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‫اإلشعاع‬ ‫و‬ ‫المادة‬ ‫أثنية‬
‫الطيفيات‬ ‫و‬ ‫الذرية‬ ‫الفيزياء‬
‫د‬
.
‫العيد‬ ‫محمد‬ ‫يحياوي‬
m-l.yahiaoui@crnb.dz
‫الطيفيات‬ ‫و‬ ‫الذرية‬ ‫الفيزياء‬ ‫ببوسعادة‬ ‫لألساتذة‬ ‫العليا‬ ‫المدرسة‬
‫السنة‬
‫الرابعة‬
–
‫فيزياء‬
‫السنة‬
‫الدراسية‬
2022
-
2023
‫مقدم‬
‫ة‬
:
•
‫منذ‬
‫العصور‬
،‫القديمة‬
‫تساءل‬
‫العلماء‬
‫اليونانيون‬
‫األوائل‬
‫عن‬
‫مكونات‬
،‫المادة‬
‫حيث‬
‫طرح‬
‫طاليس‬
‫الميلي‬
‫وغيره‬
‫فكرة‬
‫نظرية‬
"
‫العناصر‬
‫األربعة‬
"
‫التي‬
‫تفيد‬
‫بأن‬
‫جميع‬
‫األجسام‬
‫مكونة‬
‫من‬
4
‫عناصر‬
:
‫الماء‬
‫واألرض‬
‫والنار‬
‫والهواء‬
.
•
‫في‬
‫القرن‬
‫الرابع‬
‫قبل‬
‫الميالد‬
،
‫أطلق‬
‫ديموقريط‬
‫فكرة‬
‫بأن‬
‫المادة‬
‫تتكون‬
‫من‬
‫جسيمات‬
‫صغيرة‬
‫غير‬
‫قابلة‬
‫للتقسيم‬
‫تسمى‬
"
‫الذرات‬
"
.
•
‫في‬
‫القرن‬
‫التاسع‬
‫عشر‬
،
‫اكتشف‬
‫دالتون‬
‫من‬
‫خالل‬
•
‫خالل‬
‫القرن‬
‫العشرين‬
،
‫قدم‬
‫عدد‬
‫من‬
‫العلماء‬
‫نماذجهم‬
،‫للذرة‬
‫حيث‬
‫اكتشف‬
‫تومسون‬
‫اإللكترون‬
‫في‬
1904
‫واستخدم‬
‫نموذج‬
"
‫البودينغ‬
"
‫الذي‬
‫يتكون‬
‫من‬
‫كرة‬
‫مشحونة‬
‫ا‬ً
‫ي‬‫إيجاب‬
‫ومليئة‬
‫بإلكترونات‬
‫مشحونة‬
‫ا‬ً
‫ي‬‫سلب‬
‫كنموذج‬
‫للذرة‬
.
‫في‬
‫عام‬
1905
،
‫اكتشف‬
‫رذرفورد‬
‫نموذجه‬
‫الذري‬
‫الذي‬
‫يشير‬
‫إلى‬
‫أن‬
‫الذرة‬
‫تتكون‬
‫من‬
‫عنصر‬
‫مركزي‬
"
‫النواة‬
"
‫التي‬
‫تكون‬
‫أصغر‬
‫بـ‬
100000
‫مرة‬
‫من‬
،‫الذرة‬
‫وفي‬
‫هذا‬
‫النموذج‬
‫تدور‬
‫اإللكترونات‬
‫حول‬
‫النواة‬
‫مثل‬
‫الكواكب‬
‫حول‬
‫الشمس‬
.
•
‫نظرية‬
‫رذرفورد‬
‫صحيحة‬
‫ولكنها‬
‫قابلة‬
‫للتحسين‬
‫مقدم‬
‫ة‬
:
‫الذ‬
‫رة‬
:
•
‫يتكون‬
‫المادة‬
‫من‬
‫حبيبات‬
‫عنصرية‬
‫أساسية‬
‫تسمى‬
،‫الذرات‬
‫وهناك‬
112
‫ذرة‬
‫أو‬
ً
ً
‫عنصرا‬
‫تم‬
‫اكتشافها‬
‫ويتم‬
‫تعيين‬
‫كل‬
‫منها‬
‫باالسم‬
‫والرمز‬
‫الخاص‬
‫به‬
.
•
‫يتم‬
‫تمثيل‬
‫العنصر‬
‫ب‬
𝑍
𝐴
𝑋
‫بحيث‬
:

X
:
‫رمز‬
‫العنصر‬
‫الكيميائي‬

Z
:
‫عدد‬
‫البروتونات‬
(
‫العدد‬
‫الذري‬
)

N
:
‫عدد‬
‫النيوترونات‬

A
:
‫العدد‬
‫الكتلي‬
‫و‬
‫هو‬
‫عدد‬
‫البروتونات‬
‫و‬
‫النيوترونات‬
(
‫النويات‬
)
A=Z+N
‫أ‬
-
‫التعريف‬
‫األساسي‬
•
‫كتلة‬
‫البروتون‬
:
𝑚𝑝 = 1.6726 10−27
𝑘𝑔
•
‫كتلة‬
‫النيوترون‬
:
𝑚𝑛 = 1.6749 10−27 𝑘𝑔
•
‫كتلة‬
‫االلكترون‬
:
𝑚𝑒 = 9.1095 10−31 𝑘𝑔
•
‫شحنة‬
‫االلكترون‬
:
𝑞𝑒 = 1.6 10−19
𝐶
•
‫وحدة‬
‫الكتل‬
‫الذرية‬
:
1 𝑢.𝑚.𝑎 =
12
12.𝑁𝐴
= 1.6606 10−27 𝑘𝑔
•
‫عدد‬
‫أفوجادرو‬
:
𝑁𝐴 = 6.023 1023
•
‫إلكترون‬
‫فولط‬
:
1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 10−19
𝐽
‫الذ‬
‫رة‬
:
‫أ‬
-
‫التعريف‬
‫األساسي‬
•
‫تعتمد‬
‫الخواص‬
‫الكيميائية‬
‫والفيزيائية‬
‫للذرات‬
‫على‬
‫تكوينها‬
،‫اإللكتروني‬
‫وبالتالي‬
‫على‬
‫عدد‬
‫البروتونات‬
‫الموجودة‬
‫فيها‬
.
‫ويتم‬
‫تصنيف‬
‫الذرات‬
ً
ً
‫ء‬‫بنا‬
‫على‬
‫كتلتها‬
‫الذرية‬
A
‫وخواصها‬
‫الكيميائية‬
‫في‬
‫جدول‬
‫يسمى‬
"
‫الجدول‬
‫الدوري‬
"
.
•
‫يمكن‬
‫أن‬
‫تتشابه‬
‫ذرتان‬
‫في‬
‫عدد‬
،‫البروتونات‬
‫ولكن‬
‫يختلف‬
‫عدد‬
‫النيوترونات‬
،‫بينهما‬
‫وهذا‬
‫ما‬
‫يسمى‬
"
‫النظائر‬
"
،
‫على‬
‫سبيل‬
،‫المثال‬
‫يوجد‬
‫للهيدروجين‬
‫ثالثة‬
‫نظائر‬
:
‫الهيدروجين‬
‫العادي‬
(
1
‫بروتون‬
+
0
‫نيوترون‬
)
،
‫والديتريوم‬
(
1
‫بروتون‬
+
1
‫نيوترون‬
)
،
‫ب‬
:
‫العناصر‬
‫الكيميائية‬
‫والنظائر‬
:
‫الذ‬
‫رة‬
:
‫الذ‬
‫رة‬
:
‫الفو‬
‫تون‬
:
•
‫فرضية‬
‫بالنك‬
‫في‬
‫عام‬
1900
‫تشير‬
‫إلى‬
‫أن‬
‫الطاقة‬
‫بعث‬ُ
‫ت‬
‫أو‬
‫تمتص‬
‫بشكل‬
‫متقطع‬
‫من‬
‫خالل‬
‫كميات‬
‫من‬
‫الطاقة‬
ℎ𝜈
،
‫حيث‬
h
‫هو‬
‫ثابت‬
‫بالنك‬
ℎ
= 6.626 10−34
𝑗.𝑠
‫و‬
ν
‫هي‬
‫تردد‬
‫الموجة‬
‫الكهرومغناطيسية‬
.
‫الفوتون‬
‫هو‬
‫جسيم‬
‫ذو‬
‫كتلة‬
،‫صفرية‬
‫وقد‬
‫سمحت‬
‫نظرية‬
‫النسبية‬
‫الخاصة‬
‫التي‬
‫أعلنها‬
‫ا‬ً
‫ض‬‫أي‬
‫آينشتاين‬
‫في‬
‫نفس‬
‫العام‬
‫بالتعبير‬
‫عن‬
‫كمية‬
،‫حركته‬
‫ويتم‬
‫إعطاء‬
‫عالقة‬
‫الطاقة‬
‫لجسيم‬
‫ذو‬
‫سرعة‬
‫نسبية‬
‫بواسطة‬
:
𝐸2 = 𝑝2𝑐2 + 𝑚2𝑐4
•
‫بما‬
‫أن‬
‫كتلة‬
‫الفوتون‬
،‫معدومة‬
‫فإن‬
‫كمية‬
‫الحركة‬
‫أ‬
-
‫عموميات‬
:
‫الجسم‬ ‫إشعاع‬
‫األسود‬
‫التأثير‬
‫الكهروضوئي‬
•
‫تم‬
‫اكتشاف‬
‫هذا‬
‫الفعل‬
‫سنة‬
1887
‫م‬
‫من‬
‫طرف‬
‫العالم‬
"
‫هرتز‬
"
‫عندما‬
‫سلط‬
‫إشعاعا‬
‫كهرومغناطيسي‬
‫على‬
‫صفيحة‬
‫من‬
‫الزنك‬
‫فالحظ‬
‫أن‬
‫تيارا‬
‫كهربائيا‬
‫يسري‬
‫في‬
‫دارة‬
‫كان‬
‫قد‬
‫ربطها‬
‫باألنبوبة‬
‫المفرغة‬
‫المتواجدة‬
‫فيها‬
‫الصفيحة‬
.
•
‫تعتمد‬
‫هذه‬
‫اآللية‬
‫على‬
‫االمتصاص‬
‫الكلي‬
‫لطاقة‬
‫الفوتون‬
‫االبتدائية‬
‫فيختفي‬
‫بالتحويل‬
‫الكلي‬
‫ه‬ ‫لطاقت‬
ℎ𝜈
‫أثناء‬
‫امتصاصها‬
‫من‬
‫طرف‬
‫المادة‬
‫المعرضة‬
،‫لإلشعاع‬
‫يتبعها‬
‫انبعاث‬
‫إلكترون‬
‫ذري‬
‫التأثير‬
‫الكهروضوئي‬
•
‫طاقة‬
‫االلكترونات‬
‫المنبعثة‬
‫ال‬
‫تعتمد‬
‫على‬
‫شدة‬
‫الضوء‬
‫الساقط‬
‫بل‬
‫تعتمد‬
‫على‬
‫تردد‬
‫الضوء‬
‫الساقط‬
•
‫يتناسب‬
‫عدد‬
‫االلكترونات‬
‫المنبعثة‬
‫من‬
‫سطح‬
‫الفلز‬
‫مع‬
‫شدة‬
‫الضوء‬
‫الساقط‬
‫عليه‬
.
•
‫تتناسب‬
‫طاقة‬
‫االلكترونات‬
‫المنبعثة‬
‫مع‬
‫تردد‬
‫الضوء‬
‫الساقط‬
.
‫المالحظات‬
:
‫التأثير‬
‫الكهروضوئي‬
•
‫اعتبر‬
‫أن‬
‫الضوء‬
‫عبارة‬
‫عن‬
‫فوتونات‬
‫و‬
‫أن‬
‫امتصاص‬
‫فوتون‬
‫من‬
‫قبل‬
‫الذرة‬
‫هو‬
‫المهم‬
‫في‬
‫العملية‬
.
•
‫يعطي‬
‫الفوتون‬
‫الواحد‬
‫عند‬
‫سقوطه‬
‫على‬
‫سطح‬
‫مادة‬
‫صلبة‬
‫طاقته‬
‫بالكامل‬
‫إلى‬
‫الكترون‬
‫واحد‬
‫ليخرج‬
‫من‬
‫سطح‬
‫مادة‬
‫صلبة‬
•
‫العامل‬
‫األساسي‬
‫و‬
‫المهم‬
‫في‬
‫تحرير‬
‫االلكترونات‬
‫من‬
‫المعدن‬
‫هو‬
‫تردد‬
‫الضوء‬
‫وليست‬
‫شدته‬
(
‫عدد‬
‫الفوتونات‬
)
‫أينشتاين‬ ‫تفسير‬
‫الكهروضوئية‬ ‫للظاهرة‬
:
‫التأثير‬
‫الكهروضوئي‬
•
‫طاقة‬
‫الفوتون‬
:
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝜈 =
𝑐
𝜆
•
‫يحدث‬
‫التأثير‬
‫الكهروضوئي‬
‫فقط‬
‫إذا‬
‫كانت‬
‫طاقة‬
‫الفوتون‬
‫الساقط‬
‫أكبر‬
‫من‬
‫بذل‬
‫العمل‬
(
‫دالة‬
‫الشغل‬
(𝑊0
‫الستخراج‬
‫إلكترون‬
‫من‬
‫المعدن‬
.

‫فعندما‬
‫تكون‬
(𝐸)
‫أكبر‬
‫من‬
(𝑊0 )
‫يتحرر‬
‫االلكترون‬
‫من‬
‫الذرة‬
‫ويكتسب‬
‫طاقة‬
‫حركية‬
‫مساوية‬
‫الى‬
(
1
2
𝑚𝑣2
)
‫وبالتالي‬
:
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝑊0 +
1
2
𝑚𝑣2
‫أينشتاين‬ ‫تفسير‬
‫الكهروضوئية‬ ‫للظاهرة‬
:
‫التأثير‬
‫الكهروضوئي‬
•
‫تعريف‬
:
‫الضوئي‬ ‫لإللكترون‬ ‫القصوى‬ ‫الحركة‬ ‫طاقة‬
‫د‬ُّ
‫الترد‬ ‫بداللة‬
:
ً‫ىًطاقةًالحركةًالقصوىًلإللكترونًالضوئيًكاآلتي‬َ
‫عط‬ُ
‫ت‬
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝜈 − 𝑊
‫حيث‬
ℎ
‫ًو‬،‫ثابتًبالنك‬
𝜈
‫ًو‬،‫دًالفوتونًالساقط‬ُّ
‫ترد‬
𝑊
ً‫دالةًالشغلًلسطح‬
‫للمعدن‬
.
‫أينشتاين‬ ‫تفسير‬
‫الكهروضوئية‬ ‫للظاهرة‬
:
‫التأثير‬
‫الكهروضوئي‬

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