This document outlines the eight steps of the research process: 1) formulating a research problem, 2) conceptualizing a research design, 3) constructing an instrument for data collection, 4) selecting a sample, 5) writing a research proposal, 6) collecting data, 7) processing data, and 8) writing a research report. It emphasizes that research must go through an organized process regardless of size. It also discusses literature reviews, their purpose in bringing clarity to the research problem and improving methodology, and the four-step process of searching, reviewing, developing theoretical/conceptual frameworks, and writing up the literature review.

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HLTEN514B
Apply Research Skills Within a
Contemporary Health Environment
www.tastafe.tas.edu.au

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The Research Process
• Any research, regardless of size needs to
go through an organised process

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The Research Process: an
eight-step model(Taken and Adapted from:Kumar, 1996)
“Although the basic logic of scientific
methodology is the same in all fields, its
specific techniques and approaches will
vary, depending upon the subject
matter” (Kumar, 1996, p.15).

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Step 1: Formulating a research
problem
• Should identify what you intend to research.
• Should be as clear and concise as possible.
• Extremely important to evaluate your problem in
light of the financial resources at you disposal,
time available, your own expertise and
knowledge.
• Think about how a problem may arise… e.g. a
recurring patient outcome, a quizzical event…

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Step II: Conceptualising a
research design
• The validity of what you find largely depends on
how you found it.
• Main function of a research design is to explain
how you will find answers to your research
question.
• Should include the study design, logistical
arrangements that you propose to undertake,
measurement procedures, sampling strategy, how
will analyse your data and time-frame.

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Step III: Constructing an
instrument for data collection
• Includes anything that you use as a means for
collecting information.
• For example; observation forms, interview schedules,
questionnaires, interview guides.
• You may need to construct your own, or use an
existing one in order to extract primary data.
• If you are using information that has already been
collected for another purpose (secondary data), you
will need to develop a form to extract the data
required.
• Must address issues of validity and reliability.

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Step IV: Selecting a sample
• The accuracy of your estimates largely depends
upon the way you select your sample.
• Basic objective is to minimise the gap between what
you obtain from your data and what is prevalent in
the population.
• The characteristics of the sample need to closely
match the population as possible, so the results are
generalisable to the larger population
• Important to try and avoid bias.
• Extremely dependent on resources available.
• Important to look at sampling design to know if the
research is applicable to your population

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Sampling ctd
Three categories of sampling design:
1. Random = sample selected at random e.g. All
population given a number and “lottery” is conducted
chosing the numbers.
• Most basic form of random sampling.
• Each subject in the population has an equal chance of
being in the research
2. Non-random = Not chosen at random, can be chosen
by set characteristics e.g. gender, age etc. Can be
hand picked by the researcher
• cannot assess whether they are representative of the
population, therefore results can only be applied to the
sample and not generalised to the whole population.
3. Mixed = mixture of both

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Step V: Writing a research
proposal• An overall plan that tells a reader about
your research problem and how you are
planning to investigate.
• Main function is to detail the operational
plan for obtaining answers to your research
questions.
• Institutions will have varying requirements
regarding style and content.

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Step VI: Collecting data
• Procedure you wish to adopt is determined by
your research design.
• At this stage you actually collect the data.
• May involve consideration of some ethical
issues.
• Need to ensure confidentiality etc

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Step VII: Processing data
• The way you analyse the information you
collect largely depends upon the type of
information (descriptive, quantitative,
qualitative) and the way you want to write you
dissertation/report.
• Some studies will involve a combination of
both quantitative and qualitative methodology
and data collection.

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Step VIII: Writing a research
report
• The last and often most difficult step.
• Usually written as an academic paper
divided into chapters based on the
main themes of the study.

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Literature Reviews
• Part of the research process includes a
literature review
• The researcher searches the existing
literature (previous research papers) to
see what has already been found about a
topic and where the gaps are

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Literature Reviews
“A literature review is traditionally considered a
systematic and critical review of the most important
published scholarly literature on a particular topic”
(Beanland & Schneider, 1999, p.84)

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Review of
Literature
Research
Education
Theory
Practice
Relationship of the review of literature to
theory, research, education and practice

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Reasons for Reviewing the
Literature
Bring Clarity to Research Problem
• Helps understand the subject area better
• Helps to conceptualise your research problem
• Helps you understands the relationship between
your research problem and the body of knowledge in
the area.
• Identify known gaps – don‟t reinvent the wheel!

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Reasons for Reviewing the
Literature
Improve your methodology
• Acquaints you with the methodologies that have
been used by others
• Informs you of procedures that have worked well,
and problems faced

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Reasons for Reviewing the
Literature
Broaden you knowledge base
• Ensure you read widely
• Important to know other researchers findings,
questions, theories, gaps
• Understand how your research fits into the
existing body of knowledge

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Procedure for Reviewing
Literature
If you do not have a specific research problem, you
should review the literature in a broad area of
interest with the aim of narrowing down to what
you want to find out about
Can be thought of in four steps:

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Searching Existing Literature
• Must have some idea of a broad subject area in
order to set parameters.
• Compile a bibliography for your area from books and
journals.
• Books: Can be valuable as they usually present a
coherent body of knowledge. Can be outdated so
beware.
• When you find a book of value, look at its
bibliography and reference list to find other valuable
references on the same topic.

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Searching Existing
Literature
• Journals: Provide the most up-to-date
information. Can be located in hard copy, via
electronic databases and via the internet.
• Read journal abstracts to ascertain relevance.
• Review articles reference list for other articles of
value.

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Reviewing Selected
Literature
• Read your literature critically in order to identify
themes and issues that belong together.
• Critical reading requires you to: note theories put
forward, criticisms, methodologies adopted,
examining to what extent findings can be
generalised, are the significant differences of
opinion, ascertain gaps in knowledge

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Develop a Theoretical
Framework
• Involves „sorting out‟ the information you have read
into some kind of logical, methodical framework.
• This will describe the theories or issues in which
your study is embedded.

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Develop a Conceptual
Framework
• Describes the aspects you selected from the
theoretical framework to become the basis of
your study.
• This conceptual framework forms the basis of
your research problem.

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Writing up the Literature
Review
• Should be written around the themes that have
emerged from reading the literature.
• Can be written under headings that are precise
and follow logical progression.

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Formulating a Research
Problem
“Generally speaking, can be any
question that you want
answered and any assumption
or assertion that you want to
challenge or investigate can
become a research problem or
a research topic for study” (Kumar,
1996, p.35)

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Considerations when selecting
a research problem
• Interest: select a topic that interests you.
Research can be time-consuming and hard work.
• Magnitude: Narrow the topic down to something
manageable, specific and clear that you can
manage within the time and resources at your
disposal.
• Level of Expertise: Allow for the fact that you will
learn during the study, but make sure you have
adequate knowledge for the task.

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Considerations when
selecting a research problem
• Measurement of Concepts: Be careful to not use
concepts that you don‟t know how to measure.
• Relevance: Select a topic that is of relevance to you
professionally. Remember that research should add
to the body of knowledge, bridge current gaps and be
useful.

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Considerations when selecting
a research problem
• Availability of data: If your topic involves collection
of information from secondary sources, ensure this is
possible.
• Ethical Issues: How ethical issues can affect the
study population and how these can be overcome
must be examined early.

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„Zeroing in on the problem‟
1. Identify a broad area of interest in your
academic/professional field.
2. Dissect the broad area into sub-areas (brain-
storm)
3. Select a sub-area or areas in which you would
like to conduct your research (process of
elimination).
4. Raise research questions that you would like
answered.
5. Formulate objectives main and sub

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„Zeroing in on the
problem‟
6. Assess these objectives to ascertain
feasibility of attaining them in light of you
time, resources and expertise.
7. Double check by asking yourself: am I
really enthusiastic about this study? Do I
have enough resources?

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Formulating Objectives
• Are the goals you set out to attain in your study.
• Should be listed under the headings of main
objectives and sub-objectives.
• Main objective is an overall statement of the main
associations and relationships you seek to discover or
establish.
• Use action-orientated words or verbs such as „to
determine‟, „to find out‟, „to ascertain‟, „to measure‟, „to
explore‟.

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Hypotheses
Often a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an
idea about a phenomenon, relationship or situation, the
reality or truth of which you do not know.
• Therefore:
1. It is a tentative proposition
2. Its validity is unknown
3. In most cases, it specifies a relationship between
two or more variables.

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Characteristics of a
Hypothesis
• Simple, specific and clear – it should only
test one relationship at a time
• Capable of verification – methods and
techniques must be available for data
collection and analysis.
• Should be related to a body of knowledge
• Should be operationalisable – that is, it can
be expressed in terms that can be
measured.

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References
Beanland, C., Schneider, Z., LoBiondo-
Wood, G., Haber, J. (1999). Nursing
Research: Methods, Critical Appraisal and
Utilisation. Artamon: Mosby.
Borbasi, S., Jackson, D., Langford, R.
(2004). Navigating the Maze of Nursing
Research. Marrickville: Mosby.
Burns, N., & Grove, S. (1995).
Understanding Nursing Research.
Pennsylvania: W.B. Saunders Company.

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References
Crotty, M. (1998). The Foundations of
Social Research: Meaning and
Perspective in the Research Process. St
Leonards: Allen & Unwin.
Daly, J., Kellehear, A., Gliksman, M. (1997).
The Public Health Researcher: A
Methodological Guide. South Melbourne:
Oxford University Press.
Elliott, D., & Burr, G. (2000). Study Guide
to Accompany Nursing Research:
Methods, Critical Appraisal and Utilisation.
Marrickville: Mosby.

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References
Kumar, R. (1996). Research Methodology:
A step-by-step guide for beginners.
South Melbourne: Addison Wesley
Longman.
Peace, S. (1990). Researching Social
Gerontology: Concepts, Methods and
Issues. SAGE Publications: London.
Punch, K. (1998). Introduction to Social
Research: Quantitative & Qualitative
Approaches. SAGE Publications:
London.