In this project, I researched through primary sources the effects of schizophrenia on working memory. I synthesized the data of multiple experiments to draw conclusions within this study.
The near death experience scale. Construction, reliability, and validityJosé Luis Moreno Garvayo
En este artículo se expone un criterio de demarcación para las experiencias cercanas a la muerte conocido como “escala de Greyson”: se trata de un cuestionario formado por 16 preguntas agrupadas en cuatro bloques (componentes cognitivo, afectivo, paranormal y trascendental) en las que el entrevistado debe marcar la respuesta que más se acerque a la experiencia vivida (con un 0 si no la ha experimentado, un 1 si lo ha hecho de forma poco intensa, o un 2 si ha sido muy intensa). El análisis de los resultados sirve para evaluar si el sujeto vivió una ECM (alcanzado una puntuación mínima de 7 según los postulados de Greyson), permitiendo descartar un síndrome orgánico del cerebro o una respuesta no específica al estrés sufrido por el “miedo a morir”. Para más detalles visitar: http://www.afanporsaber.es/2014/01/experiencias-cercanas-a-la-muerte-i/
Narcissistic personality disorder and the dsm–v --miller widigercampbell20101screaminc
The document discusses three issues regarding the classification of narcissistic personality disorder in the DSM-V: 1) whether NPD should be excluded from the DSM-V as proposed, given research supporting its clinical relevance and negative outcomes; 2) the need to assess both grandiose and vulnerable variants of narcissism; and 3) how to characterize narcissistic traits in a dimensional model. The authors argue that excluding NPD lacks justification compared to other retained disorders and that the proposal does not provide clear empirical support for its decisions.
This document discusses the importance of neurobehavioral assessment in forensic practice. It notes that many mental disorders previously seen as behavioral are now understood to have neurological roots. A neurobehavioral assessment evaluates cognitive functioning using expertise from multiple disciplines, including social work, psychology, and medicine. The assessment integrates information from social histories, testing, and medical evaluations to understand a subject's neurobehavioral capacity and how impairments shape their behaviors and functioning in real-world contexts. This holistic understanding is essential for accurate forensic evaluations.
The study adapted the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) for use with adolescents ages 9.8-15.4 years old. It assessed 52 adolescents with Asperger Syndrome or high-functioning autism, 79 adolescents with classic autism, and 50 typically developing controls. Both clinical groups scored higher than controls on the adolescent AQ, and approximately 90% of those with AS/HFA or autism scored above the clinical cutoff versus none of the controls. The adolescent AQ can rapidly assess autistic traits in adolescents across the autism spectrum.
This study investigated whether a defendant's gender and sexual orientation would influence juror bias in a hypothetical criminal case. Participants read a case summary and rated the likelihood of guilt for defendants that were described as either a gay male, straight male, lesbian, or straight female. Participants also completed questionnaires measuring their personality traits and level of self-actualization. The results found that the sexual orientation of the defendant did influence guilt ratings, with non-heterosexual defendants rated as more guilty. However, the personality variables did not interact with the trial conditions. Overall, the study suggests that juror bias based on a defendant's sexual orientation can influence verdict decisions.
This document describes a qualitative study that explored lupus patients' perceptions of their current medication and treatment regimens. The study used a phenomenological approach and interviewed 4 female lupus patients to understand their lived experiences. The interviews were analyzed and several themes emerged around patients' feelings about the healthcare information and care they receive, as well as their views on educational programs. The study aimed to gain insights that could help improve disease management and education for lupus patients.
This document provides information about the K-SADS-PL diagnostic interview for children and adolescents. It outlines the permitted usage of the instrument, which allows for clinical and research use without permission, but requires written approval for redistribution or commercial use. The document also provides background on the development and contents of the K-SADS-PL interview, which assesses current and past psychiatric disorders according to DSM criteria through separate parent and child interviews and a summary rating.
Dissociative identity disorder (DID) is characterized by two or more distinct personality states and episodes of amnesia. It is believed to often develop from severe childhood abuse or trauma combined with poor family support. The hallmark is multiple personality states that may differ in things like gender, memories, and perceptions. Treatment involves long-term therapy to help integrate alters and address trauma, though there remains skepticism around the diagnosis due to a lack of controlled studies and training on dissociative disorders for many clinicians. Experts recommend embracing all alters, using exposure techniques cautiously, and focusing on emotional regulation and future relationships in later stages of treatment.
The near death experience scale. Construction, reliability, and validityJosé Luis Moreno Garvayo
En este artículo se expone un criterio de demarcación para las experiencias cercanas a la muerte conocido como “escala de Greyson”: se trata de un cuestionario formado por 16 preguntas agrupadas en cuatro bloques (componentes cognitivo, afectivo, paranormal y trascendental) en las que el entrevistado debe marcar la respuesta que más se acerque a la experiencia vivida (con un 0 si no la ha experimentado, un 1 si lo ha hecho de forma poco intensa, o un 2 si ha sido muy intensa). El análisis de los resultados sirve para evaluar si el sujeto vivió una ECM (alcanzado una puntuación mínima de 7 según los postulados de Greyson), permitiendo descartar un síndrome orgánico del cerebro o una respuesta no específica al estrés sufrido por el “miedo a morir”. Para más detalles visitar: http://www.afanporsaber.es/2014/01/experiencias-cercanas-a-la-muerte-i/
Narcissistic personality disorder and the dsm–v --miller widigercampbell20101screaminc
The document discusses three issues regarding the classification of narcissistic personality disorder in the DSM-V: 1) whether NPD should be excluded from the DSM-V as proposed, given research supporting its clinical relevance and negative outcomes; 2) the need to assess both grandiose and vulnerable variants of narcissism; and 3) how to characterize narcissistic traits in a dimensional model. The authors argue that excluding NPD lacks justification compared to other retained disorders and that the proposal does not provide clear empirical support for its decisions.
This document discusses the importance of neurobehavioral assessment in forensic practice. It notes that many mental disorders previously seen as behavioral are now understood to have neurological roots. A neurobehavioral assessment evaluates cognitive functioning using expertise from multiple disciplines, including social work, psychology, and medicine. The assessment integrates information from social histories, testing, and medical evaluations to understand a subject's neurobehavioral capacity and how impairments shape their behaviors and functioning in real-world contexts. This holistic understanding is essential for accurate forensic evaluations.
The study adapted the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) for use with adolescents ages 9.8-15.4 years old. It assessed 52 adolescents with Asperger Syndrome or high-functioning autism, 79 adolescents with classic autism, and 50 typically developing controls. Both clinical groups scored higher than controls on the adolescent AQ, and approximately 90% of those with AS/HFA or autism scored above the clinical cutoff versus none of the controls. The adolescent AQ can rapidly assess autistic traits in adolescents across the autism spectrum.
This study investigated whether a defendant's gender and sexual orientation would influence juror bias in a hypothetical criminal case. Participants read a case summary and rated the likelihood of guilt for defendants that were described as either a gay male, straight male, lesbian, or straight female. Participants also completed questionnaires measuring their personality traits and level of self-actualization. The results found that the sexual orientation of the defendant did influence guilt ratings, with non-heterosexual defendants rated as more guilty. However, the personality variables did not interact with the trial conditions. Overall, the study suggests that juror bias based on a defendant's sexual orientation can influence verdict decisions.
This document describes a qualitative study that explored lupus patients' perceptions of their current medication and treatment regimens. The study used a phenomenological approach and interviewed 4 female lupus patients to understand their lived experiences. The interviews were analyzed and several themes emerged around patients' feelings about the healthcare information and care they receive, as well as their views on educational programs. The study aimed to gain insights that could help improve disease management and education for lupus patients.
This document provides information about the K-SADS-PL diagnostic interview for children and adolescents. It outlines the permitted usage of the instrument, which allows for clinical and research use without permission, but requires written approval for redistribution or commercial use. The document also provides background on the development and contents of the K-SADS-PL interview, which assesses current and past psychiatric disorders according to DSM criteria through separate parent and child interviews and a summary rating.
Dissociative identity disorder (DID) is characterized by two or more distinct personality states and episodes of amnesia. It is believed to often develop from severe childhood abuse or trauma combined with poor family support. The hallmark is multiple personality states that may differ in things like gender, memories, and perceptions. Treatment involves long-term therapy to help integrate alters and address trauma, though there remains skepticism around the diagnosis due to a lack of controlled studies and training on dissociative disorders for many clinicians. Experts recommend embracing all alters, using exposure techniques cautiously, and focusing on emotional regulation and future relationships in later stages of treatment.
Semantic Pragmatic Disorder : A Cognitive Science PrespectiveSweta Vajjhala
Albert Einstein, Vincent Van Gogh, and Temple Grandin all showed signs of autism as children, though their conditions were not fully recognized at the time. Semantic-pragmatic disorder is a type of autism characterized by difficulties processing information and extracting meaning, preferring routine, and an inability to understand others' perspectives. It affects social skills and language comprehension rather than speech. Diagnosis is difficult due to a lack of tools and similarities with other disorders like Asperger's, leading to controversy around labeling. The disorder may be related to abnormalities in the non-dominant right hemisphere of the brain or weak synaptic connections involved in learning.
A minimum of 100 words each and References Response (#1 – 6) KEEP .docxevonnehoggarth79783
This document discusses schizophrenia and related theories. It provides details about the symptoms and causes of schizophrenia based on scholarly sources. Several theories are described, including the biological theory that certain genes and brain abnormalities can predispose individuals to schizophrenia. Environmental stressors are also discussed as potential triggers. The document considers the merits of different theories, with some support given to the developmental psychopathology view that both genetic and environmental factors likely play a role in the development of schizophrenia. Probing questions are provided to further discussion of the topics.
In recent decades, psychologists and economists have cataloged the ways in which human behavior deviates
from economic theory.1 They have done this mostly through experiments and observation. Daniel Kahneman
and Amos Tversky, psychologists who formalized this research, showed that individuals use heuristics, or rules
of thumb, to make their judgments. These heuristics lead to biases when compared to normative economic
behavior.2 For example, people generally place too much weight on information that is available to their minds,
often associated with an event that is vivid or recent, and overestimate the probability of a similar event
occurring again.
The study explored the relationship between hallucinations and inhibitory deficits in memory processes among schizophrenic patients. Two experiments were conducted using directed forgetting and working memory tasks. The results showed that patients with hallucinations had difficulty intentionally inhibiting irrelevant memories in both episodic and working memory, as evidenced by a lack of directed forgetting effect and higher number of intrusions. This suggests hallucinations may arise from a failure to inhibit intrusive thoughts and memories.
Running Head MISINFORMATION EFFECT1MISINFORMATION EFFECT2.docxcharisellington63520
Running Head: MISINFORMATION EFFECT 1
MISINFORMATION EFFECT 2
Abstract
This paper explores various published articles which depict research results from studies conducted on the effects of misinformation on eyewitness testimony. Misinformation is “false or inaccurate information, especially that which is deliberately intended to deceive” (Oxforddictionaries.com). With the use of misinformation it may be possible to mislead witnesses allowing them to present false information. This papers examines articles from researchers such as Blank, Ost, Davies, Jones, Lambert and Salmon (2013), Loftus (2005), Chrobak and Zaragoza (2013), and Eakin, Schreiber and Sergeant-Marshall (2003) in relation to other studies conducted in order to determine how misinformation is introduced, possible reasons the effect occurs, and suggestions on how to reduce its effects.
The Misinformation Effect and the Effects it has on Eyewitness Testimony
There is a wide misconception that a person’s long-term memory actually records experiences exactly as they happened. However, memories and events we have are very malleable and can be altered and/or molded. It is proven fact that our long-term memory is susceptible to errors. The impreciseness in a person’s memory can further be altered with the misinformation effect. The misinformation effect transpires when mislead information is presented to someone after they have experienced the event.
Misinformation can have unfavorable consequences in investigations and trials. “The fallibility of eyewitness memory is a crucial problem in the administration of justice, and documented cases of false convictions based on faulty eyewitness testimony abound” (Zaragoza, Payment, Ackil, Drivdahl & Beck, 2001, p. 473). Over the past few decade numerous studies have been conducted centering on the various facets and implications of the misinformation effect and how it affects eyewitness testimony. Through the introduction of misinformation to someone’s thoughts and observations, they can easily be manipulated, leading them to dictate false or inaccurate information. Misinformation may be presented in many ways to witnesses such as I nterviewing, cross-examination, and narratives. This paper examines research that has been conducted from various authors in regards to how misinformation is introduced, possible reasons the effect occurs, and suggestions on how to reduce its effects as well as propose where additional research may be conducted to further understand this phenomenon.
It has long since been discovered that the misinformation effect exists and can have negative effects when it comes to eyewitness testimony. In 2002, 110 inmates were released from prison due DNA exonerations making them not guilty. Out of the 110, eleven were on death row. In the majority of these cases the individuals were convicted largely on the testimony of eyewitnesses.
Numerous studies have been conducted over the past forty-f.
This document discusses a proposed study analyzing temporal choice and amygdala activity in patients with depression or bipolar disorder using fMRI imaging during a monetary choice questionnaire. The study aims to investigate if bipolar patients discount rewards more heavily than depressed patients and connect this with greater amygdala activation. Previous research found both groups made riskier decisions than controls in gambling tasks. Studies also linked impulsivity and suicide attempts, indicating bipolar patients may discount more due to amygdala structural differences found in prior imaging research. The proposed study would test these hypotheses by comparing discount rates and amygdala activity between depressed and bipolar young adult patients.
Order #163040071 why risk factors of cardiovascular diseases are mjack60216
This document outlines a research proposal to study why cardiovascular disease risk factors are more prevalent among Hispanics in Florida. The proposal includes an introduction discussing relevant background literature, hypothesized significance and importance of the study, a proposed methodology involving collecting data on Hispanics and a control group, and an expected timeline and budget. The proposal would analyze risk factors like high cholesterol, blood pressure, obesity, diabetes, and smoking among Hispanics and potential causes like a lack of risk awareness.
The document provides a summary of articles and research studies related to behavioral science:
- A study found no difference in aggression levels between prisoners housed in pink versus white cells, contradicting previous research.
- The gambler's fallacy bias can influence loan officers and judges to make less favorable decisions if preceding cases were approved/granted.
- Imagining walking through a doorway can impair memory recall, due to event boundaries in the mind.
- Worriers and ruminators tend to have higher verbal intelligence scores.
- Scents like lavender may promote interpersonal trust while peppermint is more stimulating.
- A charity highlighted options to round up shopping totals and donate the difference.
A minimum of 100 words each and References Response (#1 – 6) KEEP .docxfredharris32
A minimum of 100 words each and References Response (#1 – 6) KEEP RESPONSE WITH ANSWER EACH ANSWER NEED TO HAVE A SCHOLARY SOURCE with a Hyperlink
Make sure the Responses includes the Following: (a) an understanding of the weekly content as supported by a scholarly resource, (b) the provision of a probing question. (c) stay on topic
1. In short, abnormal behavior, thoughts and emotions, are those that differ from society's definition of properly functioning, or the norm (Comer, 2018). These norms tend to differ between cultures which help to establish rules for proper conduct. What constitutes as abnormal behavior depends on specific circumstances and cultural norms (Comer, 2018). An example of abnormal behavior could be unusualness like a person who lives with many animals and isolates themselves from society. The behavior of this person is deviant and may be dysfunctional, but could be seen as eccentric rather than abnormal to a professional.
2. Abnormal behavior, in simple terms, is behavior outside of societal norms (Comer, 2018). Abnormalities differ based on what society you come from. Generally speaking, being considered normal means that you are complying by your society’s standards. Abnormalities arise when behavior is deviant, distressing, dysfunctional, or dangerous. An example of abnormal behavior would be manic behavior. A manic episode typically involves less sleep, risky behavior, irritability, increased talking, and even hypersexuality (Purse, 2019). This is typically deviant from the person’s normal behavior by definition. The manic behavior can be distressing for both the affected and their family or other loved ones. Risky behavior causes worry and distress. Irritability can create all sorts of distressing situations. When a person is manic, they are in a state of dysfunction. Memory and responsibilities often fall to the backburner while the manic episode rides its course. Of all the things that define abnormal behavior, a manic episode can be especially dangerous to both the person experiencing it as well as the others around them because it involves risky behavior—which implies many things from gambling to drugs. It often results in the person experiencing the episode being hospitalized.
3. “One common conceptualization of abnormality focuses on what is often called the Four Ds: deviance, distress, dysfunction, and danger (Topic 1 Resource, 2018).” An example of abnormal behavior is someone who hears voices telling them to do certain things. Some people may show this kind of abnormal behavior out of nowhere, or they have always heard these voices. This person can be deviant to their old life once they start hearing these voices and if they listen to them or not. These voices can cause distress to the person as well because if they listen to the voices, then they might start doing bad things. These voices can also cause dysfunction in this person life and how they act around others. Having this abnormal behavior can .
Running head FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 1 .docxwlynn1
Running head: FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 1
Older Adults Experience More False Memories Compared to Other Age Groups
Amanda Sinclair 11036772
University of Saskatchewan
Psychology 255.3 61: Human Memory
3 November 2013
FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 2
Proclamation
In submitting this paper, I attest that this paper, and any version of this paper, has not previously
or concurrently been submitted for credit in another course by myself or anyone else.
FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 3
Abstract
Compared to other age groups (e.g. child, teenager, young adult) older adults experience a
greater amount of false memories. This was shown in Fandakova, Shing, and Lindenberg (2013)
with the use of proactive interference. In Jacoby, Bishara, Hessels, & Toth (2005) retroactive
interference was used to create false memories in young and older adults resulting in higher false
memories for older adults. Shing, Werkle-Bergner, Li, & Lindenberger (2009) found that not
only did older adults have a greater amount of false memories but were also disproportionately
more confident in their false memories than children. A neurological study done by Dennis, Kim,
& Cabeza (2008) found that, compared to young adults, older adults showed both a reduction in
true memories and an increase in false memories. It was also shown that a neurological
explanation could be found for the age difference in false memories. In summary, modern
research shows clear evidence in support of older adults having a greater proportion of false
memories than other age groups.
FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 4
Older Adults Have More False Memories Than Other Age Groups
Recent research has shown that the likelihood of remembering false events increases as a
person ages, this paper aims to flush out this research and find a clear correlation between age
and false memories. False memories, erroneously remembering episodes that did not occur, have
been an area of interest since Elizabeth Loftus created the “Lost in the Mall” technique in 1994.
This technique involved Loftus implanting a false memory into a child of being lost in a mall at a
younger age (Loftus, 1995). At that point it was thought that only children were susceptible to
false memories (then said to be repressed memories) and not adults. Since then it has been shown
that not only do children create false memories, and are susceptible to implantation, but also
young and older adults (Lindsay, Hagen, Read, Wade, & Garry, 2004). For example, Wade,
Garry, Read, & Lindsay (2002) successfully implanted a false memory of being in a hot air
balloon as a child into twenty subjects whose age ranged from 18-28.
Recently, researchers have begun studying age related differences and changes in false
memories between age groups (Anastasi & Rhodes, 2008; Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; Norman &
Schacter, 1997; Tun, Wingfield, Rosen, & B.
This powerpoint is suitable for unit 4 AQA psychology revision. It should only be used for revision and not to learn the topic as it does not include everything.
This document contains an ethical statement, acknowledgements, abstract, introduction, materials and methods, and references sections from a research paper. The introduction discusses implicit and explicit memory systems and how they are affected differently by stimulus exposure duration based on prior research. The study aims to investigate how varying exposure durations from 40ms to 1900ms impacts performance on implicit (priming) and explicit (recognition) memory tasks. It is hypothesized that priming performance will increase up to 250ms exposure and then decrease, while recognition performance will increase with longer exposures. The materials and methods section describes that 20 participants were split into implicit and explicit memory conditions and completed a priming or recognition task with pictures exposed for different durations.
Effect of fMRI Scan Presentation on Perceptions of HomosexualityJacob Wilson
The primary purpose of the present study was to see if exposure to more critical thinking classes would affect how much influence an article about a controversial topic had when intertwined with an fMRI scan. Recently fMRI scans have been a very popular topic in the media. McCabe and Castel (2008) found that brain images can persuade individuals to accept information more easily than articles that do not contain brain images. In our study, an article on the biological basis of homosexuality was given to participants to read. In the first condition, participants only read the article. In the second condition, participants read the article and were given a bar graph that represented the data. In the third condition, participants read the article and were given an fMRI scan and bar graph to represent the data. There was a significant difference in agreement for the biological basis of homosexuality depending on the article condition the participants were placed in, F(2,57) = 3.86, p < .05. Participants who received the bar graph and fMRI images with the article rated homosexually as significantly more biological than the participants in the graph/article condition, p < .05. We also found that participants with a Science major agreed that homosexuality was biological more so than non-science majors [t(58) = 2.86, p < .05] and reported a greater change in their opinion of homosexuality after reading the article [t(58) = 3.11, p < .05]. When participants scored high on scientific reasoning, they were also more likely to be influenced by the material in the article regardless of condition. Together, this research suggests that opinions concerning the biological basis of homosexuality can be changed with exposure to research, and in some case the use of fMRI images is more persuasive.
The document discusses evidence that the frontal lobes play a role in fluid intelligence and decision making, but not crystallized intelligence or general intelligence. Studies found that frontal lobe patients performed poorly on tests of fluid intelligence like Raven's Progressive Matrices but normal on standardized IQ tests. Other research found that damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex impaired decision making on tasks involving future consequences, showing "myopia for the future". Additional studies suggest both the dorsal and ventral prefrontal cortex must be damaged to see impairments in risky decision making. Neuroimaging research also found reasoning tasks activated the frontal lobes, with deductive reasoning more associated with the left inferior frontal gyrus and inductive reasoning with the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
- Subjects experienced vivid hallucinations, impaired intellectual functioning, and increased suggestibility when placed in environments with limited sensory stimulation and social isolation for periods of time.
- Over 200 research studies on the effects of sensory deprivation have been conducted since the pioneering experiments in the 1950s and 1960s. These studies use a variety of techniques to limit sensory input including darkened rooms, goggles, flotation tanks, and respirators.
- Findings from these studies show that subjects find prolonged sensory deprivation difficult and unpleasant, experiencing anxiety, restlessness, and difficulty concentrating. However, some tasks like vigilance and certain types of learning may be improved with sensory deprivation. Subjects also show increased desire for stimulation and
- Subjects experienced vivid hallucinations, impaired intellectual functioning, and increased suggestibility when placed in environments with limited sensory stimulation and social isolation.
- Over 200 research studies on sensory deprivation have been conducted since the 1950s using techniques like dark rooms, goggles, and flotation tanks.
- Findings include increased anxiety, difficulty concentrating, and changes in perception of time and body awareness during isolation. Performance on intellectual tasks generally declines while isolation increases desire for stimulation.
The document summarizes current research on autism, including:
- Autism was first identified in 1943, though early theories wrongly blamed mothers
- Prevalence has increased and is now 1 in 150, possibly due to improved diagnosis and definitions
- Diagnosis has shifted from a social disorder to recognizing global brain processing differences
- Genetic research finds higher concordance rates in identical twins and links to specific genes
- Brain research shows differences in size, connectivity, and activity in face and emotion regions
ANGELO.Psychosis characteristics (thesis)May25th2015 (final version) (1)Angelo Laine
This document summarizes research on discrimination, race, gender, and attenuated positive psychotic symptoms (APPS) in college students. A study of over 1,600 black and white college students found that black students reported more discrimination and endorsed more APPS, regardless of gender. The study also found a gender difference in APPS among black students that was partially mediated by reported discrimination. In general, the document reviews literature showing that ethnic minorities and those who experience discrimination may be at higher risk for subclinical psychotic symptoms.
This article discusses the diagnosis and treatment of Asperger's syndrome using the case of a 15-year-old male patient, Marc. It reviews the history and diagnostic criteria of Asperger's, compares it to high-functioning autism, examines comorbid conditions, and discusses evidence-based assessment and treatment recommendations. The key recommendations are for early diagnosis and intervention focusing on enhancing social skills through individualized education programs tapping into special interests.
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by impairments in social communication and interaction as well as restricted and repetitive behaviors. In the DSM-5, ASD encompasses several previous diagnoses including autistic disorder. The criteria were modified from three impairment areas to two domains of social communication and restricted/repetitive behaviors. There is ongoing debate around changes in the DSM-5 definition and concerns that some individuals may lose their ASD diagnosis. The condition was first described by Leo Kanner in 1943 and involves difficulties with social relationships and unusual responses to the environment.
These are a series of poems written for a class I took as credit towards my creative writing certificate. They have been through series of rewrites and modifications, including a workshopping process
Semantic Pragmatic Disorder : A Cognitive Science PrespectiveSweta Vajjhala
Albert Einstein, Vincent Van Gogh, and Temple Grandin all showed signs of autism as children, though their conditions were not fully recognized at the time. Semantic-pragmatic disorder is a type of autism characterized by difficulties processing information and extracting meaning, preferring routine, and an inability to understand others' perspectives. It affects social skills and language comprehension rather than speech. Diagnosis is difficult due to a lack of tools and similarities with other disorders like Asperger's, leading to controversy around labeling. The disorder may be related to abnormalities in the non-dominant right hemisphere of the brain or weak synaptic connections involved in learning.
A minimum of 100 words each and References Response (#1 – 6) KEEP .docxevonnehoggarth79783
This document discusses schizophrenia and related theories. It provides details about the symptoms and causes of schizophrenia based on scholarly sources. Several theories are described, including the biological theory that certain genes and brain abnormalities can predispose individuals to schizophrenia. Environmental stressors are also discussed as potential triggers. The document considers the merits of different theories, with some support given to the developmental psychopathology view that both genetic and environmental factors likely play a role in the development of schizophrenia. Probing questions are provided to further discussion of the topics.
In recent decades, psychologists and economists have cataloged the ways in which human behavior deviates
from economic theory.1 They have done this mostly through experiments and observation. Daniel Kahneman
and Amos Tversky, psychologists who formalized this research, showed that individuals use heuristics, or rules
of thumb, to make their judgments. These heuristics lead to biases when compared to normative economic
behavior.2 For example, people generally place too much weight on information that is available to their minds,
often associated with an event that is vivid or recent, and overestimate the probability of a similar event
occurring again.
The study explored the relationship between hallucinations and inhibitory deficits in memory processes among schizophrenic patients. Two experiments were conducted using directed forgetting and working memory tasks. The results showed that patients with hallucinations had difficulty intentionally inhibiting irrelevant memories in both episodic and working memory, as evidenced by a lack of directed forgetting effect and higher number of intrusions. This suggests hallucinations may arise from a failure to inhibit intrusive thoughts and memories.
Running Head MISINFORMATION EFFECT1MISINFORMATION EFFECT2.docxcharisellington63520
Running Head: MISINFORMATION EFFECT 1
MISINFORMATION EFFECT 2
Abstract
This paper explores various published articles which depict research results from studies conducted on the effects of misinformation on eyewitness testimony. Misinformation is “false or inaccurate information, especially that which is deliberately intended to deceive” (Oxforddictionaries.com). With the use of misinformation it may be possible to mislead witnesses allowing them to present false information. This papers examines articles from researchers such as Blank, Ost, Davies, Jones, Lambert and Salmon (2013), Loftus (2005), Chrobak and Zaragoza (2013), and Eakin, Schreiber and Sergeant-Marshall (2003) in relation to other studies conducted in order to determine how misinformation is introduced, possible reasons the effect occurs, and suggestions on how to reduce its effects.
The Misinformation Effect and the Effects it has on Eyewitness Testimony
There is a wide misconception that a person’s long-term memory actually records experiences exactly as they happened. However, memories and events we have are very malleable and can be altered and/or molded. It is proven fact that our long-term memory is susceptible to errors. The impreciseness in a person’s memory can further be altered with the misinformation effect. The misinformation effect transpires when mislead information is presented to someone after they have experienced the event.
Misinformation can have unfavorable consequences in investigations and trials. “The fallibility of eyewitness memory is a crucial problem in the administration of justice, and documented cases of false convictions based on faulty eyewitness testimony abound” (Zaragoza, Payment, Ackil, Drivdahl & Beck, 2001, p. 473). Over the past few decade numerous studies have been conducted centering on the various facets and implications of the misinformation effect and how it affects eyewitness testimony. Through the introduction of misinformation to someone’s thoughts and observations, they can easily be manipulated, leading them to dictate false or inaccurate information. Misinformation may be presented in many ways to witnesses such as I nterviewing, cross-examination, and narratives. This paper examines research that has been conducted from various authors in regards to how misinformation is introduced, possible reasons the effect occurs, and suggestions on how to reduce its effects as well as propose where additional research may be conducted to further understand this phenomenon.
It has long since been discovered that the misinformation effect exists and can have negative effects when it comes to eyewitness testimony. In 2002, 110 inmates were released from prison due DNA exonerations making them not guilty. Out of the 110, eleven were on death row. In the majority of these cases the individuals were convicted largely on the testimony of eyewitnesses.
Numerous studies have been conducted over the past forty-f.
This document discusses a proposed study analyzing temporal choice and amygdala activity in patients with depression or bipolar disorder using fMRI imaging during a monetary choice questionnaire. The study aims to investigate if bipolar patients discount rewards more heavily than depressed patients and connect this with greater amygdala activation. Previous research found both groups made riskier decisions than controls in gambling tasks. Studies also linked impulsivity and suicide attempts, indicating bipolar patients may discount more due to amygdala structural differences found in prior imaging research. The proposed study would test these hypotheses by comparing discount rates and amygdala activity between depressed and bipolar young adult patients.
Order #163040071 why risk factors of cardiovascular diseases are mjack60216
This document outlines a research proposal to study why cardiovascular disease risk factors are more prevalent among Hispanics in Florida. The proposal includes an introduction discussing relevant background literature, hypothesized significance and importance of the study, a proposed methodology involving collecting data on Hispanics and a control group, and an expected timeline and budget. The proposal would analyze risk factors like high cholesterol, blood pressure, obesity, diabetes, and smoking among Hispanics and potential causes like a lack of risk awareness.
The document provides a summary of articles and research studies related to behavioral science:
- A study found no difference in aggression levels between prisoners housed in pink versus white cells, contradicting previous research.
- The gambler's fallacy bias can influence loan officers and judges to make less favorable decisions if preceding cases were approved/granted.
- Imagining walking through a doorway can impair memory recall, due to event boundaries in the mind.
- Worriers and ruminators tend to have higher verbal intelligence scores.
- Scents like lavender may promote interpersonal trust while peppermint is more stimulating.
- A charity highlighted options to round up shopping totals and donate the difference.
A minimum of 100 words each and References Response (#1 – 6) KEEP .docxfredharris32
A minimum of 100 words each and References Response (#1 – 6) KEEP RESPONSE WITH ANSWER EACH ANSWER NEED TO HAVE A SCHOLARY SOURCE with a Hyperlink
Make sure the Responses includes the Following: (a) an understanding of the weekly content as supported by a scholarly resource, (b) the provision of a probing question. (c) stay on topic
1. In short, abnormal behavior, thoughts and emotions, are those that differ from society's definition of properly functioning, or the norm (Comer, 2018). These norms tend to differ between cultures which help to establish rules for proper conduct. What constitutes as abnormal behavior depends on specific circumstances and cultural norms (Comer, 2018). An example of abnormal behavior could be unusualness like a person who lives with many animals and isolates themselves from society. The behavior of this person is deviant and may be dysfunctional, but could be seen as eccentric rather than abnormal to a professional.
2. Abnormal behavior, in simple terms, is behavior outside of societal norms (Comer, 2018). Abnormalities differ based on what society you come from. Generally speaking, being considered normal means that you are complying by your society’s standards. Abnormalities arise when behavior is deviant, distressing, dysfunctional, or dangerous. An example of abnormal behavior would be manic behavior. A manic episode typically involves less sleep, risky behavior, irritability, increased talking, and even hypersexuality (Purse, 2019). This is typically deviant from the person’s normal behavior by definition. The manic behavior can be distressing for both the affected and their family or other loved ones. Risky behavior causes worry and distress. Irritability can create all sorts of distressing situations. When a person is manic, they are in a state of dysfunction. Memory and responsibilities often fall to the backburner while the manic episode rides its course. Of all the things that define abnormal behavior, a manic episode can be especially dangerous to both the person experiencing it as well as the others around them because it involves risky behavior—which implies many things from gambling to drugs. It often results in the person experiencing the episode being hospitalized.
3. “One common conceptualization of abnormality focuses on what is often called the Four Ds: deviance, distress, dysfunction, and danger (Topic 1 Resource, 2018).” An example of abnormal behavior is someone who hears voices telling them to do certain things. Some people may show this kind of abnormal behavior out of nowhere, or they have always heard these voices. This person can be deviant to their old life once they start hearing these voices and if they listen to them or not. These voices can cause distress to the person as well because if they listen to the voices, then they might start doing bad things. These voices can also cause dysfunction in this person life and how they act around others. Having this abnormal behavior can .
Running head FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 1 .docxwlynn1
Running head: FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 1
Older Adults Experience More False Memories Compared to Other Age Groups
Amanda Sinclair 11036772
University of Saskatchewan
Psychology 255.3 61: Human Memory
3 November 2013
FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 2
Proclamation
In submitting this paper, I attest that this paper, and any version of this paper, has not previously
or concurrently been submitted for credit in another course by myself or anyone else.
FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 3
Abstract
Compared to other age groups (e.g. child, teenager, young adult) older adults experience a
greater amount of false memories. This was shown in Fandakova, Shing, and Lindenberg (2013)
with the use of proactive interference. In Jacoby, Bishara, Hessels, & Toth (2005) retroactive
interference was used to create false memories in young and older adults resulting in higher false
memories for older adults. Shing, Werkle-Bergner, Li, & Lindenberger (2009) found that not
only did older adults have a greater amount of false memories but were also disproportionately
more confident in their false memories than children. A neurological study done by Dennis, Kim,
& Cabeza (2008) found that, compared to young adults, older adults showed both a reduction in
true memories and an increase in false memories. It was also shown that a neurological
explanation could be found for the age difference in false memories. In summary, modern
research shows clear evidence in support of older adults having a greater proportion of false
memories than other age groups.
FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 4
Older Adults Have More False Memories Than Other Age Groups
Recent research has shown that the likelihood of remembering false events increases as a
person ages, this paper aims to flush out this research and find a clear correlation between age
and false memories. False memories, erroneously remembering episodes that did not occur, have
been an area of interest since Elizabeth Loftus created the “Lost in the Mall” technique in 1994.
This technique involved Loftus implanting a false memory into a child of being lost in a mall at a
younger age (Loftus, 1995). At that point it was thought that only children were susceptible to
false memories (then said to be repressed memories) and not adults. Since then it has been shown
that not only do children create false memories, and are susceptible to implantation, but also
young and older adults (Lindsay, Hagen, Read, Wade, & Garry, 2004). For example, Wade,
Garry, Read, & Lindsay (2002) successfully implanted a false memory of being in a hot air
balloon as a child into twenty subjects whose age ranged from 18-28.
Recently, researchers have begun studying age related differences and changes in false
memories between age groups (Anastasi & Rhodes, 2008; Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; Norman &
Schacter, 1997; Tun, Wingfield, Rosen, & B.
This powerpoint is suitable for unit 4 AQA psychology revision. It should only be used for revision and not to learn the topic as it does not include everything.
This document contains an ethical statement, acknowledgements, abstract, introduction, materials and methods, and references sections from a research paper. The introduction discusses implicit and explicit memory systems and how they are affected differently by stimulus exposure duration based on prior research. The study aims to investigate how varying exposure durations from 40ms to 1900ms impacts performance on implicit (priming) and explicit (recognition) memory tasks. It is hypothesized that priming performance will increase up to 250ms exposure and then decrease, while recognition performance will increase with longer exposures. The materials and methods section describes that 20 participants were split into implicit and explicit memory conditions and completed a priming or recognition task with pictures exposed for different durations.
Effect of fMRI Scan Presentation on Perceptions of HomosexualityJacob Wilson
The primary purpose of the present study was to see if exposure to more critical thinking classes would affect how much influence an article about a controversial topic had when intertwined with an fMRI scan. Recently fMRI scans have been a very popular topic in the media. McCabe and Castel (2008) found that brain images can persuade individuals to accept information more easily than articles that do not contain brain images. In our study, an article on the biological basis of homosexuality was given to participants to read. In the first condition, participants only read the article. In the second condition, participants read the article and were given a bar graph that represented the data. In the third condition, participants read the article and were given an fMRI scan and bar graph to represent the data. There was a significant difference in agreement for the biological basis of homosexuality depending on the article condition the participants were placed in, F(2,57) = 3.86, p < .05. Participants who received the bar graph and fMRI images with the article rated homosexually as significantly more biological than the participants in the graph/article condition, p < .05. We also found that participants with a Science major agreed that homosexuality was biological more so than non-science majors [t(58) = 2.86, p < .05] and reported a greater change in their opinion of homosexuality after reading the article [t(58) = 3.11, p < .05]. When participants scored high on scientific reasoning, they were also more likely to be influenced by the material in the article regardless of condition. Together, this research suggests that opinions concerning the biological basis of homosexuality can be changed with exposure to research, and in some case the use of fMRI images is more persuasive.
The document discusses evidence that the frontal lobes play a role in fluid intelligence and decision making, but not crystallized intelligence or general intelligence. Studies found that frontal lobe patients performed poorly on tests of fluid intelligence like Raven's Progressive Matrices but normal on standardized IQ tests. Other research found that damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex impaired decision making on tasks involving future consequences, showing "myopia for the future". Additional studies suggest both the dorsal and ventral prefrontal cortex must be damaged to see impairments in risky decision making. Neuroimaging research also found reasoning tasks activated the frontal lobes, with deductive reasoning more associated with the left inferior frontal gyrus and inductive reasoning with the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
- Subjects experienced vivid hallucinations, impaired intellectual functioning, and increased suggestibility when placed in environments with limited sensory stimulation and social isolation for periods of time.
- Over 200 research studies on the effects of sensory deprivation have been conducted since the pioneering experiments in the 1950s and 1960s. These studies use a variety of techniques to limit sensory input including darkened rooms, goggles, flotation tanks, and respirators.
- Findings from these studies show that subjects find prolonged sensory deprivation difficult and unpleasant, experiencing anxiety, restlessness, and difficulty concentrating. However, some tasks like vigilance and certain types of learning may be improved with sensory deprivation. Subjects also show increased desire for stimulation and
- Subjects experienced vivid hallucinations, impaired intellectual functioning, and increased suggestibility when placed in environments with limited sensory stimulation and social isolation.
- Over 200 research studies on sensory deprivation have been conducted since the 1950s using techniques like dark rooms, goggles, and flotation tanks.
- Findings include increased anxiety, difficulty concentrating, and changes in perception of time and body awareness during isolation. Performance on intellectual tasks generally declines while isolation increases desire for stimulation.
The document summarizes current research on autism, including:
- Autism was first identified in 1943, though early theories wrongly blamed mothers
- Prevalence has increased and is now 1 in 150, possibly due to improved diagnosis and definitions
- Diagnosis has shifted from a social disorder to recognizing global brain processing differences
- Genetic research finds higher concordance rates in identical twins and links to specific genes
- Brain research shows differences in size, connectivity, and activity in face and emotion regions
ANGELO.Psychosis characteristics (thesis)May25th2015 (final version) (1)Angelo Laine
This document summarizes research on discrimination, race, gender, and attenuated positive psychotic symptoms (APPS) in college students. A study of over 1,600 black and white college students found that black students reported more discrimination and endorsed more APPS, regardless of gender. The study also found a gender difference in APPS among black students that was partially mediated by reported discrimination. In general, the document reviews literature showing that ethnic minorities and those who experience discrimination may be at higher risk for subclinical psychotic symptoms.
This article discusses the diagnosis and treatment of Asperger's syndrome using the case of a 15-year-old male patient, Marc. It reviews the history and diagnostic criteria of Asperger's, compares it to high-functioning autism, examines comorbid conditions, and discusses evidence-based assessment and treatment recommendations. The key recommendations are for early diagnosis and intervention focusing on enhancing social skills through individualized education programs tapping into special interests.
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by impairments in social communication and interaction as well as restricted and repetitive behaviors. In the DSM-5, ASD encompasses several previous diagnoses including autistic disorder. The criteria were modified from three impairment areas to two domains of social communication and restricted/repetitive behaviors. There is ongoing debate around changes in the DSM-5 definition and concerns that some individuals may lose their ASD diagnosis. The condition was first described by Leo Kanner in 1943 and involves difficulties with social relationships and unusual responses to the environment.
These are a series of poems written for a class I took as credit towards my creative writing certificate. They have been through series of rewrites and modifications, including a workshopping process
In this paper, I researched how aspects of personality can influence behavior; the specific example here is infidelity. I synthesized the data of multiple experiences to create a personality profile of a person who is more likely to cheat on a romantic partner than the "average" person.
This poem collection explores various themes through short lyrical poems, including the fleeting nature of beauty and life, relationships, intoxication and its aftermath, predation and the cycle of sustenance in nature. The poems employ vivid imagery and metaphor to convey complex emotions and observations on the human condition.
This document provides background on the Australian outlaw tradition and cultural significance. It begins with an overview of universal outlaw traits found across cultures, such as representing struggles against oppression. It then discusses the origins of Australian "bushrangers," who emerged from escaped convicts in the penal colony. Bushrangers initially helped settlers by hunting kangaroos but later turned to theft. They gained popular support by targeting wealthy landowners and sharing profits with small farmers and other convicts. Michael Howe was one of the first famous bushrangers, leading raids in Tasmania and intimidating landowners known for mistreating convicts.
This document discusses the concept of outlaws in Australian culture. It begins by outlining some universal traits of outlaw heroes across cultures, such as representing struggles against oppression and dying violently while refusing to surrender. It then discusses how the Australian outlaw tradition in particular symbolizes protests against the mistreatment of Irish immigrants and convicts in the country's history as a penal colony. The document analyzes how historical events and literary works have portrayed famous Australian outlaws like Ned Kelly as champions of the working class.
Kelly Burke is seeking an entry-level position in a literary or communications company focusing on editing, proofreading, or writing. She has a background in various aspects of writing including the writing process, research, meeting deadlines, proofreading, editing, communication, and interacting professionally. She has experience editing peers' papers, being responsible for group projects, writing a publishable thesis, participating in creative writing workshops, utilizing academic resources for research and writing assignments, compiling a personality profile, teamwork through organizing course projects and volunteer activities, customer service experience, and work history in child supervision and hotel front desk roles. She has a Bachelor's degree in English from Saint Louis University with a 3.85 GPA and minor in psychology.
Kelly Burke is seeking an entry-level position in a literary or communications company focusing on editing, proofreading, or writing. She has a background in various aspects of writing including the writing process, research, meeting deadlines, proofreading, editing, communication, and interacting professionally. She has experience editing peers' papers, being responsible for group projects, writing a publishable thesis, participating in creative writing workshops, utilizing academic resources for research and writing assignments, compiling a personality profile, teamwork through organizing course projects and volunteer activities, customer service experience, and work history in child supervision and hotel front desk roles. She has a bachelor's degree in English from Saint Louis University with a 3.85 GPA and minor in psychology.
Mercurius is named after the roman god mercurius, the god of trade and science. The planet mercurius is named after the same god. Mercurius is sometimes called hydrargyrum, means ‘watery silver’. Its shine and colour are very similar to silver, but mercury is a fluid at room temperatures. The name quick silver is a translation of hydrargyrum, where the word quick describes its tendency to scatter away in all directions.
The droplets have a tendency to conglomerate to one big mass, but on being shaken they fall apart into countless little droplets again. It is used to ignite explosives, like mercury fulminate, the explosive character is one of its general themes.
5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT or Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that serves a range of roles in the human body. It is sometimes referred to as the happy chemical since it promotes overall well-being and happiness.
It is mostly found in the brain, intestines, and blood platelets.
5-HT is utilised to transport messages between nerve cells, is known to be involved in smooth muscle contraction, and adds to overall well-being and pleasure, among other benefits. 5-HT regulates the body's sleep-wake cycles and internal clock by acting as a precursor to melatonin.
It is hypothesised to regulate hunger, emotions, motor, cognitive, and autonomic processes.
DECLARATION OF HELSINKI - History and principlesanaghabharat01
This SlideShare presentation provides a comprehensive overview of the Declaration of Helsinki, a foundational document outlining ethical guidelines for conducting medical research involving human subjects.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a simplified look into the mechanisms involved in the regulation of respiration:
Learning objectives:
1. Describe the organisation of respiratory center
2. Describe the nervous control of inspiration and respiratory rhythm
3. Describe the functions of the dorsal and respiratory groups of neurons
4. Describe the influences of the Pneumotaxic and Apneustic centers
5. Explain the role of Hering-Breur inflation reflex in regulation of inspiration
6. Explain the role of central chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
7. Explain the role of peripheral chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
8. Explain the regulation of respiration during exercise
9. Integrate the respiratory regulatory mechanisms
10. Describe the Cheyne-Stokes breathing
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 42, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 36, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 13, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune DiseaseHealth Advances
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
Demystifying Fallopian Tube Blockage- Grading the Differences and Implication...
Schizophrenia and working memory
1. Working Memory and Schizophrenia 1
Working Memory and Schizophrenia
Kelly Burke
27 October 2014
2. Working Memory and Schizophrenia 2
While schizophrenic persons only represent about one-percent of the total population (Bhatt, Laws and McKenna,
2010), the struggles that they face can have a significant impact on both themselves and on the unaffected members of
society. A majority of schizophrenic persons have difficulty with executive functioning, working, and episodic memory
(Allen et al., 2009), which could make maintaining an everyday routine especially challenging if not impossible. For
example, schizophrenics struggle to hold jobs that are considered simple and lower-maintenance by the average person,
such as working a cash register at a fast food restaurant, which leads them to have lower, if any, income. Thus, these
persons either become a full-time responsibility for their families, even in their adult and elderly years. If their families
are unable to support them, there is a high possibility that they may end up homeless or in jail, as the most severe of cases
may break laws without realizing or knowing that they are doing so; for example, a schizophrenic may walk out into the
middle of the road and cause an accident or a blockage because he or she was too absorbed in his or her own delusions to
notice what was going on around him or her. These are not, however,the only impairments associated with the disease.
Schizophrenic persons are characterized as having both impaired working memory (Mayer and Park, 2012) and
episodic memory (Caza, Dore,Gingras, and Rouleau, 2011), which, in part, explains the strangeness of some of their
delusions. Delusions, or persistently held false beliefs, are another hallmark of schizophrenia, although not all patients
experience the same level of delusions as others do (Bhatt et al, 2010). It has been questioned whether this odd way of
thinking is due to poor memory in general, as schizophrenics notoriously warp events to a greater degree than the average
person when recounting them later on (Caza et al., 2011). Four studies, however, point towards a different root for the
strangeness of the schizophrenic thought process: the schizophrenic population has a greater instance of false memories as
compared to the average (control) population. Therefore,their stories are not warped solely because they cannot clearly
remember which events transpired and how they unfolded, but because their false memories lead them to genuinely
believe that their narrative is correct despite its obvious flaws to outsiders. Perhaps,most importantly, is the root cause of
these false memories: impaired encoding processes. The following experiments suggest that errors during encoding,
which are more common in schizophrenics than in the average healthy population, lead to increased instances of false
memory. This review will present experimental data in support of the encoding errors as the root cause of false memory
as opposed to other factors, such as lower intelligence, faulty memory, and issues of recall.
3. Working Memory and Schizophrenia 3
Mayer and Park (2012) sought to establish working memory impairment, centered around faulty encoding, as the
root of false memories through the use of severalspatial DRT tasks. 28 schizophrenic patients, 16 bipolar patients, 16
first-degree relatives of persons affected by schizophrenia, and 29 healthy controls that were demographic matches for the
schizophrenic group all participated in a spatial delayed response task, which was either classified as low-demand
(focusing on two geometric objects), or as high-demand (focusing on four geometric objects). Tests were further
categorized as non-distractor (no outside interfering stimuli), otherwise known as the A condition, or as distractor (non-
target stimuli were present),called the S condition. In the A condition, participants were asked to identify the location of
all of the shapes (circles and squares) on the grid, whereas in the S (distractor) condition, they were asked to focus only on
the locations of the squares. The participants would be shown the image for two seconds, and then the shapes would
disappear. A cross-figure would appear in a spot on the grid six seconds later, and the participant would have to classify it
as either match (the cross is in the same spot as a target geometric figure) or nonmatch (the cross is not in the same spot as
the geometric figure). Half of the trials were designed as match trials (the cross would appear in the former location of a
geometric figure), and the other half were designed as nonmatch trials (the cross would appear in a location never
inhabited by a geometric figure). The participant would then have to rate how confident they were in their answers,with
A corresponding to confident and S corresponding to not confident. They were given as much time as they needed to
accurately respond to this portion of the test.
Mayer and Park (2012) then analyzed response accuracy,response time (RT), and the different types of responses,
which included true memory responses,correct but not-confident responses,false memory responses, and incorrect and
not-confident responses. The primary focus was placed on the nonmatch 4 item no-distractor trials because the cross
appeared adjacent to the target locations with a greater rate than in the other conditions of the test. The absence of
distractors also made it easier, in theory, for the participants to tend to the correct stimuli, thus reducing the odds of
encoding errors due to faulty attentional capture. The types of probes used to elicit answers were classified as either near
to target or far from target, as the researchers hypothesized that more false memory errors would occur when the
participants were presented with probes from the former category – such stimuli could be easily mistaken as accurate due
to their close proximity to the actualtarget. In both load two and four tasks without distractors, schizophrenics scored
both the lowest percentage of accurate responses and the highest reaction time to produce their answers. Schizophrenic
patients reported greater confidence in their answers than all other groups, and were more likely to report seeing a
4. Working Memory and Schizophrenia 4
geometric shape in probes that were closer to the target than further from the target. The similar locations added to their
confidence that they were answering accurately.
Because the test was structured to incapacitate the enhancement of encoding by allowing little time for rehearsal,
it seems likely that errors with false memory occur as early on as encoding. When given a greater amount of time to
perform the same task (hence,having a better chance of accurately encoding information), the control population had
more accurate and more confident responses,while the schizophrenic population performed no differently compared to
tasks in which they had significantly less time to rehearse information. Also, RT and false memory did not show a
positive correlation, so it is unlikely that schizophrenic persons experienced errors in information retrieval; if the retrieval
stage was faulty, then reaction time would be expected to increase due to the complexity of recalling information. The
amount of false memory errors was not shown to correlate with the severity of the disease in this study, as all the
schizophrenic participants scored within the same relative range. It is interesting to note, however, that relatives of
schizophrenics who were not suffering the disease themselves scored less accuracy and had lower RTs than the healthy
controls, so it is likely that there is a biological component to encoding and recognition errors that lead to false memory.
Allen et al. (2009) studied such biological components by combining a DRM task with fMRI scans. The DRM
task presented the participants (18 at-risk mental state persons in the beginning stages of schizophrenia and 22 healthy
controls) with lists of words which they would have to recall after a twelve-minute delay, during which the participants
were given an attention task unrelated to the word list so that the encoding process would be strained. During the actual
encoding phase of the task, participants would have to read the word list aloud; after the aforementioned twelve minute
delay, the participants were presented with 24 target words, 24 semantically-related lure words, and 24 novel words.
They would then have to confirm whether or not they had been presented with these words before. The at-risk group had
a greater rate of false alarms (new words that were reported as old words with a high level of confidence) than the control
group for the novel words and were less able to accurately differentiate the actual target words. The results were highly
similar to Mayer and Park’s study in terms of false memory linked probe/target testing (for example, the word “bog”
could easily be confused with the word “bag,” whereas the words “bog” and “lag” were less similar and thus less likely to
be confused for one another), which shows a common pattern comparing schizophrenics to the control population. The
fMRI results, however, presented interesting findings. During the encoding period, the hippocampal region of
schizophrenic participants was lower than that of healthy controls. The same region was also overactive compared to the
5. Working Memory and Schizophrenia 5
controls during periods of false memory, which indicates that the hippocampus is relevant to both processes. As the
hippocampus is involved in memory tasks, it seems that schizophrenics indeed err during the encoding phase and attempt
to compensate at later phases,although the results are inaccurate. Schizophrenics also showed less activity in their left
and medial prefrontal regions, which are both involved in executive functioning. These underactive regions map out the
lack of executive functional performance in schizophrenics, which is one of the contributors to their inability to carry out
daily tasks.
Caza et al. (2011) also utilized the DRM to test false memory in schizophrenic patients. The sample size was 17
schizophrenic adolescents and 17 healthy controls matched to the experimental group; the researchers felt that it was
especially important to study persons who had not yet been exposed to long-term treatment of both medical and
institutional varieties. This would eliminate some of the possible differences in terms of symptoms in the sample size and
provide a more accurate representation of the schizophrenics’ baseline abilities sans external intervention. Overall, true
memory (accurate response with high confidence) was impaired in the patients as compared to the control group. While
false memory was equal across both groups when presented with a critical lure, false memory was increased in patients
when they were presented with an unrelated distractor, which inhibits the encoding process. Patients were able to report
fewer words and made more intrusions, both related and unrelated, than the healthy controls. RTs for the schizophrenic
group were also lower than the control group’s reaction times, signifying that the issue was not that of recollection. The
researchers believe that the encoding errors are due to the schizophrenic’s inability to accurately utilize verbatim
memorization (what exactly was said) and are thus forced to rely on gist memorization (what the words meant in general,
not specifically). This type of memory makes room for more error, as things which are similar are easier to misconstrue
than things which are retained with accuracy. Such trends lead to false memory, as the patients remain confident in their
gist memories and oblivious to their complete lack of verbatim traces.
Finally, Bhatt et al. (2010) measured whether or not there is an increased amount of false memory in
schizophrenics currently experiencing delusions (ED) when compared to those not experiencing delusions (ND) and
healthy controls. This study also utilized the DRM test with consistent results as the above study – low recall rates for
both schizophrenic groups compared to the control group, greater intrusions by both groups of schizophrenics, and higher
confidence in schizophrenics than the control group. The ED group, however, made more false memory errors than the
ND group, which may suggest that delusions (perhaps due to an overactive hippocampus in false memory states according
6. Working Memory and Schizophrenia 6
to Allen et al.’s study) correlate to a lesser level of encoding. Because the delusions are most likely highly distracting for
the ED person, they do not focus as well on the information they are presented with. Paranoid schizophrenics were also
shown in this study to be more susceptible to false memory, as they are more likely to trust the information in
lures/distractors. As paranoid schizophrenics are among the most heavily delusional, it can be reaffirmed that delusions
do, in fact,lead to higher false memory errors.
But why does any of this matter? First and foremost, the components of schizophrenia must be understood before
the disease can ever be sufficiently treated. As false memory can be particularly dangerous (imagine the legal issues a
person could get into, whether they are perpetrating a crime in unnecessary “self-defense” or accusing an innocent person
of a crime) it is urgent to resolve such issues sooner rather than later. False memory also leads to a lower-quality life, as
schizophrenic patients are less able to lead healthy lives than the average person, often ending up financially dependent or
homeless. Studying recall and encoding tasks is also beneficial to the wider population, as it teaches us how we all handle
information. Such data could be used to further study learning processes and disabilities of all kinds, with focus on
schizophrenia being but one route that could be studied. Also, false memory can undermine close social relationships
because it sometimes causes extreme mistrust and paranoia. A person who wishes to bond with a schizophrenic may have
their actions misinterpreted (encoding a friendly smile as a threatening gesture and later having false memories of a
confrontation that never occurred) and may be met with hostility in return. It is necessary to analyze faulty encoding
because strategies that attempt to correct this process could be implemented by therapists and drastically increase the
quality of life for schizophrenic individuals.
In conclusion, false memory is higher in schizophrenic persons than in the average population, and is caused
primarily by errors within the encoding phase. Mayer and Park (2012) found that schizophrenic patients had lower RTs
and greater confidence while reporting their answers on the spatial DRT task. Even when given a greater amount of time
to rehearse information (and thus encode it), schizophrenics performed the same, whereas the control group performed
significantly better. False memory is also more likely when the location of the nonmatch stimulus is spatially closer to the
target, which seems to point towards less specific attention utilized during encoding. Allen et al. (2009) found that the
hippocampal region, which is a major player in information encoding, is underactive in schizophrenic patients during the
DRM task, which is also focused around encoding abilities. Thus the encoding process itself is likely corrupted – a brain
region is less active when it should be highly involved. Caza et al. (2011) also utilized the DRM task and gathered the
7. Working Memory and Schizophrenia 7
same pattern of results – schizophrenics have lower RTs than controls but also have higher occurrences of false memory.
This seems to be due to the schizophrenics’ inability to encode verbatim information – which is highly accurate – and
instead are forced to rely on gist-oriented information, which can easily be distorted. The information, therefore,was not
entirely correct from the very beginning – the encoding phase. Lastly, Bhatt et al. (2010) examined the difference in
encoding ability between schizophrenics experiencing delusions and not experiencing delusions. The ED group had a
greater level of false memory responses when compared to the NED group. The distraction of these delusions is likely
inhibitive to the encoding process,because it makes the new information more difficult to focus on and accurately take in.
Encoding is already impaired in schizophrenics, and any additional distractor will further hinder the process,and lead to
greater instances of false memory.
8. Working Memory and Schizophrenia 8
Works Cited
Allen, P., Valli, I., Fusar-Poli, P., Perlini, C., Day, F., McGuire, P.K., Seal, M.L., Wood, S.J., and Williams,
S.C. (2011). Altered prefrontal and hippocampal function during verbal encoding and recognition in
people with prodromal symptoms of psychosis. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 37(4), 746-756.
Bhatt, R., Laws, K.R., and McKenna, P.J. (2010). False memory in schizophrenia patients with
and without delusions. Psychiatry Research, 178(2), 260-265.
Caza, Nicole, Dore, Marie-Claire, Gingras, Nathalie, and Rouleau, Nancie. (2011). True and false memories in
adolescents with psychosis: Evidence for impaired recollection and familiarity. Cognitive
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