It’s important to understand that Nikkei families’ employment is very unstable. They often cannot stay in Japan even if they want to. This means it is very important for them to maintain the L1.
The economic crisis forced many Nikkei families to return to Brazil, etc.
The response of the government was contradictory. There was a tendency to blame the victim.
I am very grateful for the support of Erica Muramoto regarding our research in Brazil. In Peru and Argentina, I am indebted to the help of Jose Galvez, La Victoria, and La Union schools as well as the Donguri Club. In Argentina, the help of Nichia Gakuin was invaluable.
Peruvian parents in particular preferred the Peruvian educational system, especially after returning and comparing it with the Japanese. Parents who had been away for years might have been surprised at improvements in their home countries.
Brazilian parents felt strongly that Portuguese was the mother tongue, regardless of their Nikkei ancestry. Nikkeis cannot be assumed to desire cultural and linguistic assimilation in Japan.
Many Peruvian students did not want to go back to Peru. They had assimilated to Japanese language and culture. It was hard for them to understand that their parents felt they had no choice. Perhaps parents were ashamed to tell their children how powerless they were to settle down in Japan and provide stability for their children.
Returnees to Brazil are more spread out, often in rural areas. They have few options to use or maintain their Japanese. There are few Japanese-speaking teachers who can help them.
Each time a child “returns” he or she must go through the painful cycle of re-adaption, a cycle which might be repeated five or six times in childhood.
Parents and children realized the importance of maintaining the L1. Bilingual education is the simple solution to alleviating the suffering of returnees.
Peruvian students in particular lacked access to ethnic schools, compared to Brazilians in Japan. Some parents turned to the PEAD program to help them maintain Spanish.
Many Peruvian returnees recognized the benefits of being bilingual.
Even one hour a week of L1 instruction would be very appreciated. Would it be so hard to allow this within Japanese schools?
Parents and children were even more upset about anti-foreigner bullying than they were about the loss of the L1.
This type of behavior would be considered a crime if it happened to adults…It can be seen as a major cause of Nikkei children dropping out of school.
Brazilian parents also regretted their experiences with racism, ijime and discrimination.
Returnee children themselves recognize the need for social support, even more than language support. Schools need clear anti-bullying, multicultural policies, that can be actually enforced.