SOCIOFINAL2.pdf

Term Paper
On
Democracy & Party Politics in Bangladesh: A Critical Analysis
of the Right, Left & Center
Course : Sociology (G103)
Submitted to
Tahsina Akter
Associate Professor
Department of Sociology
University of Dhaka
Submitted by
Group 04
Section B, IBA BBA 29
Gourab Mondol, Roll 44
Mehrin Tazin, Roll 56
Nusrat Jahan, Roll 74
Sabiba Hossain, Roll 76
Takrim Ahmed, Roll 80
Date of Submission
May 24, 2023

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Letter of Transmittal
Date: 24.05.2023
Tahsina Akter
Associate Professor
Department of Sociology
University of Dhaka
Subject: Term paper submission titled “Democracy & Party Politics in Bangladesh: A Critical
Analysis of the Right, Left & Center”
Dear Madam,
We, Group 4, Section B, IBA BBA 29th, have the honor to state that the attached term
paper has been prepared as a requirement for the Sociology (G103) course. A thorough search
into the existing articles, journals and writings of renowned authors gave us ample insight into
the subject matter. The following report is the result of our findings and efforts.
We would like to express our gratitude for giving us this opportunity and hope that this term
paper meets your expectations. This term paper has been prepared under your supervision and
under no circumstances will this report be produced for any other BBA (IBA) course. No part
of this report will be shared or republished without your authorization.
Yours Sincerely,
Gourab Mondol, Roll 44
Mehrin Tazin, Roll 56
Nusrat Jahan, Roll 74
Sabiba Hossain, Roll 76
Takrim Ahmed, Roll 80
Group - 4, Section - B, IBA BBA 29th

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Abstract
The research draws upon a diverse range of sources, including academic journals such as the
Dhaka University Journal of Sociology, South Asian Journal of Social Sciences and
Humanities, Asian Journal of Political Science, and Journal of Governance and Development,
to provide a comprehensive analysis of the political scenario in Bangladesh. It also utilizes
sources such as the Bloomsbury Collections book on Bangladesh's political history and reports
from organizations like the Committee to Protect Journalists, Human Rights Watch,
Transparency International, and Reporters Without Borders to highlight the challenges faced
by journalists and critics, as well as the crackdown on freedom of expression.
The study explores the fragmentation and evolution of political parties in Bangladesh, with a
specific focus on the Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party. It investigates the
power dynamics among these parties, analyzing their ideologies, strategies, and governance
practices. Furthermore, the paper delves into the impact of corruption on Bangladesh's socio-
political fabric, drawing from studies on corruption, anti-corruption measures, and the country's
ranking in global corruption indices.
Additionally, the term paper examines the influence of Islam on politics in Bangladesh and its
implications for governance and political culture. It also addresses the Rohingya crisis and its
impact on Bangladesh-Myanmar relations, considering the country's role in managing the
refugee crisis.
Through an extensive review of the literature, this paper aims to contribute to the understanding
of the political landscape in Bangladesh. The findings underscore the need for effective
measures to combat corruption, protect freedom of expression, and promote transparency in
governance. The study concludes with recommendations for policymakers, civil society
organizations, and international stakeholders to support democratic processes and promote
good governance in Bangladesh.

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Table of Contents
1. Introduction....................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Background and context............................................................................................... 1
1.2. Research objectives ...................................................................................................... 1
1.3. Significance of the study............................................................................................... 2
2. Literature Review .............................................................................................................. 3
2.1. Concept of democracy .................................................................................................. 3
2.2. Evolution of party politics in Bangladesh ...................................................................... 5
2.3. The left, right, and center ideologies.............................................................................. 6
3.Methodology....................................................................................................................... 8
3.1 Research Design: .......................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Data Collection:............................................................................................................ 9
3.3 Data Analysis:............................................................................................................. 10
3.4 Critical Analysis: ........................................................................................................ 10
3.5 Synthesis and Interpretation: ...................................................................................... 10
4. Historical Analysis of Democracy in Bangladesh................................................................ 10
4.1 Pre Independence Era................................................................................................. 10
4.3 Influence of External Factors on Democracy................................................................ 19
5. Framework ...................................................................................................................... 20
5.1. Major political parties in Bangladesh and their ideologies : ......................................... 20
5.2 Party Systems and electoral politics in Bangladesh:...................................................... 24
5.3 Power Dynamics and party alliances in Bangladesh :.................................................... 24
5.4 Other relevant aspects :............................................................................................... 25
6.Findings............................................................................................................................ 26
6.1 Overview of Left-Wing Ideology.................................................................................. 26
6.2 Overview of Right-Wing Ideology................................................................................ 27
6.3 Overview of Center Ideology ....................................................................................... 27
6.4 Manifestations of These Ideologies in Bangladeshi Politics............................................ 28
6.5 Examination of Left-Wing Political Parties .................................................................. 29
6.6 Evaluation of Right-Wing Political Parties................................................................... 29
6.7 Assessment of Center-Aligned Political Parties............................................................. 30
6.8 Comparative Analysis of Ideologies' Impact on Democracy .......................................... 30
6.9 Political corruption and governance issues................................................................... 31

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6.10 Socio-economic disparities and inequality .................................................................. 32
6.11 Ethnic and religious divisions .................................................................................... 33
6.12 Media and freedom of speech..................................................................................... 34
7. Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 35
7.1 Potential reforms and policy recommendations ............................................................ 35
7.2 Strengthening democratic institutions.......................................................................... 36
7.3 External influences on Democracy in Bangladesh......................................................... 37
8. Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 38
9. Conclusion....................................................................................................................... 40
10. Reference ....................................................................................................................... 41

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1. Introduction
1.1. Background and context
Bangladesh, the eighth most populous country in the world, is the youngest nation-state in
South Asia, having gained independence in 1971 following a genocide that resulted in the loss
of millions of lives. The country was ravaged during the nine-month war, with widespread
displacement and refuge-seeking, as well as numerous cases of rape against women. Since then,
the country has faced a turbulent journey, characterized by a mix of hope and despair over its
45 years of existence. The political history of Bangladesh is best described as volatile and
eventful, with military and pseudo-military regimes ruling for a significant portion of the past
four decades. Civilian governments that were elected to power have been plagued by corruption
and instability, leaving democracy as an unfulfilled aspiration.
Despite numerous struggles and sacrifices made by its people, genuine change has been elusive.
Bangladesh has experienced different forms of governance, ranging from a parliamentary
system to one-party presidential rule and a multi-party presidential system. After
experimenting with a unique system known as the Caretaker Government (CTG), it was
eventually discarded amidst controversy. These various systems of governance have left lasting
imprints on the country's political landscape, shaping Bangladeshi politics and influencing its
political culture.
1.2. Research objectives
The primary objective of this study is to enhance our understanding of the role of political
parties in the political development of Bangladesh. While political parties are widely discussed
and debated in the media, there has been a limited amount of academic research and empirical
data on this subject. Over the past forty-three years since the country's independence, only a
few books and articles have been published specifically focusing on political parties. A

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comprehensive overview study on political parties was initially published in 1996 and
subsequently updated in 2008 (Khan et al., 1996, 2008). Some publications have examined
individual parties such as the Awami League (Ghosh, 1990) and the Jamaat-e-Islami (Kabir,
2006; Shehabuddin, 2013), while recent research has explored Islamist politics and parties
(Riaz, 2004, 2010). However, there is currently no comprehensive study that systematically
addresses the evolution of the party system and the key characteristics of political parties in
Bangladesh. Additionally, the state of internal democracy within parties, despite being a topic
of significant public debate, has not been thoroughly examined. This research endeavor aims
to fill this knowledge gap and provide a more comprehensive understanding of party politics
in Bangladesh.
Information regarding party ideology and organization was collected from party constitutions,
while data on leadership, factionalism, and violence were sourced from various newspaper
reports, journal articles, and reports from different organizations. We acknowledge the
limitations imposed by data constraints in our research. However, by employing a combination
of methods including the examination of primary materials, the presentation of quantitative
data and statistics, as well as conducting in-depth interviews with selected leaders, we have
made reasonable efforts to ensure the validity of our findings. Despite the constraints of time
and resources, we are confident that our research provides valuable insights into the subject
matter.
1.3. Significance of the study
The research plays a role in understanding the dynamics of the country's political landscape
and its democratic development. Political parties are central actors in democratic systems,
playing a crucial role in governance, policy-making, representation, and political mobilization.
Analyzing political parties in Bangladesh provides valuable insights into the functioning of its
democratic processes, power dynamics, and the challenges faced in consolidating democratic
institutions.
This study should help to realize the ideological orientations, policy agendas, and strategies
pursued by different parties. It sheds light on the diverse range of political ideologies and

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interests present in the country, such as left-wing, right-wing, and centrist perspectives. This
understanding is vital for comprehending the political debates, policy choices, and electoral
competition in Bangladesh
Furthermore, the study of political parties provides insights into the organizational structures,
internal dynamics, and leadership styles within parties. It helps in examining issues of intra-
party democracy, factionalism, and the role of leadership in shaping party strategies and
decision-making processes. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for assessing the overall
health and functioning of political parties in Bangladesh. By examining the electoral
performance and popular support of different parties, researchers can assess the extent to which
parties effectively represent the aspirations and concerns of the Bangladeshi population.
The study provides insights into the ideological orientations, organizational dynamics,
representation of interests, and evolution of the party system. It helps in understanding the
functioning of democratic processes, political competition, and governance in Bangladesh.
Such knowledge is essential for policymakers, academics, and citizens alike, enabling informed
discussions on strengthening democratic institutions, promoting effective governance, and
fostering political stability in the country.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Concept of democracy
The term "democracy" has its origins in ancient Greece more than 2400 years ago. It is derived
from the Greek words "demos," meaning the common people, and "kratos," meaning strength.
In contemporary usage, democracy refers to a system of governance where the majority of the
population determines the rule, typically through elected representatives. In a democratic
government, the entire adult population, typically individuals aged 18 years and above,
participate in the process of selecting representatives to act on their behalf at local, state, and
national levels. The primary objective of the elected government is to safeguard the rights,
interests, and well-being of the people, benefiting the entire society. In this system, the citizens
of a nation possess supreme power in deciding how their societies should be managed. The

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principles that underpin democracy include democracy itself, constitutionalism, and liberalism.
The implementation of each principle enables a country to exercise genuine democracy for the
welfare of its citizens.
Democracy is founded on the principle of popular sovereignty, which means that the ultimate
power and authority rest with the people. The citizens have the right to participate in the
decision-making process through voting and electing representatives. According to political
theorist Robert A. Dahl, popular sovereignty is the "fundamental principle of democracy"
(Dahl, 1971).
Democracy promotes political equality, treating all citizens as equals in terms of their rights
and opportunities to participate in the political process. Citizens have equal access to political
rights, such as the right to vote and the right to hold public office. John Stuart Mill, a
philosopher and political economist, argued for the importance of political equality as a
foundation of democracy (Mill, 1861). Democracy emphasizes the rule of law, which means
that laws apply equally to all citizens and even to those in positions of power. The rule of law
ensures that no one is above the law and that legal procedures are followed.
Democracy upholds and protects individual rights and freedoms, such as freedom of speech,
freedom of assembly, freedom of the press, and the right to privacy. These rights are essential
for citizens to express their opinions, criticize the government, and engage in public debate
without fear of persecution. The philosopher John Locke argued that the primary purpose of
government is to protect individual rights (Locke, 1690). Democracy recognizes and respects
diverse viewpoints and accommodates the existence of different groups and interests within
society. It safeguards minority rights and ensures that minority opinions are heard and taken
into account.
These characteristics are widely acknowledged in the field of political science and are
supported by various political theorists and scholars. It is important to note that the specific
characteristics and their interpretations may vary across different democratic systems.

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2.2. Evolution of party politics in Bangladesh
The party system in Bangladesh has undergone significant transformations since its inception.
This article examines the three distinct periods of party development in the country: the
transition from one-party dominance to a single-party system (1972-1975), the emergence of
state-sponsored political parties during military rule (1975-1990), and the establishment of a
multi-party system after the restoration of electoral democracy in 1991.
From One-Party Dominance to a Single-Party System (1972-1975):
Following the independence of Bangladesh, the Awami League (AL) emerged as the dominant
political party in the country. In the 1970 elections, the AL won a landslide victory, securing
the majority of seats both in the National Assembly and Provincial Assemblies. The opposition
to the AL was weak during this period, with Islamist and right-wing parties being banned and
leftist parties remaining factionalized and relatively powerless. However, debates within the
ruling party about the need for political and party system changes led to the introduction of a
presidential form of government and the establishment of a single-party system called the
Bangladesh Krishak Shramik Awami League (BAKSAL) through constitutional amendments
in 1975. This experiment with a single-party system was short-lived as political instability
ensued, culminating in the assassination of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the leader
of the AL, in August 1975.
Emergence of State-Sponsored Political Parties during Military Rule (1975-1990):
The period between 1975 and 1990 witnessed military rule under two successive dictators,
Major General Ziaur Rahman and Lieutenant General Hussain Muhammad Ershad. Both rulers
initially governed under martial law, suppressing political and party activities. However, they
later transitioned to civilian rule while forming their own state-sponsored parties known as
sarkari parties. These parties utilized state patronage and machinery, including intelligence
agencies, to consolidate their support base. Zia and Ershad exploited factionalism within
existing parties, attracting breakaway groups and retired bureaucrats to join their sarkari
parties. They also capitalized on the role of Islam in politics and rehabilitated Islamist groups

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that had become politically inactive after the liberation war. Although both rulers held
elections, they were widely perceived as engineered and lacked credibility.
Multi-Party System after the Restoration of Electoral Democracy (1991-present):
The restoration of electoral democracy in 1991 marked the transition to a multi-party system
in Bangladesh. The two major parties, the Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party
(BNP), emerged as the leading forces in the political landscape. The AL, under the leadership
of Sheikh Hasina, and the BNP, led by Khaleda Zia, formed two electoral alliances that played
pivotal roles in successive governments. While smaller parties also exist, the political
landscape is largely dominated by the AL-BNP rivalry. These parties have alternated in power
and faced challenges related to the fairness and transparency of elections.
The party system in Bangladesh has evolved through different phases, starting from one-party
dominance to a single-party system, followed by state-sponsored parties during military rule,
and eventually transitioning into a multi-party system. Each period has its distinct
characteristics and challenges, shaping the political landscape of the country. Understanding
this evolution is crucial for comprehending the dynamics of party politics in Bangladesh and
its impact on governance and democracy.
2.3. The left, right, and center ideologies
Leftist parties in the Indian subcontinent have a well-documented history of active involvement
in anti-colonial movements against British rule. Similarly, in post-partition Bangladesh, leftists
played a significant role in mobilizing against the authoritarian rule of the Pakistani
dictatorship. Despite operating clandestinely during that period, certain leftist groups
collaborated with the Bangladesh Awami League (AL). However, following the AL's
leadership in the liberation war of 1971, internal conflicts and clashes with the ruling party
impeded the growth of leftist parties. While leftist parties became the only viable option for
opposition politics after the ban on religion-based politics in 1972 and 1973, they encountered
difficulties in reaching a consensus on initiating a socialist revolution. The military coup in
1975 removed the AL from power, but opposition politics remained restricted. After fifteen
years of military dictatorship, a coalition comprising centrist parties and smaller leftist parties

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mobilized the nation and restored parliamentary democracy in 1991. Despite their
contributions, leftist parties have faced challenges in national elections, with established parties
like Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal (JASAD) and the Workers Party of Bangladesh (WPB) having
limited parliamentary representation and modest constituencies and vote shares.
Center political parties in Bangladesh adopt a moderate stance, aiming to strike a balance
between different ideological orientations. The center in Bangladeshi politics is often
represented by smaller parties and factions that do not align with the left or the right. One such
party is the Jatiya Party (JP), which emerged from a faction of the Awami League. The JP
positions itself as a centrist party focusing on national unity, development, and good
governance. It has actively participated in various coalitions and played a crucial role in
forming governments. Another centrist party is the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), which
promotes a liberal and democratic agenda emphasizing human rights, civil liberties, and
economic growth. Center parties strive to bridge ideological divides, appeal to a broader
spectrum of voters, and collaborate with both left and right-wing parties to achieve their
objectives. While they may not wield significant electoral dominance, center parties play a vital
role in maintaining a balanced political environment and facilitating cooperation among
different factions.
The Bangladesh Awami League, commonly known as the Awami League or AL, is a prominent
political party in Bangladesh. It is considered a centrist to center-left party and has been in
power as the ruling party of Bangladesh since 2009. Following the emergence of independent
Bangladesh, the Awami League emerged as the victor in the first general elections held in 1973.
However, the party was overthrown in 1975 after the assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
Subsequent military regimes marginalized the party in the political arena, resulting in the
execution or imprisonment of many of its senior leaders and activists. With the restoration of
democracy in 1990, the Awami League reemerged as one of the major political players in
Bangladesh.
Right-wing political parties in Bangladesh typically embrace conservative values, nationalism,
and free-market principles. The Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), established in 1978, is a
prominent right-wing party that has regularly alternated in power through elections. It places
emphasis on national identity, economic liberalism, and market-oriented policies. The BNP has
historically provided an alternative to the Awami League, attracting support from diverse
segments of the population. The Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh, an Islamist political party, also

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leans towards the right on the political spectrum. It seeks to establish a society based on Islamic
principles and has engaged in various alliances with right-leaning parties. Right-wing parties
in Bangladesh often prioritize issues such as national security, cultural preservation, and
economic growth, appealing to conservative segments of society. However, they have faced
criticism regarding their commitment to democratic norms and their handling of matters related
to minority rights and secularism.
3.Methodology
The study begins with an extensive literature review to analyze existing research on
democracy, party politics, and political dynamics in Bangladesh. The sources used in this
secondary source term paper provide a comprehensive exploration of various aspects of
Bangladesh's political landscape and dynamics. Ahmed (2017) analyzes the politics of the left
in Bangladesh, tracing its foundation and subsequent fragmentation. Ahmed (2017) conducts
a comparative study of the Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party, examining
their respective characteristics. Ahmed (2019) delves into power dynamics within
Bangladesh, focusing on the major political parties. Bloomsbury Collections (n.d.) offers a
political history of Bangladesh since independence. The Committee to Protect Journalists
(2022) reports on the arrest of a journalist and charges filed against them under the Digital
Security Act. Hasan (2020) investigates the intersection of Islam and politics in Bangladesh,
while Hasan (2021) explores Islam, governance, and political culture in the country. Human
Rights Watch (2023) highlights the need to end the crackdown on journalists and critics in
Bangladesh. Kabir et al. (2021) present a unique study of corruption in Bangladesh. Khan
(2021) examines the emerging regional power dilemma in the Indo-Pacific region from
Bangladesh and Sri Lankan perspectives. Muhith (2017) provides a contextual analysis of
Bangladesh's political party system. Nazneen (2009) focuses on the discourses of political
parties and women's empowerment in Bangladesh. ORF Online (2021) discusses the impact
of the Rohingya crisis on Bangladesh-Myanmar relations. Political Parties in Bangladesh
(n.d.) provides further insights into the country's political party landscape. Rahman (2019)
offers an overview of corruption and anti-corruption efforts in Bangladesh. Rahman and
Rashid (2020) critically analyze the Digital Security Act and its impact on investigative
journalism in Bangladesh. Rahman (2022) explores the transformation of leftist politics in
Bangladesh. Riaz (2021) examines the pathway of democratic backsliding in the country.

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Reporters Without Borders (2022) provides a ranking of press freedom, where Bangladesh's
position is highlighted. The Daily Star (2023) reports on Bangladesh's ranking as the second-
most corrupt country in South Asia, according to TIB. Tusher (2012) discusses the lobbying
for central posts during the AL national council. The World Bank (2020) provides an
overview of its engagement in Bangladesh. The World Inequality Lab (2022) presents the
World Inequality Report for the year. Zaidi (2014) focuses on political parties and party
politics in Bangladesh.
3.1 Research Design:
The research design of the paper is based on a qualitative approach that combines
documentary analysis and critical evaluation of existing literature. The primary focus is on
examining the various political parties, power dynamics, and democratization processes in
Bangladesh.
3.2 Data Collection:
The data for this research is collected through a systematic review of academic articles,
reports, and other relevant publications. The sources include scholarly journals, research
papers, books, government reports, and reputable online platforms. The following data
sources are used:
- Academic journals: Dhaka University Journal of Sociology, South Asian Journal of Social
Sciences and Humanities, Asian Journal of Political Science, CenRaPS Journal of Social
Sciences, Democratization, and Asian Affairs.
- Reports: Human Rights Watch, Transparency International, Committee to Protect
Journalists, and World Bank.
- Online sources: ResearchGate, ORF Online, The Daily Star, and Reporters Without
Borders.

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3.3 Data Analysis:
The collected data is thoroughly analyzed using thematic analysis and comparative analysis
techniques. The aim is to identify key themes, patterns, and trends related to democracy,
party politics, and power dynamics in Bangladesh. The analysis involves identifying
commonalities, differences, and critical insights from the literature.
3.4 Critical Analysis:
The paper employs a critical analysis approach to examine the strengths, weaknesses, and
limitations of the existing literature. It critically evaluates the arguments, methodologies, and
findings presented in the selected papers to provide a comprehensive and balanced
understanding of the topic.
3.5 Synthesis and Interpretation:
The findings from the data analysis and critical analysis are synthesized to develop a
coherent narrative that highlights the key insights and implications for democracy and party
politics in Bangladesh. The paper aims to provide a comprehensive and critical analysis of
the right, left, and center political ideologies in the context of Bangladesh.
4. Historical Analysis of Democracy in Bangladesh
4.1 Pre Independence Era
After 1905, political movements that would eventually make Bangladesh independent gained
force in each decade. Voters in areas that became Bangladesh consistently declared their
independence when they went to vote. In 1921, they rejected the Indian National Congress
and supported C R Das' Swarajya Party. In 1937, they supported A K Fazlul Huq's Krishak
Praja Party and joined Muhammad Ali Jinnah's Pakistan movement. In 1946, they supported
the Muslim League and in 1947, they chose Pakistan over India. In the early 1950s, the

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Bengali language movement became the first major public articulation of a new nation, which
acquired explicitly political aspirations in the 1960s.
Two Visions of Independence
The two political visions of independence in East Pakistan, federation and sovereignty, had
separate origins and flourished in different circles. One vision sought political autonomy and
self-rule for East Pakistan, while the other resembled the vision of radicals in India who
demanded freedom from British India as early as 1905. These two visions of independence
informed one another and always overlapped in the context of Pakistan, as they had in British
India.
Post Language Movement Political Scenario
In 1952, students led the language movement and established a popular base for Bengali
politics outside constitutionalism. In 1954, voters again voiced their independent spirit by
supporting the United Front, which demolished the Muslim League in East Bengal elections
and framed a 21-point blueprint for regional autonomy. When the new 1956 Pakistan
constitution rejected that idea of autonomy, Awami League president Abdul Hamid Khan
Bhasani said that if East Pakistan's grievances were not addressed adequately, Pakistan would
become untenable for Bengalis. In 1962, after four years of military rule, following Ayub
Khan's 1958 coup, a clandestine group of students, called the Bengal Liberation Force,
formed a secret plan to develop the idea of a Bengali national revolution. Thus, by 1962, the
two visions of independence had taken political form and overlapped to some extent.
The Six Point Programme
In the 1960s, economic disparities between East and West increased, and the idea that
Pakistan consisted of two economies and two polities grew among East Pakistan intellectuals,
who formed an increasingly influential circle for the interaction of the two visions of
independence. The combination of the language movement's Bengali cultural nationalism
with a 1960s critique of Pakistan's political economy composed a new kind of "two-nation
theory" inside Pakistan. The 1965 war between India and Pakistan dramatised East Pakistan's
military vulnerability compared to West Pakistan. To address disparities between East and
West Pakistan, Awami League president Sheikh Mujibur Rahman announced a six-point
programme in 1966, demanding that East and West Pakistan form a federated state.

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Agartala Conspiracy Case
In 1967, Ayub Khan's government implicated Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and 34 others in an
alleged conspiracy to make East Pakistan independent. This led to a mass popular movement
against the Agartala Conspiracy Case and the Ayub Khan regime. In 1969, a new popular
movement led by student organizations combined calls for federalism with assertions of
Bengali nationalism. On 22 January, the popular uprising forced Ayub Khan to withdraw the
Agartala Conspiracy Case and to release Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. On 10 March 1969,
Bangabandhu presented the Awami League's "six-point" federation plan at a Rawalpindi
round table conference.
By 1969, the two visions of independence in East Pakistan became indistinguishable in West
Pakistan and probably had been by 1966, if not 1954. On 25 March 1969, Ayub Khan
resigned and elections were held the next year. East Pakistan received 162 of the 300 general
seats and five indirectly elected female seats in the unicameral National Assembly. East
Pakistan politics then entered its climactic phase and the two visions became inextricably
entangled.
1970 Election
Sheikh Mujib proposed a federal constitution in an election speech on Radio Pakistan in
October 1970. On 12 November 1970, a cyclone devastated East Pakistan's coastal districts,
and Sheikh Mujib declared that the government's failure was a failure of Pakistan. The
Student League demanded the release of political prisoners and raised two slogans: "Peasants
and workers: take up arms to make Bangladesh independent!" and "Raise a ganabahini
(people's force) to make Bangladesh independent!" By the time of elections on 7 and 17
December 1970, the two visions of independence were tightly entangled in the minds of
many people. The Awami League's election victory officially represented mass support for
six-point federalism.
Independence vs Federalism
Sheikh Mujib led a meeting of elected East Pakistan representatives to implement the Awami
League's six-point programme and the SCP's eleven-point charter. However, events in
February and early March 1971 ended any realistic possibility of a federated Pakistan. He
stood by his plan, but new shocks arrived. On 21 February, he declared East Pakistan would

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fight for their democratic rights and self-rule and invited all members of the Pakistan
National Assembly to join the Dhaka session. Z A Bhutto threatened to boycott the session,
sparking popular uprisings. Student leaders formed an apex action committee to lead the
struggle for national independence.
Independent National Sovereignty
In March 1971, the vision of independent national sovereignty became politically dominant.
On 2 March, spontaneous hartals occurred all over East Pakistan, and on 3 March, the
Bangladesh Central Student Union declared independence. On 4 March, a hartal covered East
Pakistan, and on 5 March, the Pakistan army fired on striking workers at Tongi. Protesters
raised barricades and burned the Tongi Bridge, and intellectuals and professionals took an
oath of allegiance to national independence. On 6 March, General Tikka Khan became East
Pakistan's governor and martial law administration began.
On 25 March, the National Assembly convened in Dhaka, but the Awami League and other
East Pakistan political parties continued with non-cooperation. Sheikh Mujib's six-point
programme and conditions for joining the National Assembly inspired a popular revolution
on 7 March 1971. He urged people to make every home a fortress and fight with whatever
they had ready in hand, declaring "This struggle is for emancipation! This struggle is for
independence!" The revolution inspired numerous declarations of national sovereignty,
composed and endorsed by major public figures.
Non-Cooperation
On 8 March, East Pakistan radio, television and administration obeyed Sheikh Mujib. On 9
March, the chief justice of Dhaka High Court refused to administer the oath of office to Tikka
Khan. The Student League approved a declaration of independence and invited Sheikh Mujib
to form a national government. On 11 March, Bengali associations of the East Pakistan Civil
Service and Civil Service of Pakistan declared loyalty to Sheikh Mujib. On 14 March, the
sbkcsp prepared for war, raising checkpoints in Dhaka to stop military supplies and cargoes
to West Pakistan.
On 16 March, Sheikh Mujib began talks with Yahya Khan and pursued a vision of national
sovereignty. On 23 March, Pakistan Day became People's Independence Day, and the sbkcsp
led the mass rejection of Pakistan Day and directed all nationalists to hoist the Bangladesh

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flag. On 25 March, Chittagong port workers and officers refused to unload cargoes from the
Swat, and the people of Chittagong raised barricades on major roads to On 26 March, Sheikh
Mujibur Rahman sent a message to East Pakistan and broadcast a message from Swadhin
Bangla Betarkendra declaring Bangladesh's independence. On 30 March, he appealed to the
world community to aid the people of Bangladesh and end the genocide. On 10 April 1971,
the provisional government of Bangladesh declared independence with the words "We
declare and constitute Bangladesh to be a sovereign People's Republic" and "Bangabandhu
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman shall be the president of the Republic and that Syed Nazrul Islam
shall be the vice-president of the Republic, and that the president shall be the supreme
commander of all the armed forces of the republic". Sheikh Mujib embraced student activists
and even conservatives to protect themselves against radicalism.
4.2. Post-Independence Period
Bangladesh's first government was formed on 10 April 1971 and took the oath of office in
Meherpur, Kushtia on 17 April 1971. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was elected as the first
President of the Provisional Government of Bangladesh, Syed Nazrul Islam was elected as
the Vice President, and Tajuddin Ahmed was elected as the first Prime Minister. Other major
cabinet members were Mr Kamruzzaman, Mr Monsur Ali and Khodokar Mushtaq Ahmed.
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman became the Supreme Commander of the Liberation Army and
appointed Colonel M.A.G. Osmani as the Commander-in-Chief of the liberation army. The
Provisional Government divided Bangladesh into eleven Sectors for conducting war
efficiently and in an organized manner.
Prime Minister Tajuddin Ahmed started an intergovernmental dialogue with the Indian
Government immediately after the formation of the Provisional Government. Bangladesh
achieved victory in the liberation war on 16 December 1971.
1972-1975 First Parliamentary Era
On 8 January 1972, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was released from Pakistan Jail and sent to
London, where he was met by the Prime Minister of the UK and other world leaders. He
returned to Bangladesh on 10 January 1972, congratulating the Bengali Mukti Bahini (the

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Bangladesh Liberation Force) for succeeding in the war of liberation against the Pakistan
army. In 1973, he continued his term in office with immense backing from India and public
popularity, but had difficulty transforming this support into political strength. The new
constitution of Bangladesh, which came into force on 16 December 1972, created a strong
executive prime minister, a ceremonial presidency, an independent judiciary, and a
unicameral legislature on a modified Westminster model. In December 1974, Mujib declared
a state of emergency and used his parliamentary majority to win a constitutional amendment
limiting the powers of the legislative and judicial branches, establishing an executive
presidency, and instituting a one-party system. On 15 August 1975, Mujib and most of his
family were assassinated by a small group of mid-level army officers.
The State Under the Politico-military-bureaucratic Oligarchy, 1975-82
The Awami League formed the first government of Bangladesh after independence in 1971,
with different sections with different economic interests. The socialist policies of the regime
failed to remedy the economic and social ills of the country, leading to the pauperization of
the poorer sections and the growth of a new class of traders. In the wake of the anti-Awami
League movement, the Awami League staged a constitutional coup and appointed a civilian
government, but the political power was in the hands of the military. The Bangladesh
Nationalist Party (BNP) was formed in 1979 by Ziaur Rahman to civilianize his rule and
conduct Parliamentary elections. During the period 1975-79, the military government
initiated economic and political measures to acquire support from various social and
economic groups, such as trade licensing, state-financed capital, state direction of private
credit and state enterprises. The old rich and dispossessed industrialists attained a new
momentum and established their dominance in alliance with the new rich, which formed the
main support base of the BNP as an appendix of the military-bureaucratic oligarchy.
The Ideology and Politics of the Zia Regime
Ziaur Rahman's regime followed a growth strategy in the name of the mixed-economy model
to maximize the GNP growth rate. It borrowed the populist development strategy from the
World Bank and the IMF and established close linkages between the state and the
international financial institutions. It organized the rich to participate in state-sponsored
industrial development programmes, denationalized public sector enterprises and liberalized
the trade policy. To get the support of the rural elites, it refrained from land reform and
effective taxation of income and property. The economic growth policy generated an acute

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crisis among the newly rich and the middle class, who shared state power but did not receive
equal financial benefits from the dispensation of patronage. The entente between the interests
of the industrial and trading groups and the state machine was also strained by intra-group
conflicts over control of the patronage derived from access to foreign aid-financed projects.
The State Under the Military-bureaucratic oligarchy, 1982-90
The army took power from President Abdus Sattar on 24 March 1982, supported by army
generals, Bangladesh Nationalist Party ministers, and industrialists. Abdus Sattar had been
unable to reduce corruption and stop infighting for power among the different factions of the
ruling party. The military government did not publicly criticize the policy of the previous
government but pushed further and further along the same line. The Jatiya Party (National
Party) was formed in 1985 by the military and civil bureaucrats. It included businessmen,
industrialists and political personalities.
In the 1986 Parliamentary elections, the military-backed Jatiya Party won the majority. The
ministers in the Jatiya Party came from rich families, mostly industrialists and businessmen,
and had connections with the civil and military bureaucracy. This highlights the increasing
influence of the state in the distribution of resources.
The Ideology and Politics of the Ershad Regime
The Ershad regime attempted to discredit the politicians of the Awami League and
Bangladesh Nationalist Party, but failed to offer anything new in political terms. Ziaur
Rahman abolished socialist principles and eliminated constitutional barriers to the
development of the capitalist system. In the post-1975 period, the regime implemented
disinvestment and privatization policies, including withdrawing subsidies from agricultural
inputs, returning nationalized units to private hands, and liberalising import-export and
exchange rate policies. The Jatiya Party was formed and a Parliamentary election was held in
1986. The regime gave high-ranking military personnel a share in the political system and
appointed civil and military bureaucrats as chief executives.
In 1985, 460 Upazilas were created with an elected Upazila chairman. In 1987, the Zila
Parishad (District Council) bill was enacted, allowing military officers to be included as
nominated members.

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The Fall of the Ershad Regime
In December 1990, an urban-based mass movement overthrew the Ershad regime and a
caretaker-neutral government under Chief Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed took power. The main
cause of the movement was the failure of the liberal economic policies administered by the
regime to generate a capital accumulation process. Ershad used an organized modus operandi
for illegal import earnings and inflated the price of foreign equipment, machinery, and
services for various government projects. The donor agencies and countries withdrew their
support due to the country's bad economic performance. The Bengali ruling class has sought
to control the state machine to dispense patronage and seek material benefit, and the changes
in economic policies point to the intensity of the problems faced by the ruling class.
1991-2007: Transition to Democracy
The BNP won a plurality of seats in the 1991 Bangladesh General Election and formed a
coalition government with the Islamic party Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh, with Khaleda Zia as
Prime Minister. Four parties had more than 10 members elected to the 1991 Parliament,
including the Bangladesh Nationalist Party, the Awami League, the Jamaat-e-Islami (JI), and
the Jatiya Party (JP). In March 1994, the opposition boycotted Parliament and began a
campaign of marches, demonstrations, and strikes to force the government to resign. In 1995,
the opposition pledged to boycott national elections. In 2000, US President Bill Clinton
visited Bangladesh, but Hasina declined due to fear of gas scarcity.
Khaleda Zia won a second term as Prime Minister in 2001, and the Awami League walked
out from Parliament in 2003 to protest derogatory remarks about Hasina. On 21 August 2004,
terrorists conducted a grenade attack on a rally, killing 24 people. In 2005, the Awami
League boycotted Parliament and the BNP government's tenure expired in 2006.
2006-2008: Caretaker Government
The end of Khaleda Zia's government in late October 2006 led to protests and strikes,
resulting in the death of at least 40 people. Iajuddin Ahmed took on the position and formed a
government, appointing ten advisors and Fakhruddin Ahmed as the Chief Advisor. A State of
Emergency was declared and a campaign to crack down on corruption was undertaken.
Elections were scheduled before the end of 2008, and Ahmed's military-backed
administration attempted to reform the political parties by exiling Hasina and Zia, but this

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was never enforced. Hasina was arrested after two businessmen testified that she had extorted
80 million.
Khaleda Zia and Tarique Rahman were taken into custody for 2004 grenade attacks and
corruption charges. Local elections were peaceful and the General elections were held in
2008, with the Awami League and its Grand Alliance winning two-thirds of the seats.
2009 – present: Restoration and Present Parliamentary Era
The Awami League came to power in 2008, with Sheikh Hasina becoming the Prime
Minister and Zillur Rahman becoming President. The first two years were peaceful, but
Khaleda Zia moved to the house of her brother Sayeed Iskandar. Controversy erupted in 2011
when Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina declared the abolition of the caretaker government
system. In 2012, a coup attempt against Hasina was stopped and Bangladesh won a legal
battle against Myanmar. The period 2012-2014 was marked by widespread political unrest
and violence, leading to massive property damages, economic losses and the death of many
citizens.
The 10th general election was held on 5 January 2014, with 21 people killed. The Awami
League had a landslide victory and Sheikh Hasina was sworn in as Prime Minister. In 2017,
Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina signed 22 new deals and MoUs with India, including defence
cooperation. The post-2014 election period saw political calm, but tensions between the BNP
and Awami League reignited in 2018 due to the BNP's pressing demands for a On 22
September 2018, the Jatiya Oikya Prokriya (JOP) allied with the main opposition party BNP,
on the condition BNP would no longer be in alliance with Jamaat. On 10 October 2018, a
court verdict against the 2004 grenade attack was given, and BNP rejected the verdict and
protested against it.
The 2018 Bangladeshi general election saw the Awami League return to power, winning 259
out of 300 parliamentary seats. Sheikh Hasina's new cabinet took oath on 3 January 2019.
Sheikh Hasina also stated she would sell LPG to India and give India free access to extract
BD's Feni water. The dispute between Bangladesh and Myanmar over the unresolved
Rohingya Refugee Crisis continued, with Myanmar's unwillingness to take back the refugees.
Sheikh Hasina, Estonia, Tanzania, and Scotland attended the UN's COP26 in November
2021. In 2022, the BNP staged a massive protest against the Awami League Government due

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to rising inflation and power outages, but the Awami League achieved numerous economic
development, including the Padma Bridge and Dhaka Metro Rail. Smart Bangladesh Vision
2041 was launched in February 2023.
4.3 Influence of External Factors on Democracy
The democracy of Bangladesh has been influenced by various external factors throughout its
history. Here are some notable influences:
● Colonial Legacy: Bangladesh's history as part of British India under colonial rule has
had a lasting impact on its political and democratic development. The institutional
framework and administrative systems established during the colonial era continue to
shape the country's governance.
● Partition of India: The partition of India in 1947, which led to the creation of East
Pakistan (now Bangladesh), had significant implications for its democratic journey.
The country started its independence with a democratic framework inherited from
British India.
● Cold War Dynamics: During the Cold War era, external influences from major
powers played a role in shaping the politics of Bangladesh. The United States and the
Soviet Union had competing interests and supported different political factions, which
impacted the country's political landscape and democratic processes.
● Regional Dynamics: Bangladesh's geopolitical position and relations with
neighboring countries have influenced its democracy. Factors such as conflicts,
refugee issues, and political developments in neighboring countries, including India,
have had spill-over effects on the domestic political dynamics of Bangladesh.
● International Aid and Assistance: External aid and assistance from international
organizations and donor countries have had both positive and negative influences on
Bangladesh's democracy. Financial and technical support from foreign entities have
contributed to development projects and capacity-building, but at times, they have
also been criticized for potential interference or influence in domestic affairs.
● Globalization and Transnational Issues: Bangladesh, like many other countries, has
been impacted by globalization and transnational issues such as terrorism, migration,
and climate change. These issues have influenced the political discourse and policy
priorities, which in turn have implications for democratic governance.

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● Diplomatic Relations and International Pressure: International diplomacy and
pressure from the international community have affected the democratic processes in
Bangladesh. Diplomatic relations, human rights concerns, and calls for democratic
reforms from international actors have influenced the government's policies and
actions.
It's important to note that while external factors have influenced Bangladesh's democracy,
internal dynamics and the choices made by domestic actors have also played a significant role
in shaping the country's democratic trajectory.
5. Framework
5.1. Major political parties in Bangladesh and their ideologies :
Bangladesh is a country where for the first time a political party, the Awami League, has
remained in power for a decade, having won three consecutive general elections, each with a
landslide. Despite years of intense competition, the main opposition, the Bangladesh
Nationalist Party (BNP), is today in tatters, having been effectively cornered and undermined,
with a weakened party infrastructure, their leader until recently in prison, and little scope to
mobilize on the streets. At a formal institutional level, our understanding of how Bangladesh
has arrived at its current political state is relatively clear and well-documented. After the
country returned to a system of parliamentary democracy in 1991, general elections were
administered in a broadly neutral manner through a system of caretaker government '1. The
country’s two primary parties, the Awami League and BNP, alternated in power until the ruling
Awami League was re-elected in 2009, and repealed the caretaker government system through
a constitutional amendment in 2011. This has enabled the party to directly administer
subsequent elections under what is widely perceived as dubious circumstances.
Bangladesh Awami League
Ahmed (2017) in his paper “Awami League and Bangladesh Nationalist Party: A
Comparative Study. South Asian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities” wrote that
the Awami League, a dominant political party in Bangladesh, has played a significant role in
shaping the country's political landscape since its inception. Rooted in the nationalist
movement during the British colonial era, the Awami League emerged as a force advocating

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for the rights and aspirations of the Bengali-speaking population in East Pakistan. Its ideology,
deeply influenced by secularism and democratic principles, seeks to establish a progressive,
inclusive, and economically prosperous society.
Historically, the Awami League's emergence can be traced back to the Language Movement of
1952, when Bengalis protested against the imposition of Urdu as the state language. The party's
charismatic leader, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, played a pivotal role in mobilizing support for
greater regional autonomy. Subsequently, the Awami League became the torchbearer of the
Bengali nationalist movement, leading to the liberation of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971.
In terms of economic policy, the Awami League has prioritized development and poverty
alleviation. Under its leadership, Bangladesh has achieved remarkable progress in various
socio-economic indicators, including poverty reduction, healthcare, and education. The party's
flagship programs, such as microfinance initiatives and investments in infrastructure, have
contributed to the country's steady economic growth.
However, despite its achievements, the Awami League's tenure has been marred by allegations
of authoritarian tendencies and curtailment of political freedoms. Critics argue that the party's
dominance has weakened democratic institutions and hindered pluralistic discourse.
Furthermore, concerns have been raised about corruption within the party's ranks and the
concentration of power in the hands of a few.
While the Awami League's ideology of secularism and development-oriented policies have
undoubtedly made significant contributions to Bangladesh's progress, a critical analysis reveals
the need for a balanced approach that ensures the protection of democratic values and the
promotion of inclusive governance.
Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP)
According to Zaidi(2014) in his paper “Political Parties and Party Politics in Bangladesh.
Asian Affairs” the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) has played a significant role in the
political landscape of Bangladesh since its inception in 1978. Rooted in a right-wing nationalist
ideology, the BNP has advocated for a distinct identity and has been known for its emphasis
on preserving Bangladeshi culture and heritage. Historically, the party draws its ideological

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inspiration from the concept of "Bangladeshi nationalism," which seeks to prioritize the
interests of the majority Bengali population and protect the country's sovereignty. This
ideology has manifested in policies aimed at bolstering nationalistic sentiment, such as
promoting the use of the Bengali language and advocating for the preservation of traditional
cultural values.
However, the BNP's economic policies have often faced criticism for their lack of coherence
and efficacy. The party's approach has been characterized by a mix of populism and
protectionism, which has hindered the country's economic development. Under BNP
governments, there has been a tendency towards market intervention, protectionist trade
policies, and a reliance on subsidies and handouts. This approach has resulted in limited
economic liberalization, inhibiting foreign investment and stifling private sector growth.
Moreover, the BNP's governance record has been marred by allegations of corruption and
authoritarian tendencies. During its tenure, accusations of human rights abuses and political
violence have been leveled against the party, raising concerns about its commitment to
democratic principles and pluralism. While the BNP's nationalist ideology resonates with
segments of the population, its economic policies have often hindered rather than fostered
sustainable development. Additionally, the party's governance practices have raised questions
about its commitment to democratic values and human rights.
Jamaat-e-Islami
In “Political Party System of Bangladesh: A Contextual Analysis. Journal of Governance
and Development”, we find that founded in 1941, the party emerged from the broader Islamist
movement, which sought to establish an Islamic state based on a strict interpretation of Sharia
law. According to a study by Hasan (2021), titled "Islam, Governance, and Political Culture in
Bangladesh," the role of Islam in shaping governance and political culture in Bangladesh is
examined. Drawing inspiration from the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, Jamaat-e-Islami has
advocated for the Islamization of society and the implementation of Islamic governance in
Bangladesh.
Throughout its existence, Jamaat-e-Islami has faced criticism for its controversial role during
the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971. The party's leadership supported Pakistan's military
crackdown against Bengali nationalists, which resulted in widespread atrocities and the

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eventual formation of Bangladesh as an independent nation. Consequently, Jamaat-e-Islami
has been accused of collaborating with Pakistani forces and participating in war crimes.
The economic policy of Jamaat-e-Islami, guided by its Islamic ideology, emphasizes principles
such as social justice, equitable distribution of wealth, and the eradication of poverty. It
promotes an economic system based on Islamic principles of cooperation, charity, and
prohibition of usury. However, critics argue that the party's economic vision lacks concrete
policy proposals and relies heavily on rhetoric rather than practical solutions.
Communist Party of Bangladesh (CPB)
The Communist Party of Bangladesh (CPB) is a political organization that emerged in the
context of Bangladesh's tumultuous history, marked by its struggle for independence from
Pakistan in 1971. The CPB advocates for a Marxist-Leninist ideology, promoting the
establishment of a socialist state and the redistribution of wealth and power among the working
class. Historically, the CPB played a crucial role in mobilizing support for the liberation war,
and its members were actively involved in the resistance against the oppressive Pakistani
regime.
In terms of economic policy, the CPB advocates for a centrally planned economy, with the
state taking control of key industries and resources. This approach is rooted in the belief that a
planned economy would lead to equitable distribution of resources, eradicating poverty and
reducing socio-economic disparities. However, the implementation of such policies has faced
significant challenges, including inefficiencies, lack of incentives for innovation and
entrepreneurship, and the potential for centralized power to lead to authoritarian tendencies.
Furthermore, the CPB's adherence to Marxist-Leninist ideology has constrained its ability to
adapt to changing global dynamics and embrace market-oriented reforms. The party's strong
ideological commitment has limited its appeal and electoral success in a country that has
experienced significant economic growth and seeks to attract foreign investments.
While the CPB's historical role in the liberation war of Bangladesh is commendable, its rigid
adherence to Marxist-Leninist ideology and centralized economic policies raise questions
about the feasibility and desirability of its approach in the contemporary context. The party's

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reluctance to embrace more pragmatic and flexible policies has hindered its ability to gain
wider support and effectively address the economic and social challenges of Bangladesh.
5.2 Party Systems and electoral politics in Bangladesh:
Bangladesh has experienced a complex party system and dynamic electoral politics since its
independence in 1971. The party system has evolved from a dominant-party system to a more
competitive multiparty system.
The dominant-party system characterized the early years of Bangladesh's independence, with
the Awami League dominating the political scene. However, the party system transformed into
a more competitive landscape in the 1990s with the emergence of the Bangladesh Nationalist
Party and the Jatiya Party as significant players. Since then, elections have become fiercely
contested, and power has alternated between the Awami League and the BNP.
Elections in Bangladesh are conducted through a first-past-the-post (FPTP) system, where
candidates with the highest number of votes in individual constituencies are elected. The
Election Commission of Bangladesh oversees the electoral process, and political parties play a
crucial role in mobilizing voters and forming electoral alliances.
Electoral politics in Bangladesh are often marked by intense competition, allegations of
electoral malpractices, and occasional violence. The electoral campaigns focus on a mix of
national and local issues, and parties employ various strategies, including populist appeals and
mobilization along religious, ethnic, and regional lines.
5.3 Power Dynamics and party alliances in Bangladesh :
Power dynamics and party alliances play a crucial role in shaping the political landscape of
Bangladesh. Given the highly competitive nature of politics, parties often form alliances to
consolidate their electoral strength and secure a majority in the parliament.

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According to Ahmed(2019), the Awami League has been successful in building broad-based
alliances, such as the Grand Alliance, which includes several smaller political parties sharing
similar ideological and strategic objectives. These alliances provide the Awami League with a
broader support base and increase its chances of securing a parliamentary majority.
On the other hand, the Bangladesh Nationalist Party has also formed alliances, such as the
Four-Party Alliance, to challenge the ruling party's dominance. These alliances enable the BNP
to pool resources and mobilize voters across different regions of the country.
Party alliances in Bangladesh are often based on ideological similarities, regional
considerations, or shared interests. However, alliances are also subject to shifting dynamics,
with parties reevaluating their partnerships based on electoral prospects and policy priorities.
Power dynamics within political parties are shaped by the influence of key leaders and factions.
Strong leadership plays a significant role in determining party strategies, candidate selection,
and policy direction. Internal power struggles and factionalism are common in Bangladeshi
political parties and often lead to divisions and realignments.
5.4 Other relevant aspects :
In addition to the major political parties and electoral politics, several other aspects are relevant
to understanding the political landscape in Bangladesh.
a. Non-party actors: Non-party actors, including civil society organizations, student groups,
and labor unions, have played significant roles in shaping political discourse and mobilizing
public opinion. These actors often advocate for specific causes, such as human rights, labor
rights, and social justice, and influence policy debates.
b. The military: Historically, the military has had a significant influence on Bangladesh's
political dynamics, with several periods of military rule in the country's history. However, since
the restoration of democracy in 1991, the military has largely remained in the background,
allowing civilian rule to prevail.

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c. Media: The media landscape in Bangladesh has expanded in recent years, providing a
platform for diverse voices and facilitating public debates. However, there have been concerns
about media freedom and censorship, with reports of harassment and violence against
journalists.
d. Ethnic and regional dynamics: Bangladesh has diverse ethnic and regional identities that
influence political dynamics. Parties often mobilize support along ethnic or regional lines, and
issues related to regional autonomy and resource distribution remain important in the political
discourse.
Understanding these aspects is crucial for comprehending the complex interplay of actors and
forces that shape Bangladesh's political system.
6.Findings
Political ideologies play a crucial role in shaping the dynamics of a nation's political landscape.
In the context of Bangladeshi politics, the ideologies of the left, right, and center have had
significant influence over the years. This section aims to provide a data-driven analysis of these
ideologies, critically examining their historical context and manifestations within the political
sphere. By examining the left, right, and center ideologies in Bangladeshi politics, this paper
seeks to shed light on the complex interplay of ideas that have shaped the country's political
landscape.
6.1 Overview of Left-Wing Ideology
In, “Politics of the left in Bangladesh: From foundation to fragmentation” Left-wing
ideology is characterized by a commitment to social equality and a more extensive role of the
state in the economy. In Bangladesh, left-wing ideologies emerged during the country's
independence movement and gained traction through socialist and Marxist-Leninist principles.

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The left's primary focus has been on addressing socioeconomic inequalities, advocating for
land reforms, workers' rights, and equitable distribution of resources (Zaidi 2014).
The Bangladesh Socialist Party (BSP) is one of the prominent left-wing political parties in the
country. It has historically championed the cause of the working class, supporting labor
movements and advocating for policies aimed at reducing income disparities. The left's
influence has also been evident in mobilizing grassroots movements, particularly among
farmers and labor unions. However, it is important to note that left-wing politics in Bangladesh
has experienced fragmentation and divisions, leading to the emergence of multiple factions and
ideological variations within the left.
6.2 Overview of Right-Wing Ideology
In “Political Parties and Party Politics in Bangladesh” rightwing ideology is characterized
by a belief in individualism, free markets, limited state intervention, and conservative social
values. In Bangladesh, right-wing ideologies have historically been represented by parties such
as the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) and the Jamaat-e-Islami. The right wing has
emphasized nationalism, religious conservatism, and market-oriented economic policies (Zaidi
2014).
The BNP, founded by Ziaur Rahman, has been a prominent right-wing party in Bangladesh. It
has advocated for a market-based economy, privatization of state-owned enterprises, and
reduced government intervention. The right wing has also espoused conservative social values,
with an emphasis on traditional gender roles and the preservation of cultural and religious
norms. However, it is important to note that the right wing in Bangladesh has also faced
criticism for alleged authoritarian tendencies and human rights abuses.
6.3 Overview of Center Ideology
In “Political Parties and Party Politics in Bangladesh” Center ideology occupies a moderate
position between the left and right, seeking a balance between social progress and economic

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stability. In Bangladesh, center ideologies have been represented by parties such as the Awami
League (AL) and the Jatiya Party (JP). The center's focus has been on economic development,
poverty reduction, and maintaining social harmony.
The Awami League, led by Sheikh Hasina, has been a prominent center-left party in
Bangladesh. It has emphasized a mixed economy, combining elements of state intervention and
market-oriented policies. The AL has also promoted social welfare programs, education
reforms, and women's empowerment. The Jatiya Party, led by Hussain Muhammad Ershad,
represents a center-right ideology, advocating for market reforms and stability in governance.
6.4 Manifestations of These Ideologies in Bangladeshi Politics
The left, right, and center ideologies have manifested in various ways within the Bangladeshi
political landscape. Political parties representing these ideologies have competed for power,
leading to a dynamic political environment characterized by shifting alliances and contestation
(Zaidi 2014).
The left has influenced policy debates on issues such as land reform, labor rights, and income
redistribution. Grassroots mobilization and labor movements have been key strategies
employed by left-wing parties to advocate for their agenda. However, the fragmentation within
the left has sometimes limited its impact on shaping national policies.
The right wing has played a significant role in advocating for market-oriented economic
policies, promoting nationalism, and religious conservatism. However, allegations of
authoritarianism and human rights abuses have tarnished the image of some right-wing parties
in Bangladesh.
The center, represented primarily by the Awami League and the Jatiya Party, has pursued a
balanced approach, combining elements of left and right ideologies. These parties have focused
on economic development, poverty reduction, and maintaining social harmony. However,
power struggles and allegations of corruption have also plagued some center-aligned parties.

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6.5 Examination of Left-Wing Political Parties
In “Politics of the left in Bangladesh: From foundation to fragmentation. Dhaka
University Journal of Sociology”Left-wing political parties in Bangladesh have played a
significant role in shaping the country's political landscape. One prominent left-wing party is
the Communist Party of Bangladesh (CPB), which was established in 1948. The CPB has
historically advocated for socialism, class struggle, and equality. It gained popularity during
the liberation war in 1971 when it aligned itself with the independence movement against
Pakistan.
However, the influence of left-wing parties in Bangladesh has been limited. The electoral
success of the left has been relatively modest, with the CPB and other left-leaning parties
struggling to gain significant representation in the national parliament. Additionally, the
fragmentation within the left-wing spectrum has hindered their ability to form a united front
and create a substantial impact on the political landscape.
6.6 Evaluation of Right-Wing Political Parties
Right-wing political parties in Bangladesh have emerged as strong contenders in recent years.
The Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) is one of the major right-wing parties, founded in
1978. The BNP represents conservative values, nationalism, and a pro-business agenda. It has
garnered support from various sections of society, particularly urban middle-class voters and
religiously conservative groups.
The BNP has experienced both success and challenges. It has won several national elections
and formed governments. However, its rule has been marred by allegations of corruption,
authoritarian tendencies, and the suppression of opposition voices. The right-wing parties,
including the BNP, have often faced criticism for prioritizing their own interests over
democratic values and human rights.

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6.7 Assessment of Center-Aligned Political Parties
Center-aligned political parties in Bangladesh have occupied the political space between the
left and right. The Awami League (AL) and the Jatiya Party (JP) are two significant center-
aligned parties. The AL, established in 1949, has been a dominant force in Bangladeshi politics.
It espouses a blend of socialism, secularism, and nationalism. The JP, founded in 1986,
represents a more conservative center-aligned stance.
Both the AL and the JP have experienced periods of power and influence. The AL has held
multiple terms in government, while the JP has served as a crucial ally to different political
forces. The center-aligned parties have aimed to strike a balance between socioeconomic
development, democratic governance, and preserving national unity. However, challenges such
as corruption, nepotism, and concentration of power have raised concerns about their
commitment to democratic principles.
6.8 Comparative Analysis of Ideologies' Impact on Democracy
The impact of these ideologies on democracy in Bangladesh has been complex. Left-wing
parties have often championed social justice and equality but have struggled to gain significant
electoral support. Right-wing parties have attracted a diverse voter base, but their governance
has been tainted by allegations of authoritarianism. Center-aligned parties have managed to
maintain a stable political presence, but issues of corruption and concentration of power have
emerged.
The influence of these political ideologies on democracy is also intertwined with socio-
economic factors, historical legacies, and geopolitical considerations. Bangladesh's political
landscape continues to evolve, and the ideologies of left, right, and center-aligned parties will
likely continue to shape the country's democratic trajectory. According to Ahmed (2017), the
Communist Party of Bangladesh has historically advocated for socialism and class struggle.

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6.9 Political corruption and governance issues
Bangladesh has long been plagued by political corruption and governance problems, which
have hindered its development and weakened public confidence in the government. According
to Transparency International, Bangladesh was ranked 154 out of 180 countries with a score of
26 out of 100, which made it the second-most corrupt country in South Asia in 2023 (The Daily
Star, 2023).
The government procurement process is one example of the country’s deep-rooted corruption.
The allocation of contracts and tenders frequently involves corrupt tactics like bribery,
nepotism, and embezzlement of public funds, which leads to substandard infrastructure
developments, increased spending, and ineffectual resource allocation. The absence of fair and
transparent procedures not only impairs attempts at development but also deters foreign
investment since potential investors associate a higher risk of corruption when investing in the
country.
Public service delivery is another sector heavily affected by corruption. Bribes and kickbacks
have become regular practices to expedite services or acquire unfair advantages (Rahman,
2019). This leads to a situation where access to essential public services, such as healthcare,
education, and justice, becomes contingent on personal connections or monetary incentives
rather than being based on merit and need.
Not even the judicial system is free from the grasp of corruption. Instances of bribery, influence
peddling, and political interference compromise the integrity and fairness of the legal process.
When corruption seeps into the judicial system, it creates a situation where the wealthy and
influential can exploit the legal framework to their benefit while marginalized and
disadvantaged individuals face systemic injustices, further exacerbating social inequality.
Kabir et al., (2021) show that the politics in Bangladesh is corrupted by the practice of
nepotism, misuse of power, and acquisition of illicit wealth. Political leaders often prioritize
personal connections over meritocracy when appointing individuals to key positions. Relatives
and loyalists are frequently awarded influential roles, even if they lack the qualifications and

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competence required for the positions. This not only leads to a lack of qualified individuals in
crucial roles but also perpetuates a culture of cronyism, where personal loyalty takes
precedence over the public interest. Those in positions of authority often exploit their influence
to gain personal benefits and amass illicit wealth. They siphon off public funds meant for
development projects and use their political clout to evade taxes, eventually getting away with
any crime they commit.
6.10 Socio-economic disparities and inequality
Despite its progress in various socio-economic indicators, Bangladesh continues to grapple
with significant socio-economic disparities and inequality. These disparities manifest in
different forms, such as income inequality, educational gaps, healthcare access, and rural-urban
divides, posing challenges to the country's development and social cohesion.
Income Inequality: According to the World Inequality Lab (2022), the top 1% of income
earners in Bangladesh own 22% of the country’s wealth. A significant portion of Bangladesh
still remains trapped in poverty, struggling to meet basic needs, while a small elite enjoys
considerable wealth and privilege. This disparity creates a stark divide between the rich and
the poor, perpetuating social inequities and hindering upward mobility for disadvantaged
communities.
Education: Limited access to quality education, particularly in rural areas, is a major barrier
to social and economic advancement for children from marginalized backgrounds. According
to the World Bank (2020), only 64% of children in Bangladesh attend primary school, and only
43% of girls complete secondary school. Poverty, inadequate infrastructure, such as lack of
clean water and toilets, and the shortage of qualified teachers make it difficult to incentivize
children in rural areas to complete their school education. This inequality in education is further
exacerbated by gender inequality, with girls being married off at a young age and facing social
stigma in assessing and completing education.

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Healthcare: Limited access to healthcare, coupled with high out-of-pocket expenses,
disproportionately affects vulnerable populations, perpetuating a cycle of poor health outcomes
and poverty. Access to sanitation and clean drinking water also contribute to creating health
disparities, leading to higher rates of diseases and malnutrition in marginalized populations.
Rural-Urban Divide: Rural-urban inequality is a major challenge in Bangladesh. The majority
of the population lives in rural areas, which face infrastructural challenges, limited job
opportunities, and inadequate access to basic services. Meanwhile, urban centers attract
investment, offer better employment prospects, and provide superior infrastructure- leading to
underdeveloped rural areas and over-developed, congested urban cities. Therefore, the unequal
distribution of resources and opportunities in Bangladesh creates a significant gap in living
standards and quality of life between rural and urban areas.
6.11 Ethnic and religious divisions
Bangladesh is a multi-ethnic and multi-religious society, with Bengalis being the majority
(98%) ethnic group and Islam being the predominant (88%) religion. Adivasis make up 2% of
the population and the minority religions include Hinduism (10%), Buddhism (0.6%),
Christianity (0.3%), and others (0.1%).
Ethnic divisions in Bangladesh primarily revolve around the distinction between Bengalis and
various indigenous groups. Indigenous communities, also known as "Adivasis," often face
marginalization and discrimination, with limited access to resources, land rights, and political
representation. The struggle for the recognition of their rights and the preservation of their
cultural identity has been an ongoing challenge.
While Bangladesh officially recognizes freedom of religion, religious minorities sometimes
face social and economic challenges, including sporadic incidents of violence and
discrimination. This has led to concerns about religious freedom and the need to safeguard the
rights and security of minority communities. According to Hasan (2020), political parties in

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Bangladesh often exploit ethnic and religious divisions for their own gains, leading to
polarization and tensions within society. Electoral politics and identity-based mobilization
have, at times, aggravated these divisions, resulting in communal conflicts and social unrest.
Such divisions have also had an impact on the educational system, with disparities in access to
quality education and the inclusion of diverse perspectives.
6.12 Media and freedom of speech
In recent years, Bangladesh has witnessed a growing concern regarding press freedom.
Journalists and media outlets have faced harassment, intimidation, and attacks, leading to self-
censorship and a chilling effect on freedom of expression. The Digital Security Act”, which
was passed in 2018, gives the government unbridled power to censor online content and arrest
anyone who is accused of "spreading false or misleading information" or "defaming the state”
(Rahman and Rashid, 2020). Committee to Protect Journalists (2022) reported that at least 207
journalists were sued under this act, and many were harassed, terminated from jobs, and
received threats. Reporters Without Borders ranked Bangladesh 162 out of 180 countries, citing
the Digital Security Act as a major reason for the country's decline in press freedom (World
Press Freedom Index, 2022). This has led to a situation of fear where media professionals and
citizens hesitate to express their opinions on sensitive issues or criticize government policies.
The government's control and influence over the media have also been a cause for concern.
Ownership of media outlets by individuals with political affiliations can lead to biased
reporting and a lack of diversity in the media landscape. This undermines the credibility and
impartiality of news reporting, hindering the public's access to accurate and objective
information.
Furthermore, there have been incidents of journalists being subjected to physical violence,
threats, and even killings in Bangladesh. Human Rights Watch (2023) states that "At least 56
journalists have been tortured, harassed, sued, intimidated, and prevented from doing their jobs
in the first three months of this year." Attacks on journalists violate their rights and create a
climate of fear, hindering the free flow of information. In addition, impunity for such attacks

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makes the matter worse, as it sends a message that those responsible can evade accountability
and discourage journalists from doing their jobs honestly.
However, it is important to note that despite these challenges, Bangladesh's media landscape is
diverse and vibrant. Digital media platforms and social media have provided alternative
avenues for citizens to express their views and share information. Moreover, independent
journalists and media outlets continue to play a crucial role in exposing corruption, holding the
government accountable, and raising awareness about social issues.
7. Recommendations
7.1 Potential reforms and policy recommendations
To address the challenges of political corruption, socio-economic disparities, and ethnic and
religious divisions in Bangladesh, several potential reforms and policy recommendations can
be considered:
Strengthening anti-corruption measures: Enhancing transparency in government
procurement processes, promoting whistleblower protection, and strengthening accountability
mechanisms are essential steps in reducing corrupt practices. The government needs to
implement robust anti-corruption laws and establish independent anti-corruption commissions,
and, most importantly, ensure that they function effectively and unbiasedly.
Promoting inclusive economic policies: Prioritizing inclusive growth and equitable
distribution of resources can help address socio-economic disparities. This includes investing
in rural development, quality education and healthcare, and decentralizing Dhaka city by
developing rural and marginalized areas. Government can also create and execute social
protection programs and ensure that they are reaching the targeted population to combat
inequality.

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Protecting minority rights: Strengthening legal frameworks and mechanisms to protect the
rights of ethnic and religious minorities is crucial. The government needs to set exemplary
punishments for those who use religion to create anarchy, along with promoting interfaith
dialogue, cultural exchange, and celebrating diversity to reduce clashes among different groups
and promote inclusivity.
Enhancing media freedom: It’s about time Bangladesh cancels its oppressive laws, such as
the Digital Security Act, to ensure it is in line with international standards on the matter of
freedom of expression. Furthermore, the government should address the issue of attacks on
journalists seriously and bring the responsible people behind them to justice. It goes without
saying that the restriction on media freedom is worsening Bangladesh’s image on the
international stage, and no amount of positive branding can amend it unless the government
fixes the main issue itself- lifting restrictions and allowing the free flow of information.
7.2 Strengthening democratic institutions
One key aspect of strengthening democratic institutions is the establishment of an independent
and impartial judiciary. A robust judiciary plays a vital role in safeguarding citizens' rights,
ensuring the enforcement of laws, and providing a check on the exercise of power. It is essential
to ensure that judges are appointed based on merit and competence, free from political
influence or favoritism.
To develop a strong democratic nation, promoting transparency and integrity in governance is
crucial. This includes enhancing accountability mechanisms, ensuring access to information,
and combating corruption in the public service, the judicial system, and the government
procurement process. The government should establish independent oversight bodies that
implement effective anti-corruption measures to ensure transparency and help build trust
regarding the democratic process among the citizens.
Electoral reforms are vital for strengthening democratic institutions. Ensuring free, fair, and
transparent elections, with robust mechanisms for monitoring and addressing irregularities, is
essential. In addition to ensuring fair elections, depleting the practice of nepotism in politics

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and fostering citizen participation in the decision-making process is mandatory (Riaz, 2021).
Electoral reforms should focus on eliminating barriers to political participation, promoting
inclusivity, and enhancing the credibility and legitimacy of the electoral process, and the
government should ensure that citizens have the opportunity to voice their opinions, hold their
elected representatives accountable, and participate in shaping policies that affect their lives.
Lastly, supporting civil society organizations and creating an enabling environment for their
operations is crucial. Civil society plays a vital role in promoting democratic values, advocating
for citizens' rights, and holding the government accountable. Protecting the freedom and
independence of civil society organizations, providing them with resources and support, and
engaging in meaningful dialogue with them can contribute to strengthening democratic
institutions.
7.3 External influences on Democracy in Bangladesh
External influence on democracy in Bangladesh has been evident in various forms, with notable
factors including the Rohingya refugee crisis and the Indo-Pacific strategic framework.
The Rohingya issue, originating from neighboring Myanmar, has had a significant impact on
Bangladesh's democracy and stability. The influx of over a million Rohingya refugees into
Bangladesh has placed immense strain on the country's resources, infrastructure, and social
fabric (ORF Online, 2021). The crisis has not only raised human rights concerns but has also
posed challenges to democratic governance. The international community's response and
involvement in addressing the Rohingya crisis have influenced Bangladesh's domestic policies
and diplomatic relations.
Geopolitical interests also influence the democratic trajectory of Bangladesh. Powerful
countries have strategic interests in the region, which can shape their interactions with the
country. For example, the Indo-Pacific strategic framework has emerged as a geopolitical
concept shaping regional dynamics. As Bangladesh is located in the Indo-Pacific region, it has
drawn the attention of major global powers (Khan, 2021). This has implications for its
democratic institutions and foreign policy decisions. Bangladesh's engagement with regional

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and international actors within the Indo-Pacific framework can impact its domestic politics and
democratic governance, including its approach to issues such as human rights, trade, and
security.
International pressure and scrutiny can also impact the democratic environment in Bangladesh.
Human rights concerns, including issues related to freedom of expression, press freedom, and
political rights, are closely monitored by international organizations and foreign governments.
While this scrutiny can hold governments accountable and shed light on human rights
violations, there is a need for a balanced approach that respects national sovereignty and allows
for internal democratic processes to evolve.
8. Limitations
1. Availability and reliability of secondary sources: The study heavily relies on existing
secondary sources such as books, articles, and reports. The quality and availability of these
sources may vary, leading to potential biases or limited perspectives in the analysis.
2. Lack of primary data: As a secondary research paper, it does not involve the collection of
primary data through surveys, interviews, or direct observations. This limitation restricts the
depth of analysis and prevents the exploration of nuanced aspects of democracy and party
politics in Bangladesh.
3. Language and accessibility barriers: Depending on the language and accessibility of the
primary sources consulted, there might be limitations in the inclusiveness and representation
of diverse viewpoints. If certain sources are only available in specific languages or are not
easily accessible, the analysis may be skewed or incomplete.
4. Currency of information: The research paper's knowledge cutoff is stated to be in September
2022. As a result, it may not capture the most recent developments, political events, or policy

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changes in Bangladesh. This limitation could affect the accuracy and relevance of the analysis,
particularly in a dynamic political environment.
5. Research bias and author perspective: The analysis and conclusions drawn in the paper may
be influenced by the biases and perspectives of the authors or the sources they rely on. It is
important for readers to critically evaluate the objectivity and neutrality of the analysis,
considering any potential biases.
6. Generalizability of findings: The analysis of democracy and party politics in Bangladesh
may not be directly applicable to other countries or contexts. Factors unique to Bangladesh's
political landscape, historical background, and cultural dynamics may limit the generalizability
of the findings and conclusions to a broader scope.
7. Incomplete representation of political ideologies: While the research paper aims to analyze
the right, left, and center political ideologies in Bangladesh, there might be limitations in fully
capturing the diversity and complexity within each ideology. The analysis may overlook certain
subgroups or fail to provide an in-depth understanding of their perspectives and contributions
to the political landscape.
8. Scope and depth of analysis: Due to the nature of secondary research, the paper's analysis
may be constrained by word limits or the available literature. Consequently, certain aspects of
democracy and party politics in Bangladesh may receive less attention or remain unexplored,
limiting the overall depth of analysis.
9. Changing political dynamics: Political landscapes and dynamics are subject to change,
influenced by various factors such as elections, leadership transitions, and socio-economic
shifts. As a secondary research paper, it may not fully capture or reflect these evolving
dynamics, potentially limiting the relevance and accuracy of the analysis.

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10. Alternative interpretations and perspectives: The research paper presents a critical analysis
based on the available literature and the authors' interpretation. However, there may be
alternative interpretations and perspectives that were not considered or included, which could
impact the comprehensiveness and balance of the analysis.
9. Conclusion
Ultimately, while the external influence on democracy in Bangladesh is inevitable to some
extent, it is essential to ensure that it respects the country's sovereignty, upholds democratic
values, and contributes to the long-term development and well-being of its citizens. To
safeguard the democratic system, Bangladesh must assert its sovereignty and maintain an
independent decision-making process. To achieve this, strengthening democratic institutions,
promoting transparency, and engaging in constructive dialogue with external actors is a must
that can help Bangladesh strike a balance between international engagements and the
preservation of democratic principles.

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10. Reference
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Dhaka University Journal of Sociology, 33(2), 163-179.
Ahmed, S. U. (2017). Awami League and Bangladesh Nationalist Party: A Comparative
Study. South Asian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 3(2), 78-88.
Ahmed, S. U. (2019). Power dynamics in Bangladesh: A study of major political parties.
Asian Journal of Political Science, 27(2), 151-170.
Bloomsbury Collections - Bangladesh - A Political History since Independence. (n.d.).
https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/book/bangladesh-a-political-history-since-
independence/introduction
Committee to Protect Journalists., (2022) Bangladesh journalist arrested, 2 charged under
Digital Security Act [online] available at: https://cpj.org/2022/06/bangladesh-journalist-
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Hasan, M. (2020). Islam and politics in Bangladesh. Springer Singapore.
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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352749189_Islam_Governance_and_Political_Cult
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Human Rights Watch. (2023) Bangladesh: End Crackdown Against Journalists and Critics
[online] available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/05/03/bangladesh-end-crackdown-
against-journalists-and-critics
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Kabir, M. R., Bithi, M. T. A. T., Jyoti, T. A., & Rahman, T. (2021). A unique study of
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Khan, S. E. (2021). The Emerging Regional Power Dilemma in the Indo-pacific Region:
Bangladesh and Sri Lankan Perspectives.
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