Review of literature

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Studies related to Job Satisfaction
Studies related to Organisational Commitment
Studies related to Job Satisfaction and Organisational Commitment

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
The review of related studies involves the systematic identification,
location and analysis of documents containing information related to the
research problem. It is an account of what has been published on a topic by
accredited scholars and researchers. According to Best (1985), “A familiarity
with the literature in any problem area helps one to discover what is already
known, what others have attempted to find out, what methods of attacks have
been promising or disappointing and what problems remain to be solved.”
Review of related literature gives the research worker an opportunity to
acquaint himself/herself with the current knowledge and up-to-date
information about what has been thought and done in the area of his/her
choice.
The present study is an attempt to find out the extent of job satisfaction
and organisational commitment of employees in the IT industry of Kerala.
Studies pertaining to the job satisfaction, organisational commitment and
other related variables were reviewed in this chapter. The sources included
relevant scholarly research studies, journals, newspapers, seminar reports,
workshops and publications.
The review of related literature is arranged in three sections.
1. Studies related to Job satisfaction
2. Studies related to Organisational Commitment
3. Studies related to Job satisfaction and Organisational Commitment

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Review of Related Literature and Studies
2.1 STUDIES RELATED TO JOB SATISFACTION
Centers and Cantril (1946) have conducted their studies on job
satisfaction in relation to the marital status of workers and found that married
workers like their jobs more than unmarried workers do.
Inflow (1951) has stated that employees are dissatisfied in the early
phase of their service and that the first two years of service have the greatest
depressing influence on job satisfaction.
Talachi (1960) has observed that lower job satisfaction should
increase both labour turnover and absenteeism.
Shoukry and Otis (1964) have indicated that the level of job
satisfaction increases in the earlier period of employment and declines in the
terminal periods.
Gannon and Hendrickson (1967) conducted an exploratory study of the
career orientation and job satisfaction of wives employed in retailing
businesses as either clerks or officer workers. The findings showed that the
women were more satisfied with their jobs when job involvement was high.
Blum and Naylor (1968) have indicated that the level of job satisfaction
and commitment to work are the results of various attitudes an employee
holds towards his job, towards factors related to his job and towards life in
general.
Ronan (1970) has studied the relative importance of eighteen job
characteristics in relation to job satisfaction and found that job security is not

25
important to salaried workers but it is important to both managerial and hourly
workers.
Starcevich (1972) has identified certain job related factors such as
feelings of achievement, use of best abilities, challenging assignments,
growth on the job and recognition and ranked them among the most important
factors for both job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction regardless of the
respondents’ occupational level.
Orpen and Pinshaw (1975) involved a sample of 100 insurance clerks.
An individual’s hierarchy of needs influences the relationship between job
factors and job satisfaction. The findings indicated that the correlation
between job context or job content factors and overall job satisfaction were
not significant.
Seybolt (1976) explored the relationship between three characteristics
of the work environment (pay, job variety and task complexity) and job
satisfaction and the moderating effect of level of education on these
relationships. The results showed that individuals with grade school
education in jobs with low variety were significantly more satisfied with their
work than those with high school or college education in low variety jobs.
Snyder and Ferguson (1976) investigated the empirical relationship
between self-concept and job satisfaction. The sample consisted of 600
employees of Ohio University and of business establishments located in or
near Athens, Ohio. Sixty nine per cent of the sample were females and thirty
six per cent of the sample were clerical workers. The authors concluded that

26
in job satisfaction research, self-concept can serve as an independent
variables only to a limited degree.
Prakasam (1976) has found that occupational level has some
influence over the satisfiers and dissatisfiers of employees. In higher level
occupations, motivator factors act as satisfiers but in lower level occupations
both motivators and hygienic factors seem to act as satisfiers and
dissatisfiers.
Pathak (1977) has found that the most important job characteristics
sought by the high job satisfied group belonging to both the higher and the
lower hierarchies and the low job satisfied group belonging to the lower
hierarchy is the opportunity for advancement.
Ali (1978) has revealed that management levels are fertile grounds for
job satisfaction and work motivation.
Pestonjee (1979) has reported that the interaction between
occupational levels, security and alienation casts a significant influence on job
satisfaction.
According to Mishra (1980), job satisfaction is a feeling accruing out of
different conditions within a job and outside the job.
Pleitner (1982) has pointed out that job satisfaction results from the
degree of correspondence between the individual’s expectations on the one
hand and the circumstances of his job situation on the other, as compared by
the individual employee.

27
Renu, Harveen and Renu (1984) have revealed that higher the age
and the greater the number of dependents, the lesser will be the job
satisfaction.
Mendhi (1985) has examined the need satisfaction and job attitudes of
managers and observed that job dissatisfaction is highest for those public
sector managers who have never changed their jobs.
Dattuar and Prasad (1986) have found that the personnel in private
organization with the exception of those at the middle level are more satisfied
than those working in public organizations.
Irene and Albert (1989) have indicated that sex and educational level
cannot significantly account for differences in job satisfaction levels, whereas
occupation, age and length of service have a significant impact as some of
the satisfaction dimensions.
Mira and Pestonjee (1990) in their study of bank employees have
observed that middle managers expressed the greatest degree of satisfaction
followed by foremen and chiefs and then by workers.
Douglas, Stephen, Michael and Richard (1991) have observed in their
study that the least satisfied workers would be those who experienced
autonomous work in the past, and are frustrated by the lack of autonomy in
their current positions.
Thoomkuzhy (1993) has emphasized that complete job satisfaction of
the managers and workers in Kerala cannot be taken at its face value; it must
be related to rotation of jobs and different unfamiliar places of work.

28
Rahman (1994) in his study of job satisfaction of supervisors in the
garment industry suggest that open communication, job security, supervisory
status, recognition for good work and overtime are considered more important
for job satisfaction than job status, working environment and autonomy in
work.
Lakshminarayan and Prabhakaran (1994) states that textile workers
with less job satisfaction have more job stress and who have more job
satisfaction have less job stress. Job satisfaction and job stress are inversely
related, i.e., the more job satisfied individual will have less job stress. They
suggested that employee counselling should aim at coping strategies to
reduce job stress.
Rothausen (1994) argued that depending upon one’s parental status
the factors that influence or determine job satisfaction would differ.
Rothausen reported unique factors do appear to determine overall job
satisfaction for parent workers.
Thomas and Ganster (1995) examined the effects of two contextual
elements, family supportive policies and family supportive supervisors on
work family conflict and individual level strain variables. They found direct and
indirect support for the effect of family supportive supervisors on job
satisfaction. Their findings indicate work family conflict and control partially
mediated the relationship between the contextual elements and job
satisfaction.

29
Dayanandan (1997) in his study of Human Resource Management in
co-operative banks found that satisfaction with co-employees was favourable
among both the senior and junior level employees. He also states that
increased satisfaction was noticeable among the senior level employees with
regard to environment and working conditions of banks in comparison with
junior level employees.
Thomas (2001) in his study found that job satisfaction level is much
higher in managers of non-credit co-operatives. They also found that majority
of managers in co-operatives are unsatisfied with the present salary structure.
In a study conducted by Thomas and Sasikumar (2002) to determine
factors which are important in deciding job satisfaction of mangers in
co-operative sector, the following were found to be important – job security,
opportunity to use knowledge and skill, opportunity to participate in decision
making connected with job, variety in job and challenge in job.
Bruck (2002) examined whether there would be differential relationship
across the job satisfaction facets. These tests revealed no significant
differences across facets for any of the conflict measures. These results
provide important implications for practitioners who are implementing
organizational interventions designed to combat work family conflict.
In a study on work ethics of the industrial work force in selected public
and private sector enterprises in Kerala, Wilson (2003) found that workers in
the private sector are not satisfied with the reward system, as compared to
their counterparts in the public sector.

30
Jha and Pathak (2003) in their study of the nature of differences in the
levels of job satisfaction among executives of four public and private sector
organizations of Eastern and Northern part of India found the differences in
different aspects of job satisfaction, viz., job itself, pay and security were felt
by the executives. These aspects were found to be significantly higher in the
case of private sector organizations as compared to public sector
organisations.
Ilies and Judge (2003) attempted to identify personality traits that might
mediate the relationship between genetics and job satisfaction. They found
that personality traits only partially mediated this relationship and suggested
that perhaps other heritable traits, such as intelligence, may better explain this
relationship.
Yadav (2004) states that nature of work or the job content also
influences the level of job satisfaction of employees in the organization.
Rao (2004) in his article stated that reward systems have undergone a
sea change since globalization. In today’s talent market place, one can retain
one’s best people only by differentiating in their favour and by offering a mix of
monetary and non-monetary rewards. The key though is not to reward high,
but to reward the right people in the right way.
Robbins (2004) observed that persons with high level of job satisfaction
hold positive attitudes about their jobs while persons who are dissatisfied hold
negative attitudes about their jobs.

31
Shyam (2004) states that among health professionals working in public
sector, there are enough reasons to experience dissatisfaction. There is
disparity in income/salary, between those working in public sector and private
sector.
Sharma and Kumari (2004) found that public sector employees are in a
position in terms of their job satisfaction than the employees of private sector
organisations. Top management employees are more satisfied than the
middle and lower level employees. It was also revealed that the public sector
employees are more dissatisfied with their working conditions and incentives
than the employees of the private sector.
Chakraborty (2004) in a case study on job satisfaction among teachers
in educational institutions of Katwa Muncipality in the district of Burdwan, in
West Bengal found that teachers’ job satisfaction not only depends on nature
of job but also on institutional scenario, facilities, salaries and standard of the
students.
In a study on employee attitude and job satisfaction, Saari and Judge
(2004) found that job dissatisfaction appears to be related to other withdrawal
behaviours including lateness, unionization, grievances, drug abuse and
decision to retire.
Wayne, Musisca and Fleeson (2004) found that work to family conflict
was negatively related to job satisfaction, while work family facilitation was
positively related to job satisfaction.

32
Huang and Evert (2004) state that job level is positively related to job
satisfaction in individualistic countries but not in collectivist countries.
Moreover, the positive relationship between job level and job satisfaction
holds only for jobs with much opportunity to use one’s skills and abilities
especially in individualistic countries. Job level is even negatively related to
job satisfaction in jobs with little opportunity to use one’s skills and abilities in
collectivist countries.
Srivastava (2005) found from his study involving senior and middle
managers in two public sector companies that the changes in work and
service conditions are largely positive, resulting in greater job satisfaction than
before.
Sharma and Jyothi (2006) state that level of job satisfaction derived by
government school teachers is modest. The maximum satisfaction is derived
from the dimension of principals’ behaviour and the minimum from pay and
rewards, indicating high dissatisfaction with the pay and rewards packages
provided to them. Private School teachers are more satisfied than
government school teachers despite the poor package due to congenial
atmosphere in the private schools.
In a case study by Philip and Raju (2006) among doctors and nurses of
a multi-speciality private hospital, it was found that doctors are highly satisfied
with their jobs but nurses are just satisfied. However source wise analysis for
job satisfaction of nurses revealed that they are not satisfied in salary which is
one of the two most important sources out of the six considered in the study.

33
Ter Laura, Winfred, Gebhandt and Koelewin (2006) concluded that
personal goal facilitation through work offers a promising source of insight into
job attitudes and well being, complementing more traditional job
characteristics models. Personal goal facilitation through work refers to
perception of the extent to which one’s job facilitates the attainment of one’s
personal goals.
Dormann, Doris Dieter and Michael (2006) indicate a high stability of
core self evaluation. The stable job satisfaction factor was regressed on core
self evaluation variables using different models of core self evaluation. It is
concluded that current conceptualization of core self evaluation as a super
ordinate concept underlying its four dimensions is possible but overly broad in
job satisfaction research.
Anseel and Lievens (2007) examined (i) the relationship between the
feedback environment and job satisfaction and (ii) the mediating role of
leader-member exchange in a Belgian context. The findings highlight the
usefulness of diagnosing and assessing the feedback environment for a better
understanding of feedback processes and for enhancing feedback
interventions in organisation.
Ivy Philip (2007) has made a study on the HRM practises in the public
sector and private sector hospitals in Kerala. She identified the extent of
satisfaction of employees in hospitals and remarked that organisation with
more satisfied employees find to be more effective than organisations with
fewer satisfied employees.

34
Slugoski (2008) stated that overall organizational commitment had the
greatest affect on intent to say, followed by job satisfaction, job alternatives
and job embededness added to the employee retention equation, explaining a
small but significant amount of intent to stay variance.
Sizer (2008) examined the effect of mentoring relationship on
job satisfaction and examined faculty members’ perceptions of the
effectiveness of the mentoring relationship. Findings suggest that faculty
members with mentors have higher levels of job satisfaction than faculty
members without mentors.
Salie (2008) studied the extent to which job satisfaction was correlated
with perceptions of servant leadership in Muslim centres and schools in South
East Michigan and Toledo, Ohio.
Judge, Heller and Klingir (2008) indicated that the traits from all three
taxonomies generally were significantly related to job satisfaction, even when
the traits and job satisfaction were measured with independent sources.
However when all three typologies were examined concurrently the core self
evaluation typology was the only typology that was significantly related to job
satisfaction.
Edwards, Bell and Arthur (2008) indicate that the relationship between
overall job satisfaction and task and contextual performance were the same.
There was a stronger relationship between satisfaction with supervision and
contextual performance compared to task performance. This also states the
importance of considering different facts with job satisfaction and job

35
performance relationship, as well as the importance of matching predictors
and criteria in terms of their levels of specificity.
Clark and Tamara (2008) have revealed that there was strong
correlation between opportunities for promotions and job satisfaction. The
results indicate that external needs, opportunities for promotions, and pay
contribute to job satisfaction and reduction of turnover among employees
within insurance organizations. The problem with job satisfaction and
turnover is a concern within insurance industry.
Bennet (2009) examined the relationship between the subordinates’
perception of the leadership style of IT managers and one of three dependent
measures predicting subordinate extra effort, manager effectiveness and
satisfaction with management.
Kim Soonhee (2009) in his study on IT employees job satisfaction in
the public sector indicated that job clarity, effective communication with
management, a participatory management approach, organizational support
of career development, opportunity for advancement and family friendly
policies are all significant variables affecting job satisfaction of IT employees.
Leung and Olivia (2009) indicated negative correlation with job
satisfaction across societies. Results showed that social cynicism correlated
negatively with job satisfaction measurement concurrently, as was predictive
of job satisfaction measured subsequently.
Vijaya Krishnan (2009) states that the likelihood of individuals seeking
redress for alleged injustices through external mechanisms could reduce if it

36
perceived that there are genuine internal attempts at the level of their
individual manager to address personal concerns. Every action taken by the
HRM will be held irresponsible if they do not comply with the ethical
standards. As it is important for employees to adhere to ethics, it is equally
important for the HRM to build the standards for ethics.
Pillai (2010) indicated the willingness of IT employees to exert high
levels of discretionary effort – put in extra hours to solve a problem, make
suggestions for improving processes and generally seek to play a key role in
an organization has plummeted to its lowest levels. Tech workers are under
constant pressure to keep up and want to be in jobs where they can learn and
grow.
Kaur (2010) in her study aimed at finding the level of job satisfaction of
college teachers of Punjab with respect to area, gender and type of institution.
The study revealed that rural college teachers were more satisfied as
compared to urban college teachers, because of their low expectations.
Furthermore, government owned college teachers were more satisfied than
government aided and self-financed college teachers. She also states that
higher socio economic status and level of life satisfaction too encourage the
college teacher for higher level of job satisfaction.
Austin (2010) have investigated and presented the findings of twenty
working professionals to determine how workplace friendships influence
career advancement and job satisfaction. The data suggested that vital

37
friendship is important, friendship matters in the workplace, and vital friends
influence job satisfaction and career advancement.
Wu and Wang (2010) suggest the importance of taking personality
variables into consideration during the process of evaluating job satisfaction.
Job satisfaction should not only be related to extrinsic factors but also
associated with individual differences of dispositional tendency. Nurses with
positive evaluation and expectation towards self and others tend to report
higher job satisfaction.
Jain (2010) analysed the impact of liberalization on HRM practices in
public sector banks over a period of almost two decades. Variables were
measured and conclusions were drawn striking a blend between micro level
changes and their consequent impact on banking operations. Majority of the
respondents agreed that the primary reasons for improved productivity post
liberalization were use of IT, Infrastructure, competition in the market place
and outsourcing back office functions.
Chopra and Khan (2010) states that job satisfaction is a complex and
multifaceted concept, which can mean different things to different people.
The Link between job satisfaction and performance may prove to be a
spurious relationship, instead, both satisfaction and performance are the
result of personality. Hence the behavioural aspect of HRM has to be kept in
mind by the organizational decision makers.

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2.2 STUDIES RELATED TO ORGANISATIONAL COMMITMENT
Oscar (1966) has found that the strength of a person’s commitment to
an organization is influenced by the rewards he has received from the system
and the kinds of experiences he has had to undergo in order to receive the
rewards.
Robert (1970) has observed that people in low status occupations are
thought to have little commitment whereas people in high status occupations
should be more highly committed.
Gupta, Sharma and Rahman (1971) have in their studies indicated that
recognition is a variant of prime importance that influences one’s commitment
to organizational goals.
Hrebiniak and Alutto (1972) in their studies have shown that there is a
strong positive relationship between organizational commitment and
experience or seniority.
Porter, Steers, Mowday and Boulian (1974) have observed that
individuals highly committed to an organization’s goals and willing to devote a
great deal of their energy towards those ends would be inclined to remain with
the organization.
Staw (1976) has noted that negative consequences may actually cause
decision makers to increase their commitment.
Steers (1977) has found that work experiences are more closely
related to commitment than personal or job characteristics.

39
Marsh and Mannari (1977) have observed in their study that Japanese
workers have higher levels of organizational commitment than Americans.
Fottler (1977) has reported that the failure of commitment at the top
leads to a failure of commitment in staff management at the personnel
department and the operating departments.
Gupta (1977) in his research study conducted on the industrial workers
employed in the Diesel locomotive unit in a public sector undertaking found
that workers in the public sector industry were highly committed to industrial
work.
Aryeh (1978) has indicated that workers with high protestant ethic tend
to express high moral commitment, while those with low protestant ethic tend
to express low moral commitment.
Jauch, Glueck and Osborn (1978) in their study among professors
have shown that researchers with the strongest professional commitment
have higher research productivity than others.
Mowday, Steers and Porter (1979) have found that the better
performing branches of a bank have employees with relatively higher levels of
organizational commitment than the low performing branches have.
Cook and wall (1980) have stated that supervisory relations and
interpersonal trust are positively related to organizational commitment.
Angle and Perry (1981) have found that organizational commitment is
positively related to some dimensions of organizational effectiveness such as
organizational adaptability turnover and tardiness rate.

40
Morris and Sherman (1981) have in their research indicated that the
level of education is negatively related to organizational commitment.
O’Reilly and Caldwell (1981) have shown that job choice decision and
expectation of an employee can affect his future attitudes and commitments.
Welsch and Lavan (1981) have stated that organizational commitment
is an important behavioural dimension which can be utilized to evaluate the
strength of an employee’s attachment to his organization.
Padaki (1982) has found that individuals differing in their locus of
control react differently to organizational situation and correspondingly they
differ in their levels of commitment, motivation and satisfaction.
Amsa (1982) has in his research found that the expression of
commitment values in the form of good work performance takes place only
when an employee’s expectations from his job are reasonably fulfilled by the
organization.
Dhuru and Jyotsana (1982) have observed that a member’s lowest
degree of commitment to his organization is when he voluntarily intends and
wished to stay in the organization.
Sinha (1983) has found a significant and positive relationship between
overall organizational climate and organizational commitment.
Ferris and Aranya (1983) have observed that organizational
commitment is becoming an increasingly used instrument to predict
performance absenteeism and turnover.

41
Lacy, Bokemeier and Shepard (1983) have indicated that regardless of
age and educational or occupational prestige level, men remain more
committed to continued working than women.
Balaji (1984) in his research on managers in co-operatives has found
that managers at the higher levels of the organizational hierarchy are more
committed to their organization than those at the lower echelons.
Oliver (1984) in his study of organizational commitment in six workers
co-operatives in Scotland has observed that the founder members of the
co-operatives showed significantly higher organizational commitment and also
identification involvement and loyalty than other members.
Balaji (1985) has found that professionals have weaker organizational
commitment than non-professionals.
Aranya, Kushnir and Valency (1986) in their study among men and
women accountants working in professional organizations indicate that
women accountants tend to have lower levels of commitment than their men
colleagues.
Curry, Wakefield, Price and Mueller (1986) have found that high levels
of repetitive work are associated with low commitment and high levels of
fairness in rewards are associated with high commitment.
Luthans, Baack and Taylor (1987) have found that age, education
tenure in the organization, tenure in the present position and supervisory
status have a positive relationship to organizational commitment.

42
Alvi and Ahmed (1987) have indicated that the fulfilment of workers’
psychological needs along with others is a very important predictor of their
organisational commitment.
Decotiis and Summers (1987) have reported that commitment is
strongly associated with individual motivation, desire to leave, turnover and
objective measures of job performance.
Glisson and Durick (1988) have observed that in human service
organizations, larger worker groups rate themselves as less committed,
whereas work groups that provide both residential and walk-in service are
more committed than those providing more limited services.
Dornstein and Matalon (1989) have indicated that work experience
shows the strongest relationship with organizational commitment.
D’Souza (1990) has in his research study found that there exists a
significant positive relationship between quality of work life and employee
commitment for both managers and workers.
Mathieu and Kohler (1990) have stated in their study that the lowest
absence rate was found among employees who expressed both high
organizational commitment and job involvement.
Randall, Fedor and Longenecker (1990) have observed that
employee’s commitment to the organization is expressed through their
behaviour indicating a concern for quality, a sacrifice orientation, a
willingness to share knowledge and through their presence in the work
place.

43
Oliver (1990) has noted that employees who show strong participatory
values exhibit relatively high commitment whereas employees with strongly
instrumental values show relatively lower commitment.
Sagar (1990) states the importance of sales people’s commitment to
the organization to enhancing retention. Based upon the study findings,
several strategies are described that managers can use to increase retention
of sales people. Managers need a better grasp of how to retain sales people.
Raju (1991) in his research study regarding teacher’s commitment to
the teaching profession has indicated that the more committed teachers
express high intrinsic motivation, inner direction, religiosity, external
expectations, self accountability and desire to utilize skills.
Lee and Johnson (1991) in their studies have found that the full time
employees have higher organizational commitment than part time workers
when both work at a preferred schedule.
Sharma and Chauhan (1991) have observed that highly motivated
employees feel more committed to their organization than those who are less
motivated.
Gregersen and Black (1992) have indicated that there is a positive
relation between the commitment of managers assigned abroad to their
parent companies and to local operations.
Florkowski and Schuster (1992) have shown that profit sharing support
can strengthen the workforce and it is an important determinant of
organizational commitment.

44
Brockner, Tyler and Schneider (1992) have suggested that employees
who had relatively high levels of commitment before hand may if show a
sharp decline in commitment if their experience with the institution is
negatively discrepant from their prior beliefs.
Mayer and Schoorman (1992) have observed that turnover is more
strongly related to continuance commitment and performance is more strongly
related to value commitment than otherwise.
Rodgers, Hunter and Rogers (1993) have observed that effective
programme installation depend on the level of top management commitment.
The stronger the commitment the greater the potential for program success.
Besser (1993) in his research study comparing the commitment to work
of American and Japanese workers has concluded that Japanese workers are
more committed to their employing organizations than the American workers.
Sayeed (1994) in his research study among the managers of large
multinational firms has found that the level of management has a consistently
positive relationship with overall commitment, followed by length of service.
Yoon Baker and Ko (1994) have indicated that interpersonal
attachment among employees in immediate work units substantially increases
the employees’ commitment to their work organization.
Zeffane (1994) suggests that variations in management styles have a
significant effect on employee commitment.

45
Vandenberg and Scarpello (1994) have reported on the significant
positive influence on occupational commitment upon organizational
commitment.
Anantharaman and Jagadeesh (1994) have stated that the unionized
employees perceive the organizational climate less favourably than non-
unionized employees. There is no difference between these groups in their
extent of job involvement. The various dimensions of organizational climate
seem to be not to one another suggesting their independent nature.
Wilson (1995) in his research study has found that older employees
and women employees are more committed to their organization than
younger employees and men employees. Married employees are more
committed than unmarried employees. He also states that the level of
education increases the organizational commitment of employees. Salary
and family income are positively related to organizational commitment.
Somers (1995) has indicated that affective commitment emerged as
the predicator of turnover and absenteeism whereas normative commitment
was positively related to the intent to remain.
Wallace (1995) has reported that corporatist organisations strive to
maximize employees’ commitment to the organization by enhancing
employee integration, upward mobility, participation in decision making and
the legitimacy of the authority system.

46
Sakthidharan (1997) in his research study found that organizational
commitment does not produce any significant difference between workers and
managers.
Sharma (1997) has indicated that situational factors contribute more to
organizational commitment than person related factors.
Biswas (1998) has suggested that performance, threat and frustration
stressors are significant predictors of organizational commitment.
Mishra, Dhar and Dhar (1999) have reported that enhancing employee
satisfaction guarantees greater involvement and commitment on the part of
the employee to his job and organization.
Moideenkutty, Blau, Ravikumar and Ahemedali (2001) examined the
role of perceived organizational support as a relationship between perceived
situational factors and affective organizational commitment. It indicated that
perceived organizational support fully mediates the relationship between each
of these perceived situational variables and affective commitment to the
organization.
Camp (2001) examined the effect of two types of subjective
measurement of the work environment, job satisfaction and organizational
commitment, which are thought to be related to turnover. The study
examined two separate aspects of organizational commitment, commitment to
the overall organization and commitment to the specific institution. Both
measures of organizational commitment exert about equal influence on
turnover with commitment.

47
Subrahmaniam (2002) in their study investigated the role of
decentralized structure of managers need for achievement as antecedents of
participative budgeting, and the impact of the concurrent relationship of all
three preceding variables on organizational commitment. Direct and positive
relationships were found between the two antecedent variables: decentralized
structure and manager’s need for achievement, and participative budgeting.
Participative budgeting in turn was found to have a direct and positive
relationship with organizational commitment. The results of the study have
implication for the design of effective management control processes and for
HRM of hospitality organizations.
Rose (2003) in his comparative study on the effect of pension schemes
on employee’s commitment between firms offering pension schemes and
those not offering pension schemes found higher commitment from workers at
companies that offered pension schemes than with those workers at firms that
did not.
Berg, Kalleberg and Appelbaum (2003) examined whether a high
commitment environment would positively impact work family balance in part
through its affect on organizational commitment. In their study, a high
commitment environment was defined as one that provides intrinsically
rewarding jobs, has supportive supervisors and high performance work
practices. They found affective commitment did partially mediate the
relationship between high commitment organizational practices and work
family balance.

48
Eaton (2003) examined the effects of the formality of the policy and
perceptions of usability on organizational commitment. In her study, when
employees perceived that flexibility policies were not truly available to them,
they reported lower organizational commitment. Similarly, she found support
for the effect of perceived control over schedule on organizational
commitment.
Wasti (2003) investigated whether cultural values of individualism and
collectivism measured at the individual level influence the salience of different
antecedents of organizational commitment. The findings indicated that
satisfaction with work and promotion are the primary determinants of effective
and normative commitment for employees who endorse individualist values.
For employees with collectivist values, satisfaction with supervisors was found
to be an important commitment antecedent over and above satisfaction with
work and promotion.
Wright (2003) states that in order to be effective in the rapidly changing
markets, organisations are required to be flexible and adaptable, for which
their human resource management is desired to be commitment oriented
rather than control oriented. A commitment oriented HRM focuses on
developing employees who can be trusted to their discretion to carry out their
jobs in ways that are consistent with organisational goals. Committed
employees are more likely to expend their discretionary efforts towards
achieving organisational ends and show less counterproductive behaviour

49
than those less committed and also engage in better quality in-role
behaviours.
Jyothi (2004) quoted a study on the relation between human resource
practices and employee commitment in hotels in United Kingdom and stated
that objective recruitment and selection strategies, structural training and
development are strongly associated with highly committed employees.
Anil Kumar (2005) in his study found that when an executive stays in
an organisation based on a perceived cost of leaving, career development
prospects and rewards play an important role in determining his continuance
commitment. The executive stays with the organisation because he or she
thinks that it will cost more to leave at present and take up a job elsewhere.
As a result, the employability factor becomes an important determinant of the
executives’ continuance commitment. Further he states that as executives
feel a sense of being trapped into the organisation due to the high cost of
leaving, they would stick on to the same organisation and would be less likely
to leave.
Lok, Westwood and Crawford (2005) investigated the relationship
between perception of organisational subculture and their significance for
organizational commitment. Results indicated that perceived subculture has a
strong relationship with commitment. They further identified the relative
strength of specific types of leadership style and specific types of subculture
with commitment.

50
Rubin and Brody (2005) state that insecurity, time pressure, and
technologies increase employee’s accessibility to their workplace.
Accompanying these changes is a changing social contract between
employees and their employers. Organisational theories suggest that these
employment characteristics will undermine the attachment component of
organizational commitment that remain an important feature of contemporary
workplaces.
Davis, Pawlowski and Houston (2006) examined generational
differences in the work commitments of Baby Boomer (born between 1946 &
1962) and Gen. X (born between 1963 & 1981) IT professionals. Results
suggest that the work commitments of these generations of IT professionals
are more homogeneous than different.
Wade and Anthony (2008) has explored the relationship between the
attitudes and perceptions of minority professionals as related to fair treatment
between themselves and white counterparts, and whether those perceptions
influenced minority professionals to remain committed to organizations. They
suggest that while majority of respondents feel that they are treated as
equitably as their white counterparts, approximately one third indicated that
they were either unsatisfied or neutral on this subject. An overwhelming
majority of respondents are committed to their organization, even though they
may not always receive fair treatment, and many are unable to leave at this
time, regardless of treatment. Private sector employees indicated that they

51
may be more willing to change jobs during the course of their careers as
opposed to those in the public sector.
Allen and Robert (2008) investigated proximal institutional predictors or
organizational commitment in college students. The study examined the
relationship of student-organ fit, satisfaction with faculty, student self-
evaluation of academic performance, class level, class attendance time,
gender and age upon affective, normative and continuance commitment. The
intent of the study was to look at student commitment variables in light of
potential business strategy implication for recruitment and retention of
students.
Felfe, Schmook, Schgns and Bernd (2008) indicate that commitment to
the form of employment explains variance of organizational outcomes over
and above organizational commitment. Generally, commitment to the term of
employment reflects an important attitude to the work situation besides
commitment to the organization or occupation. The results are discussed in
the right labour market trends.
Navaprabha (2009) suggests the social commitment of co-operatives in
Kerala. It can emerge as an alternative to the MNCs and other monopolies in
their respective fields to certain extent and in the case of consumer sector,
educational sector, as an alternative to a large extent.
Nicholson (2009) indicated that supervisory leadership practice usage
and agent’s affective and normative commitment are positively related and
agents affective, normative and continuance commitment are negatively

52
related to turnover intention. Job and organizational tenure are not
significantly related to organizational commitment.
Aswathy and Gupta (2010) in their study on organisational commitment
of Indian managers in multinational companies found that the employee’s
commitment towards the organisation is based mainly on their perceptions
about the four organisational practices: organisational structure, management
style, HR practices and non-work practices. They concluded that the
employees’ level and nature of commitment towards the organisation is
subject to the employer’s employee-friendly and caring practices. That is, if
an organisation offers HRM systems aimed at employer-employee mutual
benefit, employee’s commitment levels do improve.
Hashim (2010) states that employee’s commitment is influenced by
many factors including the management styles within the organization. He
examined the management of human resources from the Islamic perspective
and its effects on organizational commitment among selected employees in
Islamic organizations in Malaysia. The results show that the Islamic approach
in HRM was highly and significantly correlated to organizational commitment.
Crook (2010) states that the key problems of African Public Services
are understaffing and lack of organizational commitment. It is argued that the
best way foreword is to identify and work with the competent managers to be
found in islands of effectiveness encouraging and spreading more effective
kinds of incentives and developing more positive organizational cultures.

53
Pressure from the public for better performance is only likely to work if the
need to respond is incorporated into organizational incentive structures.
Leenu and Lakhwinder (2011) found that all HR practices lead to
organisational commitment. For instance, compensation, career development
and supervisory support have been found correlated significantly with some
forms of commitment but did not emerge as significant predictors of any form
of commitment. The study indicates that the redundancy of the normative
commitment construct is a cause of concern for many while studying separate
dimensions of commitment and needs further investigation.
2.3 STUDIES RELATED TO JOB SATISFACTION AND ORGANISATIONAL
COMMITMENT
Bateman and Strasser (1984) have indicated that commitment has a
positive casual impact on job satisfaction.
Raju and Srivastava (1986) have suggested that employees who are
satisfied with a company may develop commitment to the organization and
vice versa.
Brooke, Jr. Russell and Price (1988) have stated that work involvement
is positively related to job satisfaction, job involvement and organizational
commitment.
Romzek (1989) has pointed out that committed employees are more
satisfied with their career prospects within their organization.

54
Cramer (1993) has indicated that stronger organizational commitment
is associated with greater satisfaction with the job, salary and career
structure.
Tett and Mayer (1993) hold the view that commitment and satisfaction
each contribute uniquely to the turnover process.
Rahim and Afza (1993) have found that commitment and satisfaction
are positively related to the propensity to leave a job.
Balachandran and Anantharaman (1996) have found a strong
relationship between organizational commitment and facets of organizational
stress and job satisfaction.
Buffardi and Erdwins (1997) examined the impact that employer
sensitivity to child–care needs and child-care satisfaction had on both job
satisfaction and organizational commitment of employed women. The results
clearly suggested that employer sensitivity to child-care needs was strongly
related to affective commitment and job satisfaction. Further it appears that
caregiver attentiveness may also be a significant predictor of both job
attitudes.
Driscoll and Randall (1999) have indicated that perceived organization
support was significantly linked with job involvement, and with affective and
continuance commitment, although its relationship with continuance
commitment was negative. Satisfaction with intrinsic and extrinsic rewards
was also a salient predictor of job involvement and affective commitment, but
not continuance commitment.

55
Giffeth, Horn and Gaertner (2000) reported that job satisfaction is
negatively related to turnover intention. Organizational commitment predicts
turnover better than job satisfaction. This finding suggests that job satisfaction
may be a more distal influence upon turnover intention than organizational
commitment.
Springer (2002) investigated the potential mediating role of job
satisfaction between job stressors – namely role overload -quantitative, role
over load – qualitative and lack of career development – as a source of stress
on the one hand and various facets of organizational commitment, namely,
affective, continuance and normative. Path analysis revealed that role
overload – quantitative directly and negatively influence both job satisfaction
and career development as a source of stress directly and negatively
influence job satisfaction. Findings also suggest that job satisfaction mediates
the influence of role overload – quantitative on various facets of organizational
commitment.
Behson (2002) sought to determine whether the specificity of the
supportive measures influenced the outcomes. This study examined whether
general measures of organizational supportiveness and more focal
supportiveness measures differentially predicted important organisational
outcomes. The results suggest that the more specific measures of
supportiveness did account for variance in work family specific outcomes.
However, the specific measure did not account for variability in job satisfaction

56
and affective commitment beyond the more general measure of organizational
supportiveness.
Behson (2002) reported that the ability to make informal work
accommodations for family moderated the relationship between family to work
conflict and work stress, which predicted job satisfaction and organizational
commitment. In addition, control over schedule predicted informal work
accommodation.
Siu Ling Oi (2002) examined occupational stressors and well
being for blue and white collar occupations with Chinese and Hong Kong.
The study demonstrates that occupational stressors play a significant role in
determining job satisfaction and physical well being. These results of the
study show that organizational commitment and well being are positively
related.
Heslin (2003) in his study ‘job satisfaction and organizational
commitment’ stated that employees’ productivity is largely related to their level
of job satisfaction and in fact the turnover rate can be reduced with a higher
level of organizational commitment. There is relatively strong relationship
between job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
Raveendran Nair (2004) in his study identified the bank managers’
perceptions of motivational requirements, measuring their level of satisfaction
and evaluating their commitment to the organisation which will provide useful
guidelines in framing human resource development policies in the service
industry of banking. He found that the factors of job satisfaction emerged as

57
the pertinent predictors of commitment. The different forms of commitment of
managers are related with their level of job satisfaction.
Chong, Eggleton and Michele (2006) examined the multiple roles (i.e.,
cognitive, motivational and value attainment) of participative budgeting and
the combined effects of these three roles on subordinates’ job performance.
This paper proposes that participative budgeting affects job performance via
three intervening variables, namely, role ambiguity, organizational
commitment and job satisfaction. The results support the multiple roles of
participative budgeting and the indirect effect of participative budgeting on
subordinates’ job performance through role ambiguity, organizational
commitment and job satisfaction.
Trimble and Douglas (2006) studied affective organizational
commitment, job satisfaction and turnover intention of 468 missionaries.
Tenure in the organization was a stronger predictor of organizational
commitment, job satisfaction and turnover intention than was age (i.e., new
generation vs. older generation).
Senter and Martin (2007) suggested the proposition that part time
employee group membership accounts for incremental variance in predicting
turnover. The study also provides additional support for the premise that
organizational commitment, job satisfaction and perceived employment
alternatives differentially predict turnover for these part time groups.
Moffitt (2008) examined the moderators and mediators of the
relationship between traumatic caregiver stress and job satisfaction,

58
organizational commitment and turnover intentions. Many employees are
unexpectedly forced into a role of caregiver. In this study, traumatic caregiver
stress was found to have direct effects on family. Organisations need to pay
attention to the needs of employees who have the dual role of caregiver.
Tzinier, Waismal, Netanel and Broadman (2008) state the extent to
which personality traits for the unique variance in job satisfaction and
organizational commitment. Analysis of data showed that 58 and 44 per cent
of the explained variance in job satisfaction and organizational commitment
respectively, were accounted for by factors in this personalogical framework.
Mosadighrad (2008) indicated that hospital employees are moderately
satisfied with their jobs and committed to their organization. Job satisfaction
and organizational commitment were closely interrelated and correlated with
turnover intention.
Graham and Nafukho (2010) seek to introduce a conceptual model that
illustrate presumed association among work climate relationships, job
satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover intentions, retentions, crash
rates, and numerous residual costs. They state that organizational
commitment when compared to turnover, has received limited attention in
transportation safety research among truckload organization. This study
raises the level of awareness that there is much work to do related to gaining
a comprehensive knowledge of variables that influence driver safety
outcomes and the appropriate interventions necessary to elevate
organizational commitment and retention.

59
Conclusion
The review of related literature revealed that Job Satisfaction and
Organisational Commitment are the most important variables in Human
Resource Management. Many studies reviewed showed that these two
variables are interdependent. The review of related literature was very helpful
to the investigator in formulating her objectives and hypotheses. It was also
instrumental in gaining an in-depth knowledge of the two variables she has
selected for the purpose of the study.

60
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