The foundation of this paper is a journal, started by Captain William Penny and mostly maintained by Margaret Penny, during their over-wintering at Baffin Island, Nunavut in 1857-1858, as published in W. Gillies Ross’s book This Distant and Unsurveyed Country (1997). Can the journal maintained by Margaret Penny be considered the beginnings of an ethnographic study of the Inuit, within the possible understanding of the term in 1857-1858? References include Inuit oral traditions, accounts by sailing/whaling wives of the times, and the first ethnographic text by Harriet Martineau. Women's writings have historically been dismissed. I believe the only reason this journal survived is because Captain Penny started it. However, as can be seen each "group" of women support and reinforce each other.

1. Barton 1
A Symphony of Voices
The Ethnographic Journal of Margaret Penny, 1857-1858
Charmaine Barton
Dr. Carolyn Redl
MAIS 653
November 30, 2014
Acknowledgements: The author would like to thank Edward Atkinson, archivist for the
Government of Nunavut, and Phillip Goldring, independent researcher and author, for their many
phone calls and e-mails in response to my request for research assistance. Though I have not
used any of their references, their assistance pointed me in the direction of other references that
have been used in this paper.

2. Barton 2
A Symphony of Voices
The Ethnographic Journal of Margaret Penny, 1857-1858
The conductor enters the orchestra pit; he taps his baton; the curtain rises on the vocalists
of the evening. The lead vocalist, in this newly unearthed symphony, will be the divine Miss M,
soprano Margaret Penny. In support of the lead, the mezzo-soprano choir of sailing wives and
the alto chorus of the Inuit. In a rare public appearance, the dramatic coloratura soprano voice
will be the bowhead whale. This symphony of voices has been newly arranged by Harriet
Martineau, following her well-known thematic lines.
Music is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) as: vocal or instrumental
sounds (or both) combined in such a way as to produce beauty of form, harmony, and expression
of emotion. Music has long been recognized as a cultural signifier and is an area of ethnographic
enquiry. Ethnography is defined (OED) as: the scientific description of peoples and cultures with
their customs, habits, and mutual differences. Hence, the structure of a symphony can be used as
an over-arching framework for an ethnographic study.
The foundation of this paper is a journal, started by Captain William Penny and mostly
maintained by Margaret Penny, during their over-wintering at Baffin Island, Nunavut in 1857-
1858, as published in W. Gillies Ross’s book This Distant and Unsurveyed Country (1997). To
better understand whaling/sailing wives, the books of Joan Druett, Petticoat Whalers [PW]
(2001) and Hen Frigates [HF] (1998), have been assessed to find points of comparison and
difference between Margaret Penny and her contemporaries. Furthermore, Inuit oral histories
have been consulted (Dorthy Eber’s When the Whalers Were Up North (1989) and Janet
Billson’s & Kyra Mancini’s Inuit Women (2007)) to find points of comparison and difference

3. Barton 3
with Margaret Penny’s journal; allowing the subjects of the entries to have their own voice
heard. The “arranger” of this paper is Harriet Martineau whose book How to Observe: Morals
and Manners (1838) can be considered an early text on ethnography. Martineau, in Part II, lists
six areas of general enquiry (or themes) for travellers/ observers, who wished to add to the
growing body of scientific knowledge. With the ethnographic works of Druett, Eber and Billson
& Mancini assessed, and an understanding of ethnography I will answer the question: Can the
journal maintained by Margaret Penny be considered the beginnings of an ethnographic study of
the Inuit, within the possible understanding of the term in 1857-1858?
The format of the paper will follow the SonataFormof symphony: Introduction; Exposition
– theme is presented; Development – theme is altered and manipulated, i.e. discussed; repeated
until no further themes emerge; Recapitulation – themes are returned to their original form; and
then the Coda, or conclusion.
Introduction
Margaret Penny
The lead soprano in the symphony is Margaret Penny, herein after referred to as
Margaret. Born on 12 December 1812, Margaret cannot be considered a product of Victorian
culture as stated by Judith Charles in The Penny Papers (6). Margaret spent the first twenty-five
years of her life under “the Regency” of George IV (born 1812-1820), then the reigns of George
IV (1820-1830), and William IV (1830-1837). Only then did Margaret live under Victoria’s rule
(1837-1857 departure for Baffin Island). Despite our knowledge of the length and depth of

4. Barton 4
Victoria’s reign, we cannot assume that Margaret adopted “Victorian values” easily or at all. As
well, it must be remembered that Margaret was Scottish and not English.
In 1707, the Acts of Parliament politically unified England and Scotland. Nonetheless
this did not mean that Scottish culture, values and morals were quickly cast aside. There was
much opposition to “the Union” resulting in the Jacobite Rebellions of 1715 and 1745. Not only
were thousands of men dead on the field of battle (Rebellions, American Revolutionary War and
the Napoleonic Wars), but the English enacted the “Highland Clearances,” which resulted in the
mass emigration of men to the North America and Australia (Nenadic 211). Therefore, in the late
eighteenth and early nineteenth century, there was no guarantee of marriage, so women were
“increasingly likely to be pushed into the urban consumer economy” (Nenadic 214). Women
engaged in cattle dealing, tea distributorship, and millinery (Nenadic 212). Additionally,
Rosalind Marshall lists new agricultural opportunities for women, textiles (spinning, weaving
and embroidery); as well as lodgings owner, dressmaker, teacher (public and private), artist, and
writer (Marshall 234-242).
Marshall notes that women were, in pre-Victorian times, able to attend assemblies
(dancing and cards) (168) and the theatre (171), without close familial chaperoning. Further, the
class divide in Scotland was not as great as England, because “Scotland was still a small country
where rich and poor mingled together in daily life” (Marshall 188). Additionally, between 1707
and 1830 there was a major shift in women’s education; from a fully practical set of skills, learnt
from their parents, to a school model that included, depending upon the school: cookery, pastry,
preserving, English, French, reading, writing, arithmetic, bookkeeping, needlework, lace-work
and geography (Marshall 207).

5. Barton 5
Therefore, when Margaret Irvine married Captain William Penny on 4 February 1840
(Ross xiv), at the age of twenty-seven, it is quite possible that she had a trade (her father was a
weaver (Ross xxiii)) and may have been engaged in self- or un-directed studies to further her
own education (Marshall 217). A woman, with this possible background, would have been well
equipped to deal with the “hard … responsibility of managing the household and raising the
children” while her husband was away (Ross xxiv).
Ethnography
Ethnography is the scientific description of peoples and cultures with their customs,
habits, and mutual differences (OED). However, what did this mean to a person in the 1850s?
One of the earliest books on this subject is Martineau’s How to Observe: Morals and Manners
(1838). Before deciding if Margaret’s journal was an early attempt at ethnography, one must first
understand what Martineau advised.
Firstly, the traveller/observer must know what s/he wants to ask questions about. As a
biologist decides to observe the mating habits of giraffes, a “human” observer must decide if s/he
wants to study dating rituals, funeral rites or children’s games (Martineau 11). Secondly, “the
traveller must deny himself all indulgence of peremptory decision” (Martineau 6). What is right
and wrong in one country or town at a specific time, may or may not be considered right or
wrong now (Martineau 232). Finally, there is only one general question: How happy are the
inhabitants/members of that particular society in relation to each other (Martineau 13)?
For the budding ethnographer, Martineau suggests the following: a master list of
questions (232) to be re-read every day to ensure that conversations can be directed (235); a
journal for recording facts that s/he cannot leave to his/her memory to recollect on his/her own

6. Barton 6
(233) – a minister should write down the facts on laws not on religion or a doctor should write
down facts about religion and not the state of general health; further, a traveller should have a
notebook to record transitory appearances (landscapes) and thoughts (236).
In his book review of Franz Boas: Among the Inuit of Baffin Island, 1883-1884, Ira
Jacknis mentions that Boas’ field notes are included, plus “letters to colleagues, personal letters
to his parents and fiancée, diaries and letter-diaries that Boas did not mail but hand-delivered
upon his return” (Jacknis 607), which provide a comprehensive background to Boas’ first
ethnographic study of the Inuit. Joan Druett noted that in the case of females’ letters, diaries and
journals that the “great majority of these documents have been lost, [but] hundreds have
survived” (HF 22) which added to the ethnographic studies of sailing and whaling wives.
We are then left with the question of how one should write field notes. According to
Nicholas Wolfinger, it is not as straightforward as some perceive (85). Within ethnography there
are two strategies for writing notes: salience hierarchy – where the author writes down whatever
s/he feels is noteworthy (Wolfinger 89); and, comprehensive note-taking – writing down
everything from beginning to end (briefly) as “remembering one aspect of an event might trigger
recall of an entire sequence” (Wolfinger 91).
Thus, ethnographic notes are: as unbiased as possible; tend to follow a general theme; are
written down in a scientific journal/note-book, diary-journal, spare notebook, letters, and letter-
diaries; they can be long or short; and, finally, they should lead the observer towards a
conclusion on how happy people are within “this” society.
The Whale

7. Barton 7
Without the whale neither Margaret’s journal nor Petticoat Whalers would exist. First,
the inclusion of the whale as a vocalist in this paper is because baleen whales (bowhead, right,
humpback, etc.) are known to produce sounds that “produce beauty of form, harmony, and
expression of emotion;” thus, they produce music (OED). Like a dramatic coloratura soprano,
whale songs are known for their “agile runs” (up and down the scale), leaps (from one note to a
non-neighbouring note) and trills (warbling). A further similarity is that both, human and whale,
voices have great sustaining power and convey dramatic intensity (pers. comm. Nyby 2004) .
The whale’s voice is a dramatic counter-melody to the harmonizing and supportive
voices of Margaret, the sailing wives and Inuit. Harmony and dissonance are enclosed within its
song. Long before western whalemen started to pursue the great whales, the Inuit had a well-
developed whaling industry that provided food, building materials and clothing, based on an
understanding of the natural world - harmony (Billson and Mancini 124). European and
American whalemen hunted the whales for oil (lighting and lubricant) and baleen (whalebone)
for corsets, umbrellas and other fashion needs (Ross xix). New whaling grounds would be
reported (PW 81); whalemen would descend and fish until there were more boats than whales –
dissonance (PW 158).
ExpositionandDevelopment
Music
Music, in all its variations and permutations, has been around for a long time. Before
books, radio, television and the internet, music was an integral part of life; glorifying the
god/dess, weddings, funerals, quiet evenings with friends, keeping cadence while working and
soothing a fretful child. Martineau advised that “[t]he rudest and the most advanced nations

8. Barton 8
abound in songs … The more this mode of expression is looked into, the more serviceable it will
be found to the traveller’s purposes of observation” (137). Margaret’s journal has numerous
references to music.
Margaret noted, on August 8, that the seamen returned from shore duty tired but that by
“8 o clock I found them dancing reels with the greatest spirit” (Ross 21). The next day Margaret
mentioned that the ship has a choir led by the assistant carpenter (Ross 21). In Sophia Harbour,
where the Inuit were gathering, Margaret notes that there is “music & dancing every night” (Ross
61). On October 3 Margaret noted it was a Saturday night, and the Inuit had come “to get a dance
with the sailors” (Ross 78). By October 26 the Inuit are singing to the sailors and Margaret and
do so “very sweetly. The whole of them are fond of music & think it a great treat to get down to
the cabin to hear the accordion played” (Ross 82). Margaret is serenaded again; “we have had a
song from them [Inuit]. Some of them have sweet voices & all are fond of music” (Ross 100).
As Margaret wrote these entries, under salience theory (Wolfinger 89) the entries are
ethnographic because she chose to record them. Margaret’s entries, in whole, also follow the
comprehensive note taking theory, from the beginning of the day until the end and briefly
described to “tickle” the memory later (Wolfinger 91). Unfortunately, it is difficult to decide if
Margaret’s journal, in and of itself, meets the definition of a scientific journal/notebook, a diary
journal or a notebook for transitory thoughts. What is known is that this journal is the only
written work of Margaret, still in the hands of her family (Ross xxvi). What is not known is if
she employed other written forms, which have not survived unto the present day.
However, Margaret’s journal entries cannot stand alone as evidence of Inuit society.
Therefore, one must look at other sources, to see if Margaret’s entries can be supported. In their

9. Barton 9
fourteen year study of the Inuit of Pangnirtung [Pang], Nunavut on Baffin Island, Billson &
Mancini noted that the Inuit themselves recognise that they learned “how to dance and play the
accordion during the whaling period” (34). Furthermore, before the resurgence of throat singing
and drum dancing, “Scottish jigs and reels echoed through the still Arctic air” (Billson &
Mancini 251). Many of the Inuit, interviewed by Billson & Mancini, said that dancing was learnt
by Inuit women when they boarded vessels on Saturday nights for dances with the sailors (42).
Elder Inuit, who grew up during the final days of Arctic whaling, told Eber that they had learned
how to square-dance because of the whalers, and that it is still popular today (28).
Lastly, how do Margaret’s entries compare to contemporary entries? There are numerous
partial entries in Druett’s books regarding music: wives who played music on the accordion (HF
33) and the parlour organ (HF 63); daughters learning how to dance the hornpipe (HF 102); and,
when attending “native” ceremonies in the wives honour (PW 105). The overall feeling is that
music was pervasive with Margaret’s contemporaries.
As a result of the above analysis, Margaret’s journal entries, on music, meet the
requirements of ethnographic field notes, on an ethnographic topic and are validated by
supporting evidence from her contemporaries and Inuit.
Religion
One of the oldest occupations recorded is that of shaman, priest, minister, pastor, or
evangelical leader. From animism, to shamanism, to Christianity, to Islam, to western
spirituality, the “first learned men of every nation [or society]” are the clergy (Martineau 84).
Margaret’s journal has various references to religion.

10. Barton 10
On Sunday, August 2 Margaret noted that in one of her first contacts with Inuit, in their
own homeland, was with “a blind man, his wife & child. He is very intelligent & is called the
blind Priest” (Ross 19). By August 11 Margaret has regular contact with the blind priest and his
wife (Ross 22). Throughout the journal Margaret noted which days were Sunday and how
attentive the sailors were to Brother Warmow’s services (see August 16 in Ross 37). Of note is
Margaret’s disapproval of Brother Warmow on September 15 (Ross 63) because she felt he was
not solemn enough. On October 4, Margaret recorded an Inuk’s response to the question of ‘who
made the earth?’; “… it must have come out of the sea for he had seen whales bones on the tops
of the hills” (Ross 78). Margaret’s interest in religion and in teaching it is shown on “May [sic]
6th” (Ross 172) when a recent Inuit widower, who could neither speak nor read English, picked
up her Bible and leafed through the pages as if “consolation was to be derived from it”.
As ethnographic notes, Margaret’s journal entries still conform to both salience theory
and comprehensive note-taking. Further, the October 4th entry meets the advice given by
Martineau to note what cannot be left to memory alone; though Margaret was interested in
religion, the response was unique and she, more than likely, wanted to remember it correctly.
The Inuit have no oral histories of Moravian missionaries (Brother Warmow). However,
they do have memories of Reverend E.J. Peck and they “greatly respected the teaching of the
early missionaries” (Billson and Mancini 13). For the Inuit of Pang it was not difficult to
reconcile “[t]he values of mutual aid, honesty, and gratitude” that is characteristic of traditional
Inuit and Christian world views (Billson and Mancini 122). The Inuit interviewed by Eber have
startling information regarding religion. Margaret may have met more than one Inuit shaman
(blind Priest). As the Inuit wanted to help the whalers, “the shamans practised their arts to make

11. Barton 11
the whales give themselves to the hunters” (Eber 16-17). Further, some of the most famous Inuit
harpooners were actually shamans (Eber 37).
The voices of the sailing wives take no notice of native religions and are only concerned
with the missionaries they boarded with on land (HF 80) and those missionaries who calmed the
natives to end various massacres (PW 102).
As a result of the above analysis, Margaret’s journal entries, on religion, meet the
requirements of ethnographic field notes, on an ethnographic topic and are validated by
supporting evidence from the Inuit. There is a difference between Margaret and the sailing
wives; Margaret chose to note native religion to a certain extent.
Prostitution
The other “oldest profession” is that of prostitute. Since time immemorial, women have
traded sexual favours for safety and security, food, clothing and other valuable considerations. In
an oblique way Martineau mentions prostitution; an observer must note “whether conjugal
infidelity excites horror and rage, or whether it is so much a matter of course” that it evokes no
reaction (173). Margaret’s journal does not mention prostitution or marital infidelity in plain
language.
Margaret does note, early in her journal (Ross), how husbands and wives interact with
each other: August 11 (22), August 19 (38), and September 18 (64). She then stopped
mentioning male/female relationships. However, there is a cryptic entry on May 25 “There is
much to like about the natives. They are so kind if left to themselves but I am sorry to say they
have been taught much evil” (Ross 169 emphasis added). Margaret does not explain what she
meant by “evil”. A worrying entry is noted on June 1; a married woman has hung herself on the

12. Barton 12
hill “and there appears to be some mystery about it” (Ross 171). One must look at other sources
for what Margaret may have meant.
The Inuit have oral histories that support the idea that “prostitution” was not unknown
between the whalemen and Inuit. Pre-contact, Inuit had an institutionalized form of wife
swapping or temporary marriage, where all four persons concerned had to consent to the swap
(Billson and Mancini 63). This ritual was used for two purposes: first, to bring two couples, who
were close, even closer; and, secondly, to prevent violence between the two men (Billson and
Mancini 63). This ritual may have evolved into Inuit men “brokering” their wives, sisters and
close female relations to the captain and the common sailor (Billson and Mancini 114; Eber 28).
For example, “Shoofly” was Captain Comer’s (1858-1937) girlfriend when he was in Hudson’s
Bay; the rest of the time she lived with her husband, the “Mate” Scotch Tom (Eber 114). Despite
“Victorian” attitudes, liaisons and the resulting children, were all too common in the whaling
days (Billson and Mancini 12; Eber 53). Could the woman who hung herself for having violated
the ‘consent’ portion of accepted wife swapping? It is difficult to say at this remove.
One of the reasons given for shipping a wife out was to raise the moral fibre of the crew
(PW 22). However, “[t]he discovery that sex was offered as a simple friendly gesture was …
amazing [to most sailors]” (PW 6). In some ports the farce of “temporary marriages” were
enacted, with the “wives” moving from ship to ship with their “true” husbands and children (PW
11). It was noted that the “price” of a “wife” in Bay of Island, New Zealand, was one shirt (PW
11). Though there are no direct entries about prostitution in Hen Frigates, Druett noted that
“[s]ailors [are] traditionally lusty” (75) and that when a “fleet of men-at-war was in port, [there
were the] attendant flocks of beggars and prostitutes,” who promptly came on board the
Massachusetts, according to Katurah Pritchard (233).

13. Barton 13
As there are no direct entries for prostitution, Margaret’s journal cannot be assessed on
meeting ethnographic standards. Yet, by its very absence, prostitution should be investigated,
under Martineau’s theme of “Marriage and Women” (167-180), because there is supporting
evidence from Inuit oral history and contemporary documents.
Health
Until recently, health was a precious commodity. Today, in 2014, it is still a prized
commodity with the resurgence of measles, tuberculosis, typhoid, ebola, malaria, and yellow
fever. Margaret’s journal notes some health issues.
Margaret noted that they were “taking every precaution ourselves to prevent ill-health”
(Ross 19), which included orders from Captain Penny to the men “to have great regard to
cleanliness, for which every facility will be given” (Ross 98). However, this order was too late,
by November 13 the “Esquimaux all very ill with some sort of disease like the influenza” (Ross
99). According to Ross’s research this “epidemic” lasted for approximately two months (112).
Inuit elders have a different interpretation of Margaret’s “evil,” mentioned on May 12. To
their mind, it is the diseases, including alcohol addiction, that were the “evil” (Billson and
Mancini 11). The Inuit died from starvation, accidents and pneumonia before the whalers came
(Billson and Mancini 95), but no horror story “can match the tale of families destroyed by TB,
by measles, and by other diseases against which the victims had no immunity” (Eber 77).
Further, sexually transmitted diseases, from the whalemen, rendered some Inuit women sterile
and, thus, whole generations un-born (Eber 77). The outbreaks of disease can be correlated with
ships’ movements, wherever the whalemen went, so went the Inuit, to become infected (Billson
and Mancini 103).

14. Barton 14
Both books on sailing wives tell stories of epidemics, plagues, accidents and births on
board. It was not uncommon for ships to be quarantined (PW 107 inset) and for men to return
from liberty leave to be struck down with “Asiatic cholera” (PW 88). In Hen Frigates, there is a
chapter on “Medical Matters” (167-185), including the fact that American captains were the
“medical men” on board and did their best with the medical chest provided (168). Consequently,
“[i]t was a very rare ocean-going voyage that did not record the death of at least one seaman”
(HF 175).
Margaret’s journal entries on health are ethnographic, under salience theory. Supported
and further developed by Inuit oral history and the accounts of sailing wives, health was an
important area of enquiry during Margaret’s time period.
Recapitulation
The themes covered above are those advised by Harriet Martineau in her book How to
Observe (1838), one of the earliest text on the practice of ethnography. The selected journal
entries fall into the categories of Music (Popular Songs), Religion, Prostitution (Marriage and
Women) and Health, which are areas suggested in How to Observe. Therefore, Margaret’s
journal can be seen as the beginning of an ethnographic study of the Inuit, within the
understanding of the day.
Margaret’s journal entries can be described under both “salience theory” and
“comprehensive note-taking” as discussed by Nicholas Wolfinger. Unfortunately, even with
analysis, it cannot be said if this journal was a scientific journal, diary journal or a notebook for
recording transitory thoughts. It must also be noted that this is the only text known to be written
by Margaret Penny. But as Ira Jacknis mentions, letters and letter-diaries (hand-delivered) can be

15. Barton 15
considered part of the ethnographic note taking milieu; but there is no evidence, for or against,
Margaret having drafted this type of material.
Margaret Penny returned safely to Aberdeen, Scotland in 1858. She voyaged one more
time with her husband in 1863 (Ross 224). After reaching retirement, both Margaret and Captain
Penny settled down and enjoyed a well-earned rest (Ross 224). Many sailing wives and husbands
retired to their home ports in England, the United States, Australia and New Zealand. The Inuit
adapted to life post-contact and remember our history, which is their living memory.
Coda
The conductor signals the end of the music. The lead, the divine Miss M, Margaret
Penny, stands with tears in her eyes as the dramatic coloratura soprano’s voice fades into
nothingness. The choir and chorus stand mute. A stunned hush permeates the hall. Suddenly, an
explosion of sound fills the auditorium. Hands clap and the call of “Brava! Brava!” can be heard.
The newly discovered symphony of voices is well-received. The voices of women, joined
together, are heard in a story that has remained untold and invisible for generations.
Through the ethnographic journal of Margaret Penny, new works can be contemplated.
Perhaps the next symphony will be shaped around Arctic women’s voices and the natural world
they inhabit. Perchance, a modern-style symphony can be penned, to incorporate the teachings of
the past for current wives, who watch and wait for their men to return from the sea. All that is
needed is the belief that the diaries, journals, notebooks and, in this modern age, blog postings
are valid, mutually supporting, ethnographic observations that can be harmonized with other
voices.

16. Barton 16

17. Barton 17
Works Cited
Billson, Janet Mancini, and Kyra Mancini. Inuit Women: Their Powerful Spirit in a Century of
Change. New York / Toronto: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007. Print.
Charles, Judith. "The Penny Papers: Imagining Margaret Penny." MA-IS Athabasca University,
2006. Web. 01 Nov 2014.
Druett, Joan. Hen Frigates: Wives of Merchant Captains Under Sail. London: Souvenir Press
Ltd., 1998. Print.
---. Petticoat Whalers: Whaling Wives at Sea, 1820-1920. Hanover & London: University Press
of New England, 2001. Print.
Eber, Dorothy Harley. When the Whalers were Up North: Inuit Memories from the Eastern
Arctic. Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1989. Print. Native and
Northern Series.
Jacknis, Ira. "Book Review: Franz Boas: Among the Inuit of Baffin Island, 1883-1884: Journals
and Letters by Franz Boas." Isis 91.3 (2000): 606-8. www.jstor.org. Web. 26 Nov 2014.
Marshall, Rosalind K. Virgins and Viragos: A History of Women in Scotland from 1080-1980.
Chicago: Academy Chicago Ltd., 1983. Print.
Martineau, Harriet. How to Observe: Morals and Manners. London: Charles Knight & Co.,
1838. www.gutenburg.org. Web. 01 Mar 2012.

18. Barton 18
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Web. 01 Nov 2014.
Nyby, Michael. Baritione. Ed. Charmaine Barton. discussion regarding his chosen profession
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Ross, W. Gillies. This Distant and Unsurveyed Country: A Woman's Winter at Baffin Island,
1857-1858. Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1997. Print. McGill-
Queen's Native and Northern Series .
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Expectancies." Qualitative Research 2.1 (2002): 85-95. www.sagepub.com. Web. 24 Nov
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