this situation and it
has recommended increase of short service commission with simultaneous reduction of
permanent commission officers. Taking the view of recommendation of the AV commission
the 6th
pay Commission has also recommended horizontal shifting at appropriate levels into
the PMF like BSF (Border Security Force), CRPF (Central Reserve Police Force) or into the
Cabinet Secretariat. Thus, by commissioning women for a maximum of fourteen years both
the purposes are achieved. The Constitution is notionally upheld and the Services are
helped.
The Role of Women in the Armed Forces
Role of Women in the armed forces (sociological as well as occupational) is a function
of interplay between cultural forces (values, norms, beliefs, attitudes) and other factors
such as technological change, demographic patterns, occupational structures, labour
shortages and the goal of military effectiveness. The critically important issues are those of
practical consequences and they are thoroughly dependent on empirical understanding.
The Indian Armed Forces have visualised a role for women only in the officer cadre and in
limited occupational specialties. They are granted commission restrictively in combat
support arms and services only. In the officer cadre too, they are offered only an initial
compulsory contractual tenure of five years extendable to a maximum term of fourteen
years. Recent policy changes have opened permanent commission to officers very few
restricted specialities. These changes would require a gestation of 10 to 12 years to take
practical shape on ground. At present, women are found in the following cadre:-
Army: Signals, ASC (Army Service Corps), AMC (Army Medical Corps), AOC (Army
Ordnance Corps), JAG (Judge Advocate General), AEC (Army Education Corps),
26
NOTIONAL
(Idealism)
Fulfilment of the constitutional
guarantee of equality in
employment for all
PRACTICAL
(Pragmatism)
Need for young officers to fill till
major level rank or equivalent in
the other Services

Looked upon as a Career
Women who opt for a career in the Services look upon it professionally,
with dedication and commitment to hard work. Generally between the
ages of 19 to 27.
Intelligence Corps.
Air Force : Flying, Technical (Aeronautical Engineering), Administration and Logistics,
Accounts, Education and Meteorology.
Navy: Law, Logistics, ATC (Air Traffic Control) and Education.
The women have not been allowed in specialities where combat role or direct
contact with the enemy is envisaged. It is only in the Air Force that women are flying planes
even into danger zones.
Impact of Induction of Women in Armed Forces
The Indian experience has been too short to facilitate conclusive appraisal. The
initial feedback of impact has been varied. New insights are being gained into the complete
gamut of related issues. Four categories of people are intimately connected with women’s
presence in the services – women officers themselves, their commanding officers,
colleague male officers and the soldiers. Their views and response form the cornerstone
while moulding HR model for future.
Women Officers
Women normally are commissioned at the age of 23 to 25 years. Many woman
officers in all the three Services agreed that joining the armed forces was a great
accomplishment for them. While some joined because they wanted to prove to their
parents that they could, others felt inspired by the aura of the armed forces. Most
felt that people looked up to them, in their family and friends circle as well as people
at large. The uniform gave them a special respect. After few years, family pressures
start building up on them to get married. Many women confess that managing
married life with military service is difficult, though marrying a service officer helps.
Subsequent pregnancy and motherhood prove very demanding and at times almost
impossible. Women who are mentally robust, physically fit and highly motivated resent
preferential treatment being meted out to them. They want to be treated at par with their
male colleagues so that they get a fair opportunity to prove their worth. They demand same
selection criteria, same training standards and same work schedules. They do not want to
be treated as weaklings as it offends their sensitivities and self-respect. They take exception
to some women seeking kid-glove treatment to escape hardships.
27

Marriage + Career
For the initial three of the first commission of five years, the enthusiasm is
extremely high. But the strenuous job requirements (includes posting in
field areas, particularly in high risk areas, night duties, a sustained
physical stamina, non-family postings or separated postings between the
couple who are both in the Services etc.) begin to disillusion the women
officers from the third year onwards and many leave after the initial five
years, particularly if by then they have got married.
Marriage Career
Can pull the women emotionally and physically in two different directions,
pressurising women officers to opt for one of the two. Family generally
takes precedence, as is often the case in the civilian workforce as well,
though perhaps with not so much intensity.
However, most of the women opting for a career in the services belong to families
where their upbringing has been in a highly sheltered environment. A career in the military
is at the other extreme. They admit having limited knowledge of military life at the time of
joining. Subsequently, life in the military comes as a big shock to them. While some adapt to
it well others find the task to be too daunting. Additionally, many women officers are unsure
of their identity - they want to be officers and yet be given the deference of service wives. It
has been a cause for despair for many.
Commanding Officers
The first posting of all newly commissioned officers is to their assigned units. It is for
the Commanding Officers (COs) to induct, mould and employ them. Therefore, views of
COs carry utmost importance as they indicate an objective appraisal of actual position on
ground. Most of the COs finds women officers to be highly committed and sincere. They
admire them for their enthusiasm despite the environmental difficulties faced by them.
Safety of women under their command becomes their primary concern and they find it quite
taxing, especially in field areas. The second common problem faced by them relates to their
useful employment. CO of an engineer regiment recounted, “My unit was in Punjab when a
young lady officer was posted to it. Soon thereafter, the unit was ordered to move to
insurgency affected Poonch area. I did not know how to employ her and where to house
28

her. Ultimately, I had to send her on long leave to tide over the problem.” Another CO of a
services unit said – “All young officers have to train, exercise and play games with their
respective platoons. They are also required to visit troops’ barracks at lights-out to ensure
that all mosquito nets are down and even check the cleanliness of latrines. I could not ask
or expect the lady officer to do any of these duties”. By turn, every officer is detailed as a
duty officer and has to visit the Quarter Guard and all sentry posts at midnight to ensure
their alertness. All unit commanders rue the fact that lady officers cannot be assigned any of
these duties. Thus, the male officers have to undertake additional workload, which is
resented by them. The recent increase in women’s service has added a new dimension. At
14 years of service, a women officer will be second in command of a unit and at times has
to officiate as its commanding officer. In an Engineer or Signal unit, women officers will be
an advisor to the Divisional Commander. Without having commanded a platoon or a
company and without having attended essential professional courses, it will be unfair to
expect her to be able to deliver the goods. Some COs also expressed concern about the
physical fitness of women officers and their being highly prone to back problems, pelvic
injuries and stress fractures. Many COs showed reluctance to have women under them due
to concern for their safety and dignity. They also tend to be over-cautious in assigning
duties to them lest they be exposed to any harm.
Male Colleagues
Almost all male colleagues admire women officers for their courage and
determination. They understand and appreciate challenges faced by them in trying to adapt
to an environment that is male dominated. However, they want the women officers to do
their share of work and duties. They resent preferential treatment given to their women
colleague. One officer was outspoken enough to state – “They have joined the military on
the plank of equality of sexes but this plank vanishes the day they join the training academy.
Thereafter, they again become the weaker sex needing special dispensations.” An officer
recounted that a lady officer posted to an Ordnance Depot declined to carry out periodic
stocktaking of stores lying in isolated sheds unless provided with escort for security. Other
officers had to do her job. When told about women making up shortage of male officers,
most young officers scoff at the speciousness of the argument. According to them, there is
no shortage of male volunteers to join the services but the required numbers of candidates
do not come up to the standards laid down. In army there is a concept of field and peace
postings. Every officer looks forward to a good peace posting to be with his family and sort
out family issues. But a large number of peace postings at junior officers’ level are held by
the women, thereby depriving male officers of their due share. It has become a sore point
with many.
29

Soldiers
Most soldiers view women’s induction as a fall-out of Government policies and
generally take it lightly. They are convinced that women can never lead them effectively.
Some Junior Commissioned Officers were blunt enough to state – “An officer, who cannot
run with us, cannot train with us and cannot exercise with us can barely be expected to lead
us”. Notwithstanding the above, India is proud of the fact that women in the Indian services
are being treated in a manner befitting their dignity and self respect, despite the fact that the
Indian soldier is drawn from rustic stock where women to date are confined to household
chores. In this regard, India can rightfully claim to have a record, which is far better than that
of any advanced nation in the world.
Summarising the sentiments expressed, it appears that since the Services have
only seen the presence of men (except on the medical side), gentlemen officers have an
attitude problem which prevents some of them from accepting ladies amongst them as co-
officers. The fact that the men have the choice of a permanent commission gives them a
professional security and though they might perceive the woman officers as a threat, yet it
is only a short-term one. Whereas for those women officers to whom a career in the
Services is what they want to do in life, the sense of job insecurity is like a Damocles
Sword hanging over their heads. Many don't know exactly what they will do after having
served in a career which is a high commitment and high risk one and gives them prestige,
status and perks that would no longer be there once they leave the service. Further, the
social-cultural pattern of patriarchal domination prevents the men officers from accepting
woman officers as social equals. Traits that are chauvinistically associated by men for
women in society are piled upon the woman officers as well. As one gentleman officer
admitted, "the women officers are generally weaklings, and they are not trusted by us for
tough tasks - perhaps it is psychological, perhaps cultural but we are not used to treating
them as peers!" Another quite disdainfully added, "they come here for the pomp and show
and the moment they find a suitable officer husband they lose interest." However, it is
generally acknowledged that women officers have certain special qualities, which can be
put to very good use in the armed forces. For example, women have administrative
qualities that far outweigh those of men. Their reasoning, patience and commitment are
greater than those of men are. Women officers are also found to be having lots of
confidence, and the motivation to prove themselves is also greater than those of the men.
Of course, it also cannot be overlooked that due to their specific biological needs, like
curtailment of movement during menstruation periods, or marriage and consequent
pregnancy, and the emotional and physical pulls that result when lady officers try
complementing their marriage with the demands of a highly involved career, make it
30

difficult, and at times impossible, for the woman not to buckle under pressure. This results
in women leaving the Services or there having divorces, or women even choosing to
remain unmarried. However, these are elements and situations that are primary to being a
woman and have really nothing to do with only women in the Services. Professional
women in the civilian work force face similar constraints.
Major Issues Experienced
The world scan and our own experience bring to light that women in all militaries are
confronted with social, behavioural and psychological problems at all levels. Own survey,
detailed interaction with women officers and data from many previous surveys carried out
in Indian and armed forces of other developed countries reveal that women are not fully
satisfied with the ethos of military profession. Some of the major issues concerning
women in all armed forces are discussed below.
Sexual Harassment
This is one single concern that has defied solution so far - how to ensure safety and protect
dignity of women in the forces. Almost all women view this as their major fear. Many senior
officers are reluctant to have women subordinates because of their concern for their safety
and dignity. They are over-cautious in assigning duties to them lest they be exposed to any
harm. Most superior officers take it as their personal duty and moral obligation to ensure the
well-being of women in their command, which at times become over demanding. What hurts
women most is the attitude of military officials who dismiss complaints as frivolous and due
to over-sensitivities of women involved. Even serious accusations of sexual assault are
many times treated in a perfunctory manner. In the US, only two to three percent
perpetrators are court-martialled and they are also let off with minimal punishment. The
survey found that majority of troops hold conflicting set of views on sexual harassment.
Some officers pointed out that there is nothing wrong in doing what comes naturally or a bit
of socialising to have some fun. It is not possible for everyone to behave like a saint on
seeing a woman and control the animal instinct. The women also want to attract attention to
themselves and get extremely jealous and aggressive if thing do not play up according to
their wishes. Women object to male behaviour and still want to work with men. There is no
compulsion for women to work in such places where they feel unequal and uncomfortable.
The society knows their culture better and still wants women to work in military in the name
of democracy and equality. If the situation is so grave that without women army is unable to
function then let the jobs be assigned according to ability, aptitude, competence and not
equality. Women also harass men in various forms. In India if a woman raises alarm against
a man in public, the first reaction of passers by will be to slap the man assuming that he
must be at fault. The young male officers feel that proximity on whatever count, women
31

officers use their charm that causes friction between those who are not in similar position.
At times, it is scandalised and viewed with suspicion. Crying of women is disliked by the
man and feeling of emotional blackmail chills their thoughts. Each person has a right to
defend his view; there can be false accusations by either sex. Another area of worry for
male officers is that women can misuse the new legislation being introduced in the
parliament. The nature has created men and women opposite and complementary to each
other and not as equals. Any attempt to overcome or alter nature will bring in problems.
Women officers are of the opinion that males are secretive and devious about their private
lives, but perfectly loud mouthed about other people's lives. Women officers feel that
thought process of Indian male is fantasy ridden because of cultural conditioning. A
few cases of adultery, stealing affection and illicit relations are noticed where both genders
are equal partners. Written complaints are rare. Victims who report sexual harassment
always do so reluctantly. Victimisation keeps complainants away in most cases due to a
variety of reasons. The reasons cited by women officers during interaction and interviews
for non reporting to commanding officer is lack of confidentiality, blame the victim mentality,
fear of career progression due to charge of adultery, women being stuck with icons of purity
in patriarchal society or conduct unbecoming of an officer. Any women filing a case or
speaking out, the public castrates her while the person responsible for the act may face
nominal penalties and stay in service. According to rough estimate, only two percent of the
cases are reported and most of them are settled outside court with culprit apologising for his
behaviour. Harassment inquiry is considered cumbersome and embarrassing by women.
Sometimes, in the worst kind of injustice, the complainant may find herself in the dock
rather than the officer she is accusing of sexual impropriety. In Aug 2008, Captain Poonam
Kaur, a young officer posted in Kalka with a supply and transport unit, accused three of her
superior officers including commanding officers of sexually harassment. According to
admission by Kaur’s lawyer, Colonel RK Agarwal, the court of inquiry (COI) which was
ordered to look into the matter, didn’t really investigate her complaint at all. Instead, he said,
it examined her commanding officers’ counter-allegations. The COI held Kaur guilty on 20
counts, including disobedience. In 2005, the Indian Air Force had its own ‘Kaur moment’.
Flying Officer Anjali Gupta slapped harassment charges against her senior officers but
during COI she couldn’t prove any of them. Gupta was court-martialled for insubordination.45
The American and the British societies are highly emancipated and liberal with
women having equal status in all fields. Yet, the level of sexual harassment of
45
No Unequal Treatment for Women Officers. Internet www page at URL:< http://pragmatic.
nationalinterest .in > version current as of 21 Sep 2008
32

women in their forces is startling.46
Many still recall the shameful Tailhook Incident
of 1991, where naval aviators at their annual convention surrounded over 80 ladies
including 14 women naval officers stripping them and assaulting them sexually.
According to most women, the incident reveals an attitude of contempt towards
women and worse, the military leadership tolerated it. The naval enquiry tried to
downplay the whole incident but the subsequent public uproar forced the US
Government to act tough. A number of senior naval officers were forced to retire.
The finding of a joint survey carried out by the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence
and the Equal Opportunities Commission to determine the nature and extent of
sexual harassment and sexualised behaviour in the British armed forces is at
Appendix ‘C’.47
There are a number of websites where women soldiers from these
developed and emancipated societies exchange their experience and seek
counselling to get over their trauma. Extracts from some of the letters appearing on
the websites are given at Appendix ‘D’.48
46
The US society is highly emancipated and liberal with women having equal status in all walks of life. However,
the recent case of Specialist Suzanne Swift of 54th Military Police Company has traumatised the entire nation
and exposed the degree of ill-treatment meted out to women in the US forces. Swift has declined to serve in Iraq
during her unit’s second tenure of duty there. During her first tenure in Iraq, she was one of three women in her
unit and has accused her superiors of intense sexual harassment using ‘war zone as a pretext’. She has
claimed that she was sexually harassed and assaulted by three sergeants in Iraq. Intense publicity received by
the case has forced the authorities to take a fresh look at the problem that they all knew existed but preferred to
ignore. Sexual harassment and assaults of women soldiers is known to be blatant and quite prevalent. The
Defence Department has conceded that reports of sexual assaults rose 40 percent to 2,374 in 2005. The
extent to which the malaise of sexual harassment pervades can be gauged from the fact that a sexual
harassment hotline set up at Aberdeen received 6,825 calls from women from all branches of the military
in just two months. Many women have been too traumatised to lead a normal life afterwards and need
continuous counselling and medical attention. According to Miles Foundation, a non-profit organisation that
provides service to victims of military violence and advocates stricter implementation of protective laws,
approximately 508 women have complained of sexual assault in the forces since the beginning of Iraq
war in 2003. Due to the ongoing hostilities, rape victims are neither given any medical treatment nor can any
test be carried out in field conditions to collect medical proof of rape for pressing criminal charges. Many women
dread duty in war zone. Several young women prefer to be declared ‘absent without leave’ due to their
fears of sexual assaults. But most of them are too scared to speak out. The case of Colleen Mussolino,
who served as a cook at Women’s Army Corps, is symptomatic of the fear stifling women’s complaints. She was
gang raped, beaten and left for dead. Under continued threats, she ultimately signed an undertaking promising
not to press for prosecution. ‘Command rape’ has come to be accepted as a common phenomenon in the
military. A superior official, under the might of his command authority, can force a subordinate woman
soldier to accede to his sexual demands. Many feel that women in the military are no good as soldiers
and their real value lies in their contribution to keep the organisation in good cheer.
Suman Mrinal Maj Gen (Retd), AVSM, VSM, 04 Jun 2007, Sexual Harassment of Women Soldier in US,
Indian Defence Review, Vol 21.3.
47
Suman Mrinal Maj Gen (Retd), AVSM, VSM, 04 Jun 2007, Findings of the British Equal Opportunities
Commission, Indian Defence Review, Vol 21.3.
48
Suman Mrinal Maj Gen (Retd), AVSM, VSM, 04 Jun 2007, Women Soldiers of Liberated Societies, Indian
Defence Review, Vol 21.3.
33

Indian senior brass takes pride in the fact that there have hardly been any cases of
sexual harassment in the Indian Armed Forces despite the fact that the Indian soldier is
drawn from rustic stock where women to date are consigned a lesser status. One reason
that sexual harassment is not so rampant in Indian armed forces is because sexual
harassment complaints are viewed very seriously and exemplary punishment awarded
swiftly. Armed forces has always censured and corrected misbehaviour of any sort,
irrespective of the seniority the officer against whom the charges are pressed. In late Sep
2008, Major General A K Lal became the first general officer to be dismissed from the Army
for molesting a woman colleague, Captain Neha Rawat. The punishment was relatively swift
compared to Civvy Street. It took barely a year for Lal to be stripped of his rank and
dismissed. The Army’s treatment of Lal was almost exactly as it behaved four years ago
when a colonel was court-martialled for physically and mentally harassing a woman officer
in Guwahati. The senior officers agree that Lal’s exemplary punishment is sure to be a
strong deterrent.
Many service officers and veterans contend that the sexual harassment is an
unfair tool, like the Dowry law, that can be misused by women officers to get even with
senior officers. However, similar situations exist in other work places (including police,
paramilitary and other militaries of the world). The way out is to not bar the entry of women
but to change the working culture from that of a feudal, colonial military to that of a
professional military befitting the twenty-first century democratic republic of India49
.
Low Acceptance
Acceptance of women in the military has not been smooth in any country. Every
country has to contend with sceptics who consider it to be a counter productive programme.
They tend to view it as a political gimmick to flaunt sexual equality, or, at best, a necessary
liability. Additionally, every country has to mould the attitude of its society at large
and male soldiers in particular to enhance acceptability of women in the military.
There is a strong perception that many male officers would rather not have a woman
for a colleague. In the words of former vice-chief of Army staff, Lt Gen S
Pattabhiraman, “Ideally, we would like to have gentlemen and not lady officers at the
unit level. Feedback from lower formations suggests that comfort levels with lady
officers are low. We can do without them.”50
He admitted that the women were eager
and well-qualified, more so than men; yet the Army recruited women with the utmost
reluctance: “The right kind of male candidates are not stepping forward. We have to
49
No Unequal Treatment for Women Officers. Internet www page at URL:< http://pragmatic.nationalinterest. in
> version current as of 21 Sep 2008.
50
Kumar Meenakshi, Women at Ease, 21 Sep 2008, Sunday special Times of India, TNN
34

turn to suitably qualified women.” Rather in the manner that religious shrines tend to
claim that women's presence is a distraction and a liability rather than an asset,
Pattabhiraman stated, “The challenge is how best to utilise their services without
compromising the army's character and ethos”, adding that steps would be taken to
ensure that women are treated “compassionately”. Newspaper articles in the wake
of the suicide declared, “Barbie dolls do not belong in the bunker”, with helpful
advice from one of the few women in the upper echelons of Indian Army that women
who liked to wear “chiffon sarees” should not opt for the rigorous life of the Army.51
Lack of Job Satisfaction
Most women feel that their competence is not given due recognition. Seniors tend to
be over-indulgent without valuing their views. They are generally marginalised and not
involved in any major decision-making. They have to work twice as hard as men to prove
their worth. Additionally, a woman is always under scrutiny for even minor slip-ups. Many
women complain that despite their technical qualifications, they are generally detailed for
perceived women-like jobs. Either they get routine desk work or are asked to perform duties
related to social minutiae.
Poor Comfort Level
Most women accepted the fact that their presence amongst males tends to make the
environment ‘formal and stiff’. Mutual comfort level between men and women colleagues is
low. Men miss their lighthearted banter, which is considered essential to release work
tensions and promote group cohesion. They consider women to be intruding on their
privacy. A retired brigadier said ''A lady officer in the army is treated as a lady, not an
officer”. This mindset begins right from the lowest ranks and goes until the periphery. An
army officer stationed at Delhi dismissively said ''The jawans, long used to taking orders
from men, are not comfortable with lady officers'. The Army men are not yet ready to accept
women in their midst, forget about combat positions. ''Women just don't have the physical
and mental stamina to stand the terrors of war.'' Therefore, there is an unwritten rule that
women officers will be posted only where families are stationed. In other words, they are
always at peace stations and rarely ever in the thick of things.
Doubts about Role Definition
The profession of arms is all about violence and brutality. To kill another human is
not moral but soldiers are trained to kill. They tend to acquire a streak of raw ruthlessness
and coarseness. This makes the environment highly non-conducive and rough for women.
51
Krishnan Kavita, Women Unwanted in the Indian Army , 20 Aug 2008, Times of India, New Delhi
35

Women expressed their confused about the way they should conduct themselves. If they
behave lady-like, their acceptance amongst male colleagues is low. On the other hand, their
active participation in casual repartee carries the danger of their losing colleagues’ respect.
Women Officers and Work Place in the Indian Armed Forces
To majority of troops, the presence of women in the forces, meant lowering of
physical standards, adjustments of work culture norms suitable to women,
restrictions on a soldier's ego and freedom, tensions, courtships, jealousies,
favouritism, disintegration of hierarchies, unenforceable codes of conduct leading to
resentment and sex scandals.
Are Women Officers Willing to Lead the Male Troops on a Patrol or Ambush Duties?
There has been a constant demand from the environment to open specialties
in combat arms to women. Ambush and patrolling is considered acid test of
soldiering. The response to whether women officers will be willing to lead male
troops on such duties was mixed. Women officers with lower age and in the service
group of one to four years felt thrilled considering it an adventure activity. Married
women officers with higher age and in service group of five to eight years
considered this out of context, felt nervous and bewildered at the thought of a single
woman amongst male soldiers. Family, children and husband remained their major
concern. Young soldiers felt their responsibility will increase in such a situation –
given a choice they will not prefer such a situation. Some senior officers were
evasive and non-committal while majority were not in favour of sending women
officers on night duty or on missions of patrols, ambush and convoy protection
duties in counter insurgency areas. Junior Commissioned Officers (JCOs) regarded
the idea of a woman officer leading a patrol in counter terrorism operations a
dangerous situation and gave a firm "no" to the proposal. A study of women officers
as convoy protection officers between Jammu and Srinagar was carried out. All
ranks were asked if they felt secure under the protection of a woman officer as
convoy commander. The response was mixed. Though women officers took the job
seriously, some troops felt that in case of an eventuality it is they who will come to
the forefront rather than asking a woman to do the job and were generally not in
favour of such assignment for women. They felt that women soldiers must be able to
protect themselves. Some soldiers felt that it did not matter whether if their
commander was a woman. Young male officers who carry out similar duties felt that
36

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