1. Lucinda May Lee
October 26, 2015
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Restrictions on a Woman’s Reproductive Choice
“When the legislature enacts criminal laws, it cannot ignore that a woman is a human being entitled to dignity
and that she must be treated as such, as opposed to being treated as a reproductive instrument for the human
race. The legislature must not impose the role of procreator on a woman against her will” (Justices Araujo
Renteria and Vargas Hernandez, of the Constitutional Court of Colombia) (Cook, 2010).
Since the beginning of recorded human history, women have often been considered vessels for desire
and reproduction, rather than individual human beings worthy of the same rights and dignities generally
bestowed to men without question. Even in modern America, the basic rights of women are threatened daily,
especially those pertaining to reproductive health. Gains achieved must be continually defended. There is a lack
of understanding among average Americans about the detrimental effects these attitudes and restrictions have
on all of society, and myths are spread daily over the internet, through dishonest media, in conversations, and in
places of worship. For example, the Archbishop Francisco Chimoio said in an interview, "Condoms are not sure
because I know that there are two countries in Europe, they are making condoms with the virus on purpose.”
Priests are saying things like, “My diocese is flooded with condoms and there is more Aids because of them”
(Goldacre, 2010). Believing myths about pregnancy, such as a woman is unlikely to get pregnant if she was
raped, as promoted by U.S. Representative Todd Akin, leads to rape victims being repeatedly harmed through
societal denial, ignorance, and attitudes that seek to blame the victims, leading to all cases of rape being
disallowed for abortion. In a public debate, Mr. Akin said, "It seems to be, first of all, from what I understand
from doctors, it’s really rare. If it's a legitimate rape, the female body has ways to try to shut the whole thing
down” (Snopes, 2014).

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October 26, 2015
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Myths surrounding women’s personal health pervade in politics because they serve the interests of
those groups intending to misinform in order to impose their unfounded, harmful beliefs onto others through
policy.
In this paper, I will assess how the restriction of reproductive services and factual information negatively
impacts women and society. Furthermore, by examining the negative effects of restricting access, we will also
see how providing open access to factual information and medical services can lead to better outcomes in
preventable disease, pregnancy, and crime. Through the review of scholarly books, journal articles, and internet
sources, evidence illuminating this premise will follow. Please see the bibliography for a full appraisal of sources
used in preparation for this examination.
Some of the terms used throughout this paper should be defined to ensure the reader understands the
meaning of these terms as used in this examination. According to the peer-review medical journal Biomed, as
well as the World Health Organization and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), reproductive health is
“a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being in all matters relating to the reproductive system”,
at all stages of life; to have a responsible, “satisfying, and safe sex life with the capability to reproduce and the
freedom to decide if, when, and how often to do so” (UNFPA). This describes a level of reproductive health that
should be accessible to all members of society. Among the barriers to achieving this level of health are
restrictions of factual information and reproductive health services for women, which stem from misguided
policy, myths, and irresponsible social and economic decisions. Reproductive care includes the medically
offered services that help protect the body against STDs and unwanted pregnancy, as well as promote optimal
health. Reproductive services include safe, effective, and affordable contraception, abortion, hormonal and
fertility regulation, and pregnancy testing. Reproductive education means providing factual information to the
general public in age-appropriate ways on proper safety measures during sex, planned contraceptive use, and
shared responsibility between partners.

3. Lucinda May Lee
October 26, 2015
3
Preventable Disease
Restricting factual information and access to reproductive services leads to poor outcomes in
preventable diseases like human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), human papillomavirus infection (HPV), and
syphilis. Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) lead to many negative consequences for the patient related to
health (both physical and emotional), reproductive implications, intimate relationships, and loss of productivity
at work, as well as personal financial consequences. Our nation first began to realize the impending disaster of
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in the early 1980’s when the initial published reports described
patients with this devastating syndrome. “Since the incubation period of AIDS prior to the use of effective
antiretroviral therapy was approximately ten years, the epidemic of HIV infections must have peaked around the
mid-1980s” (Osmund, 2003). Following published accounts of AIDS transmission via sexual pathways, the U.S.
Surgeon General Dr. C. Everett Koop publically endorsed development of programs to make condoms more
accessible. However, Ronald Regan, the U.S. president at that time, was a proponent of abstinence and not
condom use, a political stance that resulted in the unnecessary spread of AIDS (Collier, 2007). “Much of the
problem in the early years was the American media's portrayal of AIDS as a disease of white gay men” (AVERT,
2014). The epidemic increasingly became one affecting women, heterosexual men, children, and others clearly
outside the gay male cohort. “Only 8% of the earlier cases were female. That proportion rose to 21% of the
1996 cases” (Osmund, 2003). That stereotyping meant that women were not being informed of the threat to
them of contracting the disease. Gradually, evidence-based approaches won out and factual information began
to be disseminated across the U.S. Eventually, condoms began to be sold in a wide variety of stores and
distributed more widely, making them more accessible to people.
“At the end of 2011, an estimated 1,201,100 persons aged 13 and older were living with HIV infection in
the United States” (CDC). In 2013, the CDC found that 1,229,711 adults and children had stage 3 AIDS (CDC, HIV

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October 26, 2015
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Surveillance Report 68). “Women of reproductive age continue to be one of the fastest growing groups of
individuals infected with HIV” (Kaeser, 1998). Only recently has HIV/AIDS begun to be understood as a sexual
and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) problem, “especially for girls and women” (Germain and Liljestrand
186).
“Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common sexually transmitted infection” (CDC Human
Papillomavirus). Persistent infection with HPV can lead to cancer. “In the pre-vaccine era (2003–2006), the
overall prevalence of any HPV was 42.5% (95% CI: 40.3–44.7) among females aged 14–59 years” (CDC Human
Papillomavirus). “In 2013, a national survey found that 57% of girls aged 13–17 years had received at least 1
dose of the HPV vaccine series, but only 38% had received all 3 doses in the series. Vaccine uptake is much
lower among boys” (CDC Human Papillomavirus). HPV vaccines have been available since 2006, yet the
prevalence of HPV among those older than 19 years of age remained unchanged post-2006. This statistic points
to a lack of education or open access to the vaccine. The good news is that among those aged 14-19, the
prevalence did decrease due to vaccine use post-2006. Americans in that age group would be more likely to be
exposed to factual reproductive health information in public school health courses, which are generally a
requirement for all students to take in public high schools, and in annual physicals that are often required of
high school aged kids.
“Untreated syphilis during pregnancy, especially early syphilis, can lead to stillbirth, neonatal death, or
infant disorders such as deafness, neurologic impairment, and bone deformities. Congenital syphilis (CS) can be
prevented by early detection of maternal infection and treatment at least 30 days before delivery” (CDC
MMWR). Untreated syphilis during a woman’s pregnancy “results in perinatal death in up to 40% of cases and,
if acquired during the 4 years before pregnancy, can lead to infection of the fetus in 80% of cases” (CDC
Syphilis). According to the CDC, “correct and consistent use of latex condoms can reduce the risk of syphilis”
(CDC Syphilis Fact Sheet). When this information and open access to condoms is restricted, more women are

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October 26, 2015
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exposed to the disease and this has a cascade of negative effects for her, any subsequent children she may have,
and society.
STDs do more than physically harm a person. Being diagnosed with a disease can have a harsh mental
toll. In an article, by Jenelle Marie, a professor at Grand Rapids Community College, she describes the mental
effects of being diagnosed with an STD. She uses a personal story from a middle-aged librarian with genital
herpes. The librarian wrote, “I don’t know how to put it into words, except maybe to say that the current fabric
of my existence seems to be made almost entirely of [my diagnosis]. I cannot un-believe that I am more than my
herpes at this point. It has changed the way I look at and think of just about everything. I entered the deepest
depression I have ever experienced in the 6 months following my diagnosis” (Marie, 2013).
Cardinal Alfonso Lopez Trujillo, erroneously stated in an interview, "The Aids virus is roughly 450 times
smaller than the spermatozoon” and the “spermatozoon can easily pass through the 'net' that is formed by the
condom”, in an attempt to dissuade people from using condoms (Bradshaw, 2003). A published paper by the
National Institutes of Health (NIH) clearly shows the Cardinal’s statement to be completely incorrect. It states,
“Beyond mutual lifelong monogamy among uninfected couples, condom-use is the only method for reducing the
risk of HIV infection and STDs available to sexually active individuals” (NIH, 2000).
Too many current initiatives tend to focus more on the treatment and care of STDs, as opposed to
preventing it from happening in the first place through education and condom use. Distribution of condoms and
sex education are a key part of preventing the spread of sexually transmitted diseases (Edouard 156). Lab
studies have shown that even the smallest STD pathogens are effectively prevented transmission when condoms
are used. “Epidemiologic studies that compare rates of HIV infection between condom users and nonusers who
have HIV-infected sex partners demonstrate that consistent condom use is highly effective in preventing
transmission of HIV” (CDC, 2013). Former First Lady and advocate Hillary Rodham Clinton drew bold connections
between having access to family planning services and “improved maternal health” (Kaeser, 1998).

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October 26, 2015
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Factual information presented in developmentally appropriate ways beginning in early adolescence has
been shown to reduce the incidence of not only unwanted pregnancy, but also STDs. “School health programs
can help youth adopt lifelong attitudes and behaviors that support overall health and well-being—including
behaviors that can reduce their risk for HIV and other STDs” (CDC, Effective HIV and STD Prevention Programs
for Youth). A review of 48 studies looking at the effectiveness of STD prevention programs revealed that 66%
of them were successful. “HIV prevention programs were not shown to hasten initiation of sexual intercourse
among adolescents, even when those curricula encouraged sexually active young people to use condoms”
(Kirby, 2007.). According to the CDC, prevention of STDs can be achieved through educational and counseling
efforts (STD Treatment Guidelines). Project RESPECT is a successful program that involves interactive counseling
of patients deemed at risk for acquiring STDs to provide them with evidenced-based information about reducing
risk and preventing disease. A 1993 World Health Organization (WHO) survey showed that “programs
advocating both postponement of sexual intercourse as well as condom use, were more effective in preserving
health than those that only promoted abstinence” (University of Hawaii). Preventive care is preferable to
reactionary care.
The costs to society of these preventable diseases would also be reduced through open access
opportunities to factual information and preventive care. “Effective HIV/STD prevention programs also are
cost-effective. An economic analysis of one school-based sexual risk reduction program found that for every
dollar invested in the program, $2.65 was saved in medical costs and lost productivity” (CDC, 2011).
It became clear even to the critics that having access to reproductive services and factual information
provides women, as well as society overall, an effective way to prevent, manage, and treat sexually transmitted
diseases (STDs), such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), human papillomavirus (HPV), and congenital
syphilis. Getting a sexually transmitted disease can be a huge blow personally, as well as detrimental to society
and the economy. Through focusing more on prevention through the dissemination of factual information and
methods that have been shown to work, American’s could better manage the incidence of preventable STDs.

7. Lucinda May Lee
October 26, 2015
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Preventable Pregnancy
Restricting factual information and reproductive services leads to more unwanted pregnancies.
Researchers at the University of Georgia examined teen pregnancy and unwanted birth rates across U.S. states
and found that the more intensely abstinence education is stressed in state laws and policies, the greater the
rate of teenage pregnancy and unwanted births. “Using the most recent national data (2005) from all U.S.
states with information on sex education laws or policies (N = 48), we show that increasing emphasis on
abstinence education is positively correlated with teenage pregnancy and birth rates” (Stenger-Hall, 2011).
Humans are wired biologically and socially for sex. Most of the time, these humans do not want to
become parents. For them, an unintended pregnancy is an unwelcome side-effect. Some municipalities still
advocate strict abstinence programs only, without offering contraception even though abstinence has been
proven to be ineffective at preventing pregnancy because you cannot prevent people from having sex. Honest
information about what methods are effective and what doesn’t work should be openly available to all
developmentally-ready members of society. Some community and political leaders, particularly from Abrahamic
religious communities, have been known to intentionally spread false information about contraception in an
attempt to prevent people from using it. The president of the Vatican's Pontifical Council for the Family,
Cardinal Alfonso Lopez Trujillo, said in an interview: "The spermatozoon can easily pass through the 'net' that is
formed by the condom” (Bradshaw, 2003). The Cardinal’s statement was patently false. The BBC reported that
the WHO vehemently condemned the Vatican's spread of misinformation (Bradshaw, 2003).
Being forced to have a baby when you are not financially, mentally, and physically ready for it can lead
to devastating effects. It can be detrimental to the female’s health and to her financial state. Research has
shown that young mothers are unlikely to finish high school, have lower educational attainment overall, suffer
poorer health outcomes, and are much more likely to become welfare recipients (Collins, Alagiri, Summers,

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October 26, 2015
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2002). Some of the more devastating health problems “include greater chances for illness and death for both
mother and child” (Russo and David, 2002). A woman of any age should not be forced to care for a child that she
cannot afford, nor can effectively raise. “Teenage mothers are more likely to suffer toxemia, anemia, birth
complications, and death” (Russo and David, 2002). The babies of teenaged mothers are more likely to have
physical or neurological birth defects, low birth weight, and suffer from injury during birth. These infants are
twice as likely to die in the first year after birth.
(Figure 1, Weisberg and Fraser, 2009)
The most logical solution to avoiding unwanted pregnancies would be contraception. Contraception
“being preventive in nature” should ideally be “free of charge to the user” (Edouard, 2009). Unfortunately, this
is often not the case. However, “access to certain [contraceptive] methods can be improved by eliminating the
need for a clinic visit… availability without a prescription can be either behind-the-counter through contact with
a pharmacist, or over-the-counter for direct purchase” (Edouard, 2009). The contraceptive methods are split
into two categories: Reversible and Irreversible. Then they are generally broken down into five groups:
Intrauterine Contraception, Hormonal Methods, Barrier Methods, Fertility Awareness-Based Methods, and
Permanent Methods. According to the CDC the most effective, non-permanent, methods are Copper T
intrauterine device (IUD), Levonorgestrel intrauterine system (LNG IUD), and implant. These methods all have a
failure rate of less than one percent. Injection and combined oral contraceptives (also called “the pill”) would be

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October 26, 2015
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the next most effective at around a seven percent failure rate (CDC Contraception, 2015). “The most commonly
used [emergency contraception] EC method is the high dose levonorgestrel emergency contraceptive pill (LNG-
ECP) preferably taken as a single dose of two 750-μg tablets of levonorgestrel as soon as possible after
unprotected intercourse or alternatively 1 tablet initially followed by a second tablet 12 hours later” (Weisberg
and Fraser, 2009). There are many different types of emergency contraception “and at least one of these
methods should be readily available to any women within 3-5 days of unprotected intercourse if required”
(Weisberg and Fraser, 2009). Other methods include injection, patch, implant, female condom, male condom,
withdrawal, sponge, spermicide, or, for a permanent method, male and female sterilization (figure 2, CDC). For
a comprehensive appraisal of the most commonly studied forms of contraception, and the effectiveness based
on failure rates, please see graphic below.
Failure Rates of Family Planning Methods

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October 26, 2015
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Family planning plays a crucial role in “facilitating early entry into prenatal care—during which serious
problems such as gestational diabetes and hypertension can be diagnosed—since a woman who is trying to
become pregnant is more likely to recognize the signs of pregnancy early on than is a woman whose pregnancy
is unintended” (Kaeser, 1998).
In a paper published by Stanger-Hall and Hall, it was shown that “states with the lowest teen pregnancy
rates were those that prescribed comprehensive sex and/or HIV education, covering abstinence alongside
proper contraception and condom use” (2011). A 1993 World Health Organization (WHO) survey “revealed no
evidence that sex education in schools leads to earlier or increased sexual activity in young people. The opposite
is true: sex education delays onset of sexual activity, and increases safer sexual practices by those already
active” (ACPD, Sexual and Reproductive Health Education and Services for Adolescents). “Women … have a
human right to sexual freedom” (Petchesky, 1995). Every child deserves to be a wanted child and not the result
of the mother being denied access to contraception, including emergency contraception.

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October 26, 2015
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Preventable Crime
Unwanted pregnancy that leads to unwanted children is devastating to women, their partners, the
children, and society. It is well-established in the literature that unwanted births are much more likely to result
in child abuse. One of the most predominant antecedents of child abuse is unwanted pregnancy (Altemeier,
1982). The links between child abuse and crime are well explained in the literature. Authors Janet Currie and
Erdal Tekin looked at the relationship between child abuse and resulting crime using data from the National
Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). Crime is one of the most costly outcomes of child
maltreatment, according to their report (Currie and Tekin, 2006). It has been shown in the literature that
abused children are significantly more likely to engage in delinquency and crime. Authors Currie and Tekin
found that “child maltreatment roughly doubles the probability that an individual engages in many types of
crime. This is true even if we compare twins, one of whom was maltreated when the other one was not. Abused
or neglected children are more likely to be arrested as both juveniles and as adults. Starting to engage in
criminal behavior early may increase illegal human capital by raising experience in criminal activities, and
decrease human capital in legitimate activities, such as schooling or being in the labor market. This would
further increase criminal propensities. Estimates suggest that the crime induced by abuse costs society about
$6.7 billion per year at the low end and up to $62.5 billion at the high end. The estimates depend on the social
costs attributed to crime, and specifically, whether those costs include estimates of willingness to pay to avoid
crime” (Currie and Tekin, 2006). Clearly, the connection from unwanted pregnancy to subsequent delinquency
and crime is worth examining further.
A study by John J. Donohue III and Steven D. Levitt reports a compelling reason for the large, abrupt, and
continual decrease in crime following legalization of abortion. Five states had legalized abortion early, in 1970,
and the others did so in 1973 following Roe v. Wade. There were abrupt decreases in crime “15-20 years later

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October 26, 2015
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when the cohorts born in the wake of legalized abortion would start reaching their high-crime years” (2001).
Furthermore, the authors found that subsequent cohorts reaching adolescence and adulthood were having a
similar impact on crime rates, “providing a reason why crime continued to fall year after year” (2001). The
authors showed that unwanted pregnancies have a greater likelihood of resulting in children that engage in
delinquent behavior during childhood and a greater propensity toward criminal behavior in adulthood. They
report that studies have shown that children born to mothers that were unwanted tend to “be at higher risk for
committing crime in adolescence” (2001). They go on to say that the “life chances of children who are born only
because their mothers could not have an abortion are considerably dampened relative to babies who were
wanted at the time of conception” (2001). They explain that the peak ages “for violent crime are roughly 18-24,
and crime starts turning down around 1992, roughly the time at which the first cohort born following Roe v.
Wade would hit its criminal prime” (2001). They demonstrate that the five states that legalized abortion in 1970
saw drops in crime before the other 45 states and the District of Columbia, which did not allow abortions until
the Supreme Court decision in 1973” (2001). Furthermore, they found that states with the highest rates of legal
abortions taking place were associated with the lowest crime rates. They point out that “states with high rates
of abortion have experienced roughly a 30 percent drop in crime relative to low-abortion regions since 1985”
(2001). The authors concede that caution was used in extrapolating the results due to sampling, but estimate
that “legalized abortion can account for about half the observed decline in crime the United States between
1991 and 1997” (2001).
According to a paper published by Hay and Evens, “…whether a pregnancy is wanted or unwanted is
consequential for male delinquency but not for female delinquency” (2006). Cohorts of children born after
abortion was made legal appear to have lower rates of criminal activity. Legalized abortion may lead to such
reductions in crime because children born are more likely to be wanted and more likely to grow up in enriching
environments.

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October 26, 2015
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Unwanted childbearing “has been linked with a variety of social problems, including divorce, poverty,
child abuse, and juvenile delinquency” (Russo and David, 2002). In a study published by the Journal of Research
in Crime and Delinquency, it was found that “being born of an unwanted or mistimed pregnancy was associated
with statistically significant elevations in delinquency when respondents were ages 11 to 17” (Hay and Evens,
2006). “Teenagers, unmarried women, and the economically disadvantaged are all substantially more likely to
seek abortions”, (Donohue and Levitt, 2001). The evidence shows that children that come from unwanted
pregnancies are more likely to be involved in delinquent and criminal behavior, with the effect most consistent
and notable in male adolescents and young adults.
When contraception has failed or not been available, abortion services should be affordable and accessible for
women to prevent the birth of unwanted children. Allowing unrestricted access to reproductive services and
factual information is a component in reducing delinquency in the next generation of adolescents according to
each of the studies reviewed and is a likely factor in diminishing crime in adulthood. Furthermore, in their paper,
“The Impact of Legalized Abortion on Crime”, Donahue and Levitt state that “legalized abortion provides a
woman the opportunity to delay childbearing if the current conditions are suboptimal” which then allows
women to have children when they are ready and the “children are born into better environments, and future
criminality is likely to be reduced” (2001).
“[Ideally] to develop to their full potential, children need safe and stable housing, adequate and
nutritious food, access to medical care, secure relationships with adult caregivers, nurturing and responsive
parenting, and high-quality learning opportunities at home, in child care settings, and in school” (Sandstorm and
Huerta, 2013). This nurturing care would be more likely to be lacking in house-holds where the burden of
parenting was unwelcomed. A bonded and loving relationship between parent and child plays a critical role in
building a good foundation for healthy child development.

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October 26, 2015
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Women’s health and the right to choose is anchored in the issue of human rights. A woman is a person,
not a reproduction machine or object of desire. Decriminalizing abortion in all parts of the U.S. with the
consequential 1973 Roe v. Wade decision granted women safe, medical relief from unwanted pregnancy and
parenthood. This decision, in all probability, contributed to the reductions in adolescent delinquency and adult
crime documented since then, beginning when the first cohort would have reached adolescence and then
adulthood. However, since that landmark decision, religious conservatives in many states have been trying, and
succeeding in some cases, to pass laws restricting access to abortion, and in some states, as early as 4 weeks
gestation restrictions. When laws are created to restrict or criminalize such medical services, the result is
unnecessarily criminalizing women’s access to medical services and preventing access to imperative medical
services that can have lasting effects for her, her family, and society. Because abortions are safely available in
the U.S., abortion-related depression, mortality, and morbidity are actually less common than birth-related
depression, mortality, and morbidity. (Cates, 2000). By legalizing and making abortion accessible, studies show
that there have been better outcomes for women and all of society.
Reproductive choices are personal, individual decisions that result in the best outcomes when women
are armed with factual information, open access to reproductive health services, and under the guidance of
competent medical professionals. When harmful policies are put in place to impose restrictions, or societal
attitudes hinder this open access, the negative effects are lived by women and children, and the detrimental
effects on society are apparent. Sexually transmitted diseases, unwanted pregnancies, and crime can be
prevented by making the factual information readily available and by providing open access to all reproductive
services.
References

15. Lucinda May Lee
October 26, 2015
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ACPD. Sexual and reproductive health education and services for adolescents. ().University of Hawaii.
This report explains sexual education. It states when this type of education should be taught and that it
should be taught in more than just school. This reports on the effectiveness of sex education, which
relates to my paper because I talk about reproductive education being key.
AVERT.org. (2014). History of HIV & AIDS in the U.S.A. Retrieved from http://www.avert.org/history-hiv-aids-
usa.htm
AVERT is a website that provides information on HIV and AIDS. It was founded in 1995 and has now
become one of the most popular AIDS websites in the world. “At that time [1995] there was almost no
HIV/AIDS information on the web and AVERT was one of the first HIV and AIDS charities to go online.”
This page provides information on the history of HIV and AIDS; and how the US was the first country to
recognize the illness. This is important information in include in my paper because it explains more of the
background of the disease section.
BBC News. (2007). Shock at archbishop condom claim. BBC News UK, , 16 Apr, 2015.
This article brings to light the need for a better education system, especially within the Catholic church.
This article focuses on Maputo Archbishop Francisco Chimoio and his obvious lack of knowledge about
condoms, as well as proper and effective AIDS protection. This pertains to my paper because it further
exemplifies the need for better education in and relating to reproduction.
Beal, M. W., & Cappiello, J. (2008). Prfessional right of conscience. American College of Nurse-
Midwives, 53(5), 406.
Margaret W. Beal, CNM, PhD is a Clinical Professor of Nursing at MGH Institute of Health Professionals in
Charlestown Navy Yard, Boston. Joyce Cappiello, FNP, MS, RN is an Assistant Professor of Nursing. This
article talks about healthcare providers refusing to provide, or inadequately providing, services or
information to patients about reproductive health care. This is relevant to my paper because it explains
the obstacles, barriers, and restrictions that an “out of control” right of conscience can impose on females
in need of reproductive health care.
Bradshaw, S. (2003). Vatican - condoms don't stop HIV. BBC News UK, , 2015.
Steve Bradshaw is a UK Emmy and award-winning journalist, TV film-maker, and broadcaster. He has

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written, reported, and presented more than 100 TV and radio documentaries (http://www.steve-
bradshaw.com/). In this article Bradshaw discusses the deceitful misinformation that the Catholic Church
and the Vatican were spreading. This relates to my paper because I talk about the myths that are spread
about reproductive health.
Bradshaw, S. (2003). Vatican: Condoms don't stop aids. The Guardian, , 2015.
Steve Bradshaw is a UK, Emmy and award-winning journalist, TV film-maker, and broadcaster. He has
written, reported, and presented more than 100 TV and radio documentaries (http://www.steve-
bradshaw.com/). In this article Bradshaw discusses the deceitful misinformation that the Catholic Church
and the Vatican were spreading. This relates to my paper because I talk about the myths that are spread
about reproductive health.
Briozzo, L., & Faundes, A. (2008). The medical profession and the defense and promotion of sexual and
reproductive rights. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 100, 291.
L. Briozzo is faculty at the School of Medicine at University of the Republic in Montevideo, Uruguay. A.
Faundes is faculty in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine at the State
University of Campinas in Campinas, Brazil. This article describes the relationship between healthcare
providers and their patients, in relation to reproductive rights, which I found to be a good resource for
my paper.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Effectiveness of family planning methods (image)
This is an image that shows the different contraception methods organized by effectiveness. This adds a
visual tool to my paper, which makes it more interesting.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Syphilis & MSM (men who have sex with men) - CDC fact sheet
This fact sheet talks about the different signs, symptoms, and treatments for Syphilis. The images focus
on gay men, but the information applies to everyone.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). Morbidity and mortality weekly report (MMWR). ().
This is a report about congenital syphilis in the United States from 2003 to 2008. This report gives figures
and statistics on the syphilis rate and percentage in the US.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011). 2010 STD treatment guidelines:
clinical prevention guidance. Retrieved
from http://www.cdc.gov.ezproxy.lib.uwm.edu/std/treatment/2010/clinical.htm
Explains the strategies for preventing and controling STDs. This is relevant to my paper because I talk
about the same strategies.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011). Effective HIV and STD prevention programs for youth.
Retrieved
fromhttp://www.cdc.gov.ezproxy.lib.uwm.edu/healthyyouth/sexualbehaviors/effective_programs.htm
This page discusses effective HIV/STD prevention techniques and education for youth. It also focuses on
the rate of effectiveness these programs in school are having. This relates to my paper because I talk
about properly educating the public about prevention techniques.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2013). Condom effectiveness:
condom fact sheet in brief. Retrieved
from http://www.cdc.gov.ezproxy.lib.uwm.edu/condomeffectiveness/brief.html
This page discusses effective condom use. It tells how to use a condom correctly and what can happen if
you do not. This is relevant to my paper because I talk about condom use and effectiveness.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). 2013 sexually transmitted diseases surveillance:
syphilis. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov.ezproxy.lib.uwm.edu/std/stats13/syphilis.htm
Includes information and statistics on syphilis. This page breaks the numbers down into categories by
region, state, sex, age, and more. It discusses syphilis in all stages “P&S, Early Latent, Late, Late Latent,
and Congenital”. This relates to my paper because I discuss statistics on syphilis.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). Other sexually transmitted diseases: HPV. Retrieved
from http://www.cdc.gov.ezproxy.lib.uwm.edu/std/stats13/hpv
Includes information and statistics on the Human papillomavirus, such as its prevalence in the US and
other countries.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2015). HIV surveillance report, 2013. ( No. 25).
Includes statistics on diagnoses of HIV infection as well as diagnoses of infections classified as stage 3
(AIDS). This is a collection of analyzes and surveillance data on the HIV and AIDS condition in the US.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2015). Reproductive health:
contraception. Retrieved
from http://www.cdc.gov.ezproxy.lib.uwm.edu/reproductivehealth/unintendedpregnancy/contraception.h
tm#
This page goes over the different methods of contraception and their rate of effectiveness. This section
talks about reversible and irreversible birth control methods. This relates to my paper because I explain
the rate of effectiveness of the different contraception methods.
Collier, A. (2007). The humble little condom: A history Prometheus Books.
Aine Collier, EdD, is a professor at the University of Maryland. She has degrees in English education,
international business, and European history (http://uk.linkedin.com/pub/aine-collier/46/858/446). This
book provides a unique glimpse into the history of the condom.
Collins, C., Alagiri, P., & Summers, T. (2002). Abstinence only vs. comprehensive sex education: What are the
arguments? what is the evidence? (). University of California, San Francisco: AIDS Research Institute.
This report compares abstinence-only education to comprehensive sex education. The report states that
“abstinence-only approach to sex education is not supported by the extensive body of scientific research
on what works to protect young people from HIV/AIDS, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and
unplanned pregnancy.” This supports the message of my paper.
Cook, R. J. (2012). Discriminatory effects of criminal abortion laws: Prejudices, stereotypes and stigma.
Rebecca Cook is a Faculty of Law at the University of Toronto in Toronto, Canada. In this seminar Cook
talks about the negative effects of criminalizing abortion for women and the resulting negative social
meaning of abortion that then leads to sustained restrictions even when the procedure is later legalized.
This relates to my paper because she is explaining the social meaning of abortion in society which comes
from the history of its criminality and causes stigma, stereotypes, and prejudice which serve to impose
restrictions upon women obtaining this medical procedure.

19. Lucinda May Lee
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Cook, R. J., Cusack, S., & Dickens, B. M. (2010). Unethical female stereotyping in reproductive
health. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, (109), 255.
Rebecca J. Cook, Simone Cusack, and Bernard M. Dickens argue that unethical stereotypes are placed on
females when it comes to reproductive health. Rebecca J. Cook is Faculty of Law at Faculty of Medicine
and Joint Centre for Bioethics, at the University of Toronto, Canada. Simone Cusack works at Public
Interests Law Clearing House, in Melbourne, Australia. Bernard M. Dickens is also a Faculty of Law at the
University of Toronto, Canada.
Cook, R. J., & Dickens, B. M. (2000). The scope and limits of conscientious objection. International Journal of
Gynecology and Obstetrics, 71, 71.
Rebecca J. Cook and Bernard M. Dickens are Faculty of Law, Faculty of Medicine and Joint Centre for
Bioethics at the University of Toronto, Canada. In this article they talk about a physicians, nurses, and
other health care providers right to conscientious objection. Because health care providers are allowed to
express their beliefs through conscientious objection, they can refuse to care or treat their patient if it
goes against their religious beliefs. This relates to my paper because it is a large barrier to reproductive
health care for women.
Cook, R. J., & Dickens, B. M. (2009). From reproductive choice to reproductive justice. International Journal of
Gynecology and Obstetrics, 106, 106.
Rebecca J. Cook and Bernard M. Dickens are Faculty of Law, Faculty of Medicine and Joint Centre for
Bioethics at the University of Toronto, Canada. In this article they talk about the Cairo Conference of
1994, which was a pivotal point in reproductive rights history. It talks about embracing reproductive
rights and the affect of obstructing those rights.
Cook, R. J., & Dickens, B. M. (2014). Reducing stigma in reproductive health. International Journal of
Gynecology and Obstetrics, (125), 89.
Rebecca J. Cook is Faculty of Law at Faculty of Medicine and Joint Centre for Bioethics, at the University
of Toronto, Canada. Bernard M. Dickens is also a Faculty of Law at the University of Toronto, Canada.
Cook and Dickens talk about how stigmatization tarnishes people and societies. This stigmatization
prevents people from seeking the information and care they need causing harm to women, families, and
society. Their work supports my thesis by explaining the negative impacts.

20. Lucinda May Lee
October 26, 2015
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Cook, R. J., Olaya, M. A., & Dickens, B. M. (2009). Health care responsibilities and conscientious
objection. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 104, 249.
Rebecca J. Cook and Bernard M. Dickens are Faculty of Law, Faculty of Medicine and Joint Centre for
Bioethics at the University of Toronto, Canada. Monica Arango Olaya is a Legal Fellow of Latin America
and the Caribbean at the Centre for Reproductive Rights in New York, USA. This article talks about the
Court decision to mandate that providers that will not provide for their patients must refer them to
someone who will. This relates to my paper because it talks about the negative effects of doctors'
actions, and how that impeded the reproductive health care service a patient is entitled to.
Currie, J., & Tekin, E. (2006). Does child abuse cause crime?. The National Bureau of Economic
Research, (12171)
Janet Currie is a Professor of Economics and Public Affairs, as well as director of the Center for Health
and Well-Being at Princeton University. Erdal Tekin is a professor at the American University, at the
School of Public Affairs. This article discusses how the maltreatment of children can lead to
social problems, such as crime.
Donohue III, J. J., & Levitt, S. D. (2001). The impact of legalized abortion on crime. The Quarterly Journal of
Economics, CXVI(2), 379.
Donohue is faculty at Stanford Law School. Professor Donohue is an economist as well as a lawyer and
“is well known for using empirical analysis to determine the impact of law and public policy in a wide
range of areas, including civil rights and antidiscrimination law, employment discrimination, crime and
criminal justice, and school funding” (https://www.law.stanford.edu/profile/john-j-donohue-iii). Levitt is
the William B. Ogden Distinguished Service Professor of Economics at the University of Chicago. In their
paper, they describe the effects of banning abortion and legalizing abortion on crime rates in the U.S. In
my paper, I will show that this is another example of how restricting reproductive health services
negatively impacts society.
Donovan, P. (1998). When plans opt out: Family planning access in medicaid managed care. The Guttmacher
Report, 1(4)
Ms. Donovan is Vice President for Public Education and author of numerous reports, policy papers, and

21. Lucinda May Lee
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21
journal articles on reproductive health issues. She is a champion for reproductive rights and I think her
perspective will add value to my paper.
Edouard, L. (2009). The right to contraception and the wrongs of restrictive services. International Journal of
Gynecology and Obstetrics, (106), 156.
Lindsay Edouard is Senior Advisor at the United Nations Population Fund, in Algiers, Algeria. In this
publication the author talks about the negative effects of over-population and how empowerment and
education of girls is vital to fertility control. Edouard uses information from the Convention on the
Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the Cairo Conference in 1994.
This article relates to my paper because the author is talking about the restrictive public service attitudes
and actions in relation to reproductive health and Family Planning.
ELIGON, J., & SCHWIRTZ, M. (2012). Senate candidate provokes ire with ‘Legitimate rape’ comment. New
York Times, , 18 April, 2015.
In this article John Eligon and Michael Schwirtz explain what Todd Atkins, Republican Representative of
Missouri, said when attempting to “explain his stance on abortion”. “[He] provoked ire across the political
spectrum … by saying that in instances of what he called ‘legitimate rape’, women’s bodies somehow
blocked an unwanted pregnancy.” This pertains to my paper because it exemplifies the need for better
education in and relating to reproduction.
Germain, A., & Liljestrand, J. (2009). Women's groups and professional organizations for sexual and
reproductive health and rights. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 106, 185.
Adrienne Germain has an M.A. in sociology from the University of California at Berkeley and is the
President Emerita at International Women’s Health Coalition in New York, USA. Jerker Liljestrand, MD,
PhD is the “team leader for Maternal, Newborn and Child Health (MNCH) for the URC Better Health
Services project in Cambodia. Dr. Liljestrand is also the program co-coordinator for the Advanced
International Training Program on Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights at Sweden’s Lund
University, where he was also an associate professor. In addition, he is the former treasurer of the
International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) and the former chair of the FIGO Safe
Motherhood Committee. He is also the former lead health specialist for maternal-newborn health at the
World Bank, and the former chief of maternal-newborn health and safe motherhood at the World Health

22. Lucinda May Lee
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22
Organization in Geneva” (http://www.ipas.org/en/Content/Bios/Jerker-Liljestrand.aspx). This article
explains how in the 1990s there were strides made towards reproductive freedom, but since then it has
been all about fighting to keep the rights earned back then. This relates to my paper because I plan to
describe the restrictions that are causing this battle of keeping rights.
Goldacre, B. (2010). Pope's anti-condom message is sabotage in fight against aids. The Guardian, , 17 Apr,
2015.
Ben Michael Goldacre “is a British physician, academic and science writer. As of 2014 he is a Wellcome
research fellow in epidemiology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine”
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Goldacre). In this article Ben describes how the former Pope spoke
out against condoms being a needed item in the prevention of AIDS.
Hay, C., & Evens, M. M. (2006). Has roe v. wade reduced U.S. crime rate?: Examining the link between
mother's pregnancy intentions and children's later involvment in law-violating behavior. Journal of
Research in Crime and Delinquency, 43(36) doi:10.1177/00224227805275187
Hicken, M. (2014). Average cost of raising a child hits $245,000. CNN Money (New York),
Melanie Hicken is a reporter that has contributed too many journals, such as the Los Angeles Times, the
Business Insider, and Thomson Reuters. She acquired a Master of Arts as well as completed a Business
and Economic Reporting program (BER) at New York University. At Syracuse University she gained a
Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) as well (https://www.linkedin.com/pub/melanie-hicken/12/5a1/65b). In this
article she discusses the average cost of raising a child. I use this information in my paper, which makes
this article relevant.
Jayson, S. (2014). Shotgun weddings becoming relics of another time. Usa Today, , 23 Apr, 2015.
Sharon Jayson is a journalist from Texas. She achieved a Bachelors of journalism from University of
Texas, Austen. She has written for USA Today as well as some other journals
(https://www.linkedin.com/in/sharonjayson). In this article she discusses the decline in “shotgun”
marriages. I mention this in my paper and use statistics from her article.

23. Lucinda May Lee
October 26, 2015
23
Kaeser, L. (1998). Complacency, abortion politics obstacles to improved health of pregnant women and
children. The Guttmacher Report, 1(4), 3.
Lisa Kaeser is a program analyst for the Office of Legislation and Public Policy (OLPP). This is a short
article about the role of Family Planning in maternal health and mortality. This article relates to my paper
because it talks about the mortality rate of pregnant women, and children being born with STDs, such as
syphilis, both of which could be prevented by allowing reproductive care to be given to all women.
Kirby, D. (2007). Emerging answers: New research findings on programs to reduce teen pregnancy —Full
report. . ().
The author of this publication is Douglas Kirby and he is has Ph.D. This report talks about reducing teen
pregnancy. It discusses behaviors that affect teen pregnancy, such as risk-taking, and their
consequences. This also talks about sex education, which relates directly to my paper. I focus on the
need for proper education and the effects it has had.
Marie, J. (2013). You know What’s depressing? finding out you have an STD. Take Part, , 18 Apr, 2015.
Jenelle Marie is the founder and director of The STD Project as well as an adjunct professor at Grand
Rapids Community College. She has an MBA and a BBA from Davenport University
(http://www.thestdproject.com) . In this article she explains and gives examples or how having an STD
can negatively affect a person’s mental health.
McCorvey, N., & Meisler, A. (1994). In Hull J. (Ed.), I AM ROE: My life, roe v. wade, and freedom of
choice (1st ed.). United States: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.
Norma McCorvey is "Jane Roe" from the Roe v. Wade court case. This is the autobiography of Norma
from the time she was a child to the time the book was written. It shows how she grew up, poor and
underprivileged. It tells the story of how she came to be Jane Roe. Although her life story has nothing to
do with my paper, reading this book and learning from a firsthand account of how the restriction, and
ban, of reproductive care affected a woman and how it changed society, helped to improve my
knowledge about the subject that I am writing about.
NA. (2015). Rape and pregnancy controversies in united states elections, 2012. Retrieved
from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape_and_pregnancy_controversies_in_United_States_elections,_2012

24. Lucinda May Lee
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This is a Wikipedia page entry that talks about the demeaning claims some Republican politicians have
made about rape and pregnancy. This article focuses on Representative Todd Akin of Missouri and
Indiana State Treasurer Richard Mourdock. Mourdock was also a US Senate nominee. Akin was a
Republican U.S. Senate candidate, but he was eventually denounced.
National Institutes of Health. (2000). Scientific evidence on condom effectiveness for sexually transmitted
disease (STD) prevention. ().
Osmond, D. H. (2003). Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS in the united states. Retrieved
from http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/insite?page=kb-01-03
Dennis H. Osmond is a PhD at the University of California in San Francisco. On this page he discusses the
history of the AIDS epidemic, including when it was first seen in the United States. This provided valuable
information to include in my paper.
Paluzzi, P. (2006). Reproductive rights: A call to action. Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health, 51(6), 397.
Patricia Paluzzi is the President and CEO of Healthy Teen Network. In this paper she talks about results
and reasons that contraception education and services have been banned as well as the results when
they were not. She talks about Title V and X, and the positive results of implementing these services.
This relates to my paper because it also talks about the negative effects of restricting reproductive
services.
Petchesky, R. P. (1995). From population control to reproductive rights: Feminist fault lines. Reproductive
Health Matters, 3(6), 152.
Patricia Paluzzi is the President and CEO of Healthy Teen Network. In this paper she talks about results
and reasons that contraception education and services have been banned as well as the results when
they were not. She talks about Title V and X, and the positive results of implementing these services.
This relates to my paper because it also talks about the negative effects of restricting reproductive
services.
Sandstorm, H., & Huerta, S. (2013). The negative effects of instability on child development: A research
synthesis. Urban Institute, , 4.

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Heather Sandstorm is a researcher in the Center on Labor, Human Services, and Population at the Urban
Institute. Sandra Huerta is a research assistant at the same institute. This paper talks about the negative
effects instability can have on babies and children. This is related to my paper because mental,
emotional, or physical harm to a child because of a poor environment is a negative effected that can be
solved by removing restrictions on reproductive health care.
Scudellari, M. (2013). Sex, cancer, and a virus. Nature, 503(330), 2/24/15.
Megan Scudellari is an award-winning freelance science journalist. She received her M.S. from
“Graduate Program in Science Writing at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a B.A. at Boston
College, and worked as an educator at the Museum of Science, Boston”
(http://megan.scudellari.com/about.html). This article talks about HPV and since that is one of the STDs
that I will be mentioning this article gives me more information on the topic. The author Megan Scudellari
talks about the findings of Dr. Maura Gillison, an oncologist at the Johns Hopkins University. Although
this article is mostly about her specific findings it was still helpful in giving background on the subject.
Snopes.com. (2014). Personal foul. Retrieved
from http://www.snopes.com/politics/quotes/rapequotes.asp#pFfpx2P2Yx5ritx4.99
This page cites quotes said by Republican politicians, on the subject of rape. This webpage brings to light
their lack of knowledge and understanding of this dangerous situation some women are forced to face.
This relates to my paper because I discuss this lack of knowledge that the majority of people suffer from.
Stanger-Hall, K. F., & Hall, D. W. (2011). Abstinence-only education and teen pregnancy rates: Why we need
comprehensive sex education in the U.S. Plos One, , 25 Apr, 2015.
Kathrin F. Stanger-Hall is a professor at the University of Georgia. She has Ph.D. in Animal Physiology,
which she acquired at Eberhardt Karls Universitat Tubingen, in 1993
(https://www.plantbio.uga.edu/directory/kathrin-f-stanger-hall). David W. Hall is an associate professor
at the University of Georgia (http://www.genetics.uga.edu/directory/david-hall). In this article they talk
about sex education in schools and that evidence shows it to be the most effective at reducing teen
pregnancies.

26. Lucinda May Lee
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UNFPA. (2007). Supporting the constellation of reproductive rights.
This posting explains what reproductive rights are and talks briefly about the United Nations conference
in Cairo, which was a pivotal point in reproductive rights for women.
UNFPA. (2014). UNFPA operational guidance for comprehensive sexuality education UNFPA.
This book sets the framework for the CSE, or Comprehensive Sexuality Education, which is one of five
steps to UNFPA’s Adolescent and Youth Strategy program. This book talks about human sexuality,
reproductive health and rights, as well as reproductive education, and STDs. This is relevant to my paper
because I talk about the restrictions on reproductive healthcare and education and this is talking about
how to combat those restrictions, which is also something I am going to talk about.
Weisberg, E., & Fraser, I. S. (2009). Rights to emergency contraception. International Journal of Gynecology
and Obstetrics, 106, 160.
Edith Weisberg works for the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology at the University of Sydney, in
Australia. Ian S. Fraser works for the Sydney Centre for Reproductive Health Research and Family
Planning NSW, in Sydney Australia. This article relates to my paper because they talk about the obstacles
that are in the way of contraception. Contraception is a main topic in my paper and important to
reproductive health.
World Health Organization. (2004). Strategy to accelerate progress towards the attainment of international
development goals and targets related to reproductive health. Reproductive Health Matters, 13(25), 11.
This article talks about the global burden of reproductive ill-health. This relates to my paper because I
talk about the societal effects of restrictions on reproductive health.