This study tested the relationship between gender and knowledge fabrication. 24 subjects (12 male, 12 female) were paired and asked a series of 12 questions, including 3 factually incorrect questions. The results showed that men engaged in knowledge fabrication 21% of the time they spoke, while women did so 7% of the time. Additional measures found that women used more nonverbal cues and that men generally had higher self-esteem about their knowledge compared to women. The study aimed to further research on the relationship between gender and lying or knowledge fabrication.
Women in the Digital Age (MKT460 Research Project) ReportMira McKee
This is a final presentation lab report I wrote for my Marketing 460: Information & Analysis class. Throughout the semester, my class conducted a UT-wide survey that asked questions ranging from demographic questions to specific questions about technology use. Then, utilizing SPSS, a statistical analysis program, my group and I analyzed the data we found and organized it into a presentation on the topic of women in the digital age. We designed the Lab Report in Canva.
Women in the Digital Age (MKT460 Research Project) ReportMira McKee
This is a final presentation lab report I wrote for my Marketing 460: Information & Analysis class. Throughout the semester, my class conducted a UT-wide survey that asked questions ranging from demographic questions to specific questions about technology use. Then, utilizing SPSS, a statistical analysis program, my group and I analyzed the data we found and organized it into a presentation on the topic of women in the digital age. We designed the Lab Report in Canva.
Literature ReviewIn an article written by Eakin et al. in 2003 f.docxSHIVA101531
Literature Review
In an article written by Eakin et al. in 2003 five studies were conducted to test the theory of the misinformation effect. They hypothesized that exposure to misleading information can significantly hamper one’s ability to report accurate information. They used modified opposition tests to test their participant’s memory. The participants were randomly assigned to the different experimental conditions and tested in small groups. “Different materials were developed for each of the experimental phases including the event slides, the postevent narrative, and the MOT” (Eakin et al., 2003). These experiments helped test how misleading information received postevent affects people’s memory. The tests were intended to separate retrieval-blocking effects. Retrieval blocking revolves around cue incrementing. Through their studies they found that people who had been exposed to misleading information were more likely to recall the misled information than accurate information. They found that this is true even when participants are given extensive warnings that the information they received may be misleading. They also determined in their study that receiving the warning immediately after encoding the information reduces the recall rate of misleading information. Through the studies they helped to prove that their hypothesis was true, that exposure to misleading information can hamper one’s ability to recall accurate information. These studies however do not study how suppression of memories my come into play. It also does not depict how long after one experiences an event may retrieval blocking pose a problem. This opens up the possibility that maybe we block information for a certain period of time and/or present misled information, then the accurate information may come to light at a later date.
Loftus may be considered one of the first explorers of the misinformation effect. In 2005 she wrote an article summing up her studies on this event. According to Loftus, 2005 “the misinformation effect has been observed in a variety of human and nonhuman species. And some groups of individuals are more susceptible than others.” She depicted that in certain conditions such as having a large amount of time between the event and questioning, may allow for a greater misinformation effect. Also with time she presents the facts that memory fades. With these two issues it Loftus presents the idea that one my rethink the event and place the misled information in due to weak memory of the event.
Like the Eakin et al. article Loftus also presented the position of offering a warning. She also concluded that offering a warning that misinformation may be presented helped to curb the effect but giving the warning after the information was received had little effect on the results. This helps contribute to the idea that after the misinformation has already been processed there is little one can do to reduce the recall effects. Loftus also adds in her arti ...
Running Head MISINFORMATION EFFECT1MISINFORMATION EFFECT2.docxcharisellington63520
Running Head: MISINFORMATION EFFECT 1
MISINFORMATION EFFECT 2
Abstract
This paper explores various published articles which depict research results from studies conducted on the effects of misinformation on eyewitness testimony. Misinformation is “false or inaccurate information, especially that which is deliberately intended to deceive” (Oxforddictionaries.com). With the use of misinformation it may be possible to mislead witnesses allowing them to present false information. This papers examines articles from researchers such as Blank, Ost, Davies, Jones, Lambert and Salmon (2013), Loftus (2005), Chrobak and Zaragoza (2013), and Eakin, Schreiber and Sergeant-Marshall (2003) in relation to other studies conducted in order to determine how misinformation is introduced, possible reasons the effect occurs, and suggestions on how to reduce its effects.
The Misinformation Effect and the Effects it has on Eyewitness Testimony
There is a wide misconception that a person’s long-term memory actually records experiences exactly as they happened. However, memories and events we have are very malleable and can be altered and/or molded. It is proven fact that our long-term memory is susceptible to errors. The impreciseness in a person’s memory can further be altered with the misinformation effect. The misinformation effect transpires when mislead information is presented to someone after they have experienced the event.
Misinformation can have unfavorable consequences in investigations and trials. “The fallibility of eyewitness memory is a crucial problem in the administration of justice, and documented cases of false convictions based on faulty eyewitness testimony abound” (Zaragoza, Payment, Ackil, Drivdahl & Beck, 2001, p. 473). Over the past few decade numerous studies have been conducted centering on the various facets and implications of the misinformation effect and how it affects eyewitness testimony. Through the introduction of misinformation to someone’s thoughts and observations, they can easily be manipulated, leading them to dictate false or inaccurate information. Misinformation may be presented in many ways to witnesses such as I nterviewing, cross-examination, and narratives. This paper examines research that has been conducted from various authors in regards to how misinformation is introduced, possible reasons the effect occurs, and suggestions on how to reduce its effects as well as propose where additional research may be conducted to further understand this phenomenon.
It has long since been discovered that the misinformation effect exists and can have negative effects when it comes to eyewitness testimony. In 2002, 110 inmates were released from prison due DNA exonerations making them not guilty. Out of the 110, eleven were on death row. In the majority of these cases the individuals were convicted largely on the testimony of eyewitnesses.
Numerous studies have been conducted over the past forty-f.
Bullshiters - Who Are They And What Do We Know About Their LivesTrading Game Pty Ltd
‘Bullshitters’ are individuals who claim knowledge or expertise in an area where they
actually have little experience or skill. Despite this being a well-known and widespread
social phenomenon, relatively few large-scale empirical studies have been conducted into
this issue. This paper attempts to fill this gap in the literature by examining teenagers’
propensity to claim expertise in three mathematics constructs that do not really exist.
Using Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) data from nine Anglophone
countries and over 40,000 young people, we find substantial differences in young people’s
tendency to bullshit across countries, genders and socio-economic groups. Bullshitters are
also found to exhibit high levels of overconfidence and believe they work hard, persevere
at tasks, and are popular amongst their peers. Together this provides important new insight
into who bullshitters are and the type of survey responses that they provide.
Running head FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 1 .docxwlynn1
Running head: FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 1
Older Adults Experience More False Memories Compared to Other Age Groups
Amanda Sinclair 11036772
University of Saskatchewan
Psychology 255.3 61: Human Memory
3 November 2013
FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 2
Proclamation
In submitting this paper, I attest that this paper, and any version of this paper, has not previously
or concurrently been submitted for credit in another course by myself or anyone else.
FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 3
Abstract
Compared to other age groups (e.g. child, teenager, young adult) older adults experience a
greater amount of false memories. This was shown in Fandakova, Shing, and Lindenberg (2013)
with the use of proactive interference. In Jacoby, Bishara, Hessels, & Toth (2005) retroactive
interference was used to create false memories in young and older adults resulting in higher false
memories for older adults. Shing, Werkle-Bergner, Li, & Lindenberger (2009) found that not
only did older adults have a greater amount of false memories but were also disproportionately
more confident in their false memories than children. A neurological study done by Dennis, Kim,
& Cabeza (2008) found that, compared to young adults, older adults showed both a reduction in
true memories and an increase in false memories. It was also shown that a neurological
explanation could be found for the age difference in false memories. In summary, modern
research shows clear evidence in support of older adults having a greater proportion of false
memories than other age groups.
FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 4
Older Adults Have More False Memories Than Other Age Groups
Recent research has shown that the likelihood of remembering false events increases as a
person ages, this paper aims to flush out this research and find a clear correlation between age
and false memories. False memories, erroneously remembering episodes that did not occur, have
been an area of interest since Elizabeth Loftus created the “Lost in the Mall” technique in 1994.
This technique involved Loftus implanting a false memory into a child of being lost in a mall at a
younger age (Loftus, 1995). At that point it was thought that only children were susceptible to
false memories (then said to be repressed memories) and not adults. Since then it has been shown
that not only do children create false memories, and are susceptible to implantation, but also
young and older adults (Lindsay, Hagen, Read, Wade, & Garry, 2004). For example, Wade,
Garry, Read, & Lindsay (2002) successfully implanted a false memory of being in a hot air
balloon as a child into twenty subjects whose age ranged from 18-28.
Recently, researchers have begun studying age related differences and changes in false
memories between age groups (Anastasi & Rhodes, 2008; Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; Norman &
Schacter, 1997; Tun, Wingfield, Rosen, & B.
Cognitive Ability and Vulnerability to Fake Newshttpsgetpocke.docxpickersgillkayne
Cognitive Ability and Vulnerability to Fake News
https://getpocket.com/explore/item/cognitive-ability-and-vulnerability-to-fake-news?utm_source=pocket-newtab
Researchers identify a major risk factor for pernicious effects of misinformation.
Scientific American
· David Z. Hambrick
· Madeline Marquardt
Photo by gguy44 / Getty Images.
“Fake news” is Donald Trump’s favorite catchphrase. Since the 2016 election, it has appeared in hundreds of tweets by the President, decrying everything from accusations of sexual assault against him to the Russian collusion investigation to reports that he watches up to eight hours of television a day. Trump may just use “fake news” as a rhetorical device to discredit stories he doesn’t like, but there is evidence that real fake news is a serious problem. As one alarming example, an analysis by the internet media company Buzzfeed revealed that during the final three months of the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign, the 20 most popular false election stories generated around 1.3 million more Facebook engagements—shares, reactions, and comments—than did the 20 most popular legitimate stories. The most popular fake story was “Pope Francis Shocks World, Endorses Donald Trump for President.”
Fake news can distort people’s beliefs even after being debunked. For example, repeated over and over, a story such as the one about the Pope endorsing Trump can create a glow around a political candidate that persists long after the story is exposed as fake. A 2017 study published in the journal Intelligence suggests that some people may have an especially difficult time rejecting misinformation. Asked to rate a fictitious person on a range of character traits, people who scored low on a test of cognitive ability continued to be influenced by damaging information about the person even after they were explicitly told the information was false. The study is significant because it identifies what may be a major risk factor for vulnerability to fake news.
Ghent University researchers Jonas De keersmaecker and Arne Roets first had over 400 subjects take a personality test. They then randomly assigned each subject to one of two conditions. In the experimental condition, the subjects read a biographical description of a young woman named Nathalie. The bio explained that Nathalie, a nurse at a local hospital, “was arrested for stealing drugs from the hospital; she has been stealing drugs for 2 years and selling them on the street in order to buy designer clothes.” The subjects then rated Nathalie on traits such as trustworthiness and sincerity, after which they took a test of cognitive ability. Finally, the subjects saw a message on their computer screen explicitly stating that the information about Nathalie stealing drugs and getting arrested was not true, and then rated her again on the same traits. The control condition was identical, except that subjects were not given the paragraph with the false information and rated Nathalie only o.
Effect of fMRI Scan Presentation on Perceptions of HomosexualityJacob Wilson
The primary purpose of the present study was to see if exposure to more critical thinking classes would affect how much influence an article about a controversial topic had when intertwined with an fMRI scan. Recently fMRI scans have been a very popular topic in the media. McCabe and Castel (2008) found that brain images can persuade individuals to accept information more easily than articles that do not contain brain images. In our study, an article on the biological basis of homosexuality was given to participants to read. In the first condition, participants only read the article. In the second condition, participants read the article and were given a bar graph that represented the data. In the third condition, participants read the article and were given an fMRI scan and bar graph to represent the data. There was a significant difference in agreement for the biological basis of homosexuality depending on the article condition the participants were placed in, F(2,57) = 3.86, p < .05. Participants who received the bar graph and fMRI images with the article rated homosexually as significantly more biological than the participants in the graph/article condition, p < .05. We also found that participants with a Science major agreed that homosexuality was biological more so than non-science majors [t(58) = 2.86, p < .05] and reported a greater change in their opinion of homosexuality after reading the article [t(58) = 3.11, p < .05]. When participants scored high on scientific reasoning, they were also more likely to be influenced by the material in the article regardless of condition. Together, this research suggests that opinions concerning the biological basis of homosexuality can be changed with exposure to research, and in some case the use of fMRI images is more persuasive.
Journal Entries & T-AccountsACT300 Principles of Accounting IModul.docxchristiandean12115
Journal Entries & T-AccountsACT300 Principles of Accounting IModule 2: Critical Thinking Template Option #1Journal EntriesDateAccount NameT-AccountsJanuaryDebitCredit1CashCapital Stock23BalanceBalance4Accounts ReceivableAccounts Payable5BalanceBalance6Equipment7BalanceSupplies8BalanceRevenueBalanceRent ExpenseBalanceUnadjusted Trial BalanceAccount NameDebitCreditCash- 0Accounts receivable- 0Equipment- 0Supplies- 0Accounts payable- 0Capital stock- 0Revenue- 0Rent expense- 0 Total- 0- 0
Unadjusted Trial BalanceACT300 Principles of Accounting IModule 2: Critical Thinking Template Option #1Unadjusted Trial Balance[NAME OF COMPANY]Unadjusted Trial Balance[DATE]Account balancesAccountDebitCreditCashAccounts receivableEquipmentSuppliesAccounts payableCapital stockRevenueRent expense Totals$ -$ -
Bethany Fulcher
Professor Custer
Sociology 101
7/22/2018
Summary of an Academic Journal Article
The journal that I have decided to research served to answer the question of, to what extent are young adults engaging in “Relationship Work” with a partner and with a friend?”. These researchers focused on the differences that these behaviors caused within creating a functioning relationship that lasts within young couples. They decided to focus on dating couples because of a previous article about married couples that stated that relationships are greatly affected by outside factors like friends and family because they can influence the individual to believe that their status is either good or bad, (Proulx, Helms & Payne). This made the researchers believe there was still a piece missing in the study and that piece was young and fresh relationships. They wanted to know how this relationship work could change the overall wellbeing of that couple and how happy the two individuals were within it.
Before they surveyed the individuals, the authors came up with a few hypotheses. The first hypothesis that they explored was that females would be more willing to talk to their friends about relationship problems than their partners and that males would be the exact opposite, talking to their significant others more than their friends. The second hypothesis that they believed would be true is that unlike the study that observed older couples, younger relationships would struggle greatly if they were talking to their friends more than each other. This was assumed because the artists realized that older people tend to pick friends that would be more supportive of their relationships while younger people choose friends that trend to have information that can be “incorrect, misleading, and unsupportive.”(Jensen & Rauer).
The main factor that they were testing, or the dependent variable, was a combination of three different areas: happiness, commitment, and relationship quality. They used the quantitative method of surveying to sample individuals that both volunteered and were convenient to the authors. In other words, the researchers put out a questionnaire as ext.
The paper explores masculinity and / or femininity and their relationship to the prevalence of HIV and AIDS in Zimbabwe. The paper implicates both masculinity and femininity as accomplices in spreading HIV and AIDS. The purpose of the paper is to highlight the growing concern that cultural practices contribute to the prevalence of HIV and AIDS in Zimbabwe and beyond. The paper further argues that whereas the masculine (male or female) may impose themselves on the feminine (female or male), the latter also contributes to the prevalence of HIV and AIDS by willingly accepting the imposition as a societal ‘norm’ or value to use Taylor’s (2003) theory of scenarios. The unquestioned acceptance of the masculine’s demands becomes the norm or scenario that should be viewed as ‘natural’ by both the hegemonic masculine and the subaltern feminine in a relationship. To carry out the study, a case study design was adopted as the operational framework for data gathering. Data was collected from Mount Zion, Temeraire Baptist Church in Mashava, Masvingo province by engaging Practice As Research (PAR) and participant observation. The sample comprised 20 adolescents made up of 10 boys and 10 girls. The results gathered from the research confirmed that to a greater extent, societal norms and attitudes influence one’s behaviour towards life in general and sex to be specific. These findings demonstrate the need for academics, government, families and other interested stakeholders to re-evaluate cultural practices and specifically, gender roles.
Literature ReviewIn an article written by Eakin et al. in 2003 f.docxSHIVA101531
Literature Review
In an article written by Eakin et al. in 2003 five studies were conducted to test the theory of the misinformation effect. They hypothesized that exposure to misleading information can significantly hamper one’s ability to report accurate information. They used modified opposition tests to test their participant’s memory. The participants were randomly assigned to the different experimental conditions and tested in small groups. “Different materials were developed for each of the experimental phases including the event slides, the postevent narrative, and the MOT” (Eakin et al., 2003). These experiments helped test how misleading information received postevent affects people’s memory. The tests were intended to separate retrieval-blocking effects. Retrieval blocking revolves around cue incrementing. Through their studies they found that people who had been exposed to misleading information were more likely to recall the misled information than accurate information. They found that this is true even when participants are given extensive warnings that the information they received may be misleading. They also determined in their study that receiving the warning immediately after encoding the information reduces the recall rate of misleading information. Through the studies they helped to prove that their hypothesis was true, that exposure to misleading information can hamper one’s ability to recall accurate information. These studies however do not study how suppression of memories my come into play. It also does not depict how long after one experiences an event may retrieval blocking pose a problem. This opens up the possibility that maybe we block information for a certain period of time and/or present misled information, then the accurate information may come to light at a later date.
Loftus may be considered one of the first explorers of the misinformation effect. In 2005 she wrote an article summing up her studies on this event. According to Loftus, 2005 “the misinformation effect has been observed in a variety of human and nonhuman species. And some groups of individuals are more susceptible than others.” She depicted that in certain conditions such as having a large amount of time between the event and questioning, may allow for a greater misinformation effect. Also with time she presents the facts that memory fades. With these two issues it Loftus presents the idea that one my rethink the event and place the misled information in due to weak memory of the event.
Like the Eakin et al. article Loftus also presented the position of offering a warning. She also concluded that offering a warning that misinformation may be presented helped to curb the effect but giving the warning after the information was received had little effect on the results. This helps contribute to the idea that after the misinformation has already been processed there is little one can do to reduce the recall effects. Loftus also adds in her arti ...
Running Head MISINFORMATION EFFECT1MISINFORMATION EFFECT2.docxcharisellington63520
Running Head: MISINFORMATION EFFECT 1
MISINFORMATION EFFECT 2
Abstract
This paper explores various published articles which depict research results from studies conducted on the effects of misinformation on eyewitness testimony. Misinformation is “false or inaccurate information, especially that which is deliberately intended to deceive” (Oxforddictionaries.com). With the use of misinformation it may be possible to mislead witnesses allowing them to present false information. This papers examines articles from researchers such as Blank, Ost, Davies, Jones, Lambert and Salmon (2013), Loftus (2005), Chrobak and Zaragoza (2013), and Eakin, Schreiber and Sergeant-Marshall (2003) in relation to other studies conducted in order to determine how misinformation is introduced, possible reasons the effect occurs, and suggestions on how to reduce its effects.
The Misinformation Effect and the Effects it has on Eyewitness Testimony
There is a wide misconception that a person’s long-term memory actually records experiences exactly as they happened. However, memories and events we have are very malleable and can be altered and/or molded. It is proven fact that our long-term memory is susceptible to errors. The impreciseness in a person’s memory can further be altered with the misinformation effect. The misinformation effect transpires when mislead information is presented to someone after they have experienced the event.
Misinformation can have unfavorable consequences in investigations and trials. “The fallibility of eyewitness memory is a crucial problem in the administration of justice, and documented cases of false convictions based on faulty eyewitness testimony abound” (Zaragoza, Payment, Ackil, Drivdahl & Beck, 2001, p. 473). Over the past few decade numerous studies have been conducted centering on the various facets and implications of the misinformation effect and how it affects eyewitness testimony. Through the introduction of misinformation to someone’s thoughts and observations, they can easily be manipulated, leading them to dictate false or inaccurate information. Misinformation may be presented in many ways to witnesses such as I nterviewing, cross-examination, and narratives. This paper examines research that has been conducted from various authors in regards to how misinformation is introduced, possible reasons the effect occurs, and suggestions on how to reduce its effects as well as propose where additional research may be conducted to further understand this phenomenon.
It has long since been discovered that the misinformation effect exists and can have negative effects when it comes to eyewitness testimony. In 2002, 110 inmates were released from prison due DNA exonerations making them not guilty. Out of the 110, eleven were on death row. In the majority of these cases the individuals were convicted largely on the testimony of eyewitnesses.
Numerous studies have been conducted over the past forty-f.
Bullshiters - Who Are They And What Do We Know About Their LivesTrading Game Pty Ltd
‘Bullshitters’ are individuals who claim knowledge or expertise in an area where they
actually have little experience or skill. Despite this being a well-known and widespread
social phenomenon, relatively few large-scale empirical studies have been conducted into
this issue. This paper attempts to fill this gap in the literature by examining teenagers’
propensity to claim expertise in three mathematics constructs that do not really exist.
Using Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) data from nine Anglophone
countries and over 40,000 young people, we find substantial differences in young people’s
tendency to bullshit across countries, genders and socio-economic groups. Bullshitters are
also found to exhibit high levels of overconfidence and believe they work hard, persevere
at tasks, and are popular amongst their peers. Together this provides important new insight
into who bullshitters are and the type of survey responses that they provide.
Running head FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 1 .docxwlynn1
Running head: FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 1
Older Adults Experience More False Memories Compared to Other Age Groups
Amanda Sinclair 11036772
University of Saskatchewan
Psychology 255.3 61: Human Memory
3 November 2013
FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 2
Proclamation
In submitting this paper, I attest that this paper, and any version of this paper, has not previously
or concurrently been submitted for credit in another course by myself or anyone else.
FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 3
Abstract
Compared to other age groups (e.g. child, teenager, young adult) older adults experience a
greater amount of false memories. This was shown in Fandakova, Shing, and Lindenberg (2013)
with the use of proactive interference. In Jacoby, Bishara, Hessels, & Toth (2005) retroactive
interference was used to create false memories in young and older adults resulting in higher false
memories for older adults. Shing, Werkle-Bergner, Li, & Lindenberger (2009) found that not
only did older adults have a greater amount of false memories but were also disproportionately
more confident in their false memories than children. A neurological study done by Dennis, Kim,
& Cabeza (2008) found that, compared to young adults, older adults showed both a reduction in
true memories and an increase in false memories. It was also shown that a neurological
explanation could be found for the age difference in false memories. In summary, modern
research shows clear evidence in support of older adults having a greater proportion of false
memories than other age groups.
FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 4
Older Adults Have More False Memories Than Other Age Groups
Recent research has shown that the likelihood of remembering false events increases as a
person ages, this paper aims to flush out this research and find a clear correlation between age
and false memories. False memories, erroneously remembering episodes that did not occur, have
been an area of interest since Elizabeth Loftus created the “Lost in the Mall” technique in 1994.
This technique involved Loftus implanting a false memory into a child of being lost in a mall at a
younger age (Loftus, 1995). At that point it was thought that only children were susceptible to
false memories (then said to be repressed memories) and not adults. Since then it has been shown
that not only do children create false memories, and are susceptible to implantation, but also
young and older adults (Lindsay, Hagen, Read, Wade, & Garry, 2004). For example, Wade,
Garry, Read, & Lindsay (2002) successfully implanted a false memory of being in a hot air
balloon as a child into twenty subjects whose age ranged from 18-28.
Recently, researchers have begun studying age related differences and changes in false
memories between age groups (Anastasi & Rhodes, 2008; Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; Norman &
Schacter, 1997; Tun, Wingfield, Rosen, & B.
Cognitive Ability and Vulnerability to Fake Newshttpsgetpocke.docxpickersgillkayne
Cognitive Ability and Vulnerability to Fake News
https://getpocket.com/explore/item/cognitive-ability-and-vulnerability-to-fake-news?utm_source=pocket-newtab
Researchers identify a major risk factor for pernicious effects of misinformation.
Scientific American
· David Z. Hambrick
· Madeline Marquardt
Photo by gguy44 / Getty Images.
“Fake news” is Donald Trump’s favorite catchphrase. Since the 2016 election, it has appeared in hundreds of tweets by the President, decrying everything from accusations of sexual assault against him to the Russian collusion investigation to reports that he watches up to eight hours of television a day. Trump may just use “fake news” as a rhetorical device to discredit stories he doesn’t like, but there is evidence that real fake news is a serious problem. As one alarming example, an analysis by the internet media company Buzzfeed revealed that during the final three months of the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign, the 20 most popular false election stories generated around 1.3 million more Facebook engagements—shares, reactions, and comments—than did the 20 most popular legitimate stories. The most popular fake story was “Pope Francis Shocks World, Endorses Donald Trump for President.”
Fake news can distort people’s beliefs even after being debunked. For example, repeated over and over, a story such as the one about the Pope endorsing Trump can create a glow around a political candidate that persists long after the story is exposed as fake. A 2017 study published in the journal Intelligence suggests that some people may have an especially difficult time rejecting misinformation. Asked to rate a fictitious person on a range of character traits, people who scored low on a test of cognitive ability continued to be influenced by damaging information about the person even after they were explicitly told the information was false. The study is significant because it identifies what may be a major risk factor for vulnerability to fake news.
Ghent University researchers Jonas De keersmaecker and Arne Roets first had over 400 subjects take a personality test. They then randomly assigned each subject to one of two conditions. In the experimental condition, the subjects read a biographical description of a young woman named Nathalie. The bio explained that Nathalie, a nurse at a local hospital, “was arrested for stealing drugs from the hospital; she has been stealing drugs for 2 years and selling them on the street in order to buy designer clothes.” The subjects then rated Nathalie on traits such as trustworthiness and sincerity, after which they took a test of cognitive ability. Finally, the subjects saw a message on their computer screen explicitly stating that the information about Nathalie stealing drugs and getting arrested was not true, and then rated her again on the same traits. The control condition was identical, except that subjects were not given the paragraph with the false information and rated Nathalie only o.
Effect of fMRI Scan Presentation on Perceptions of HomosexualityJacob Wilson
The primary purpose of the present study was to see if exposure to more critical thinking classes would affect how much influence an article about a controversial topic had when intertwined with an fMRI scan. Recently fMRI scans have been a very popular topic in the media. McCabe and Castel (2008) found that brain images can persuade individuals to accept information more easily than articles that do not contain brain images. In our study, an article on the biological basis of homosexuality was given to participants to read. In the first condition, participants only read the article. In the second condition, participants read the article and were given a bar graph that represented the data. In the third condition, participants read the article and were given an fMRI scan and bar graph to represent the data. There was a significant difference in agreement for the biological basis of homosexuality depending on the article condition the participants were placed in, F(2,57) = 3.86, p < .05. Participants who received the bar graph and fMRI images with the article rated homosexually as significantly more biological than the participants in the graph/article condition, p < .05. We also found that participants with a Science major agreed that homosexuality was biological more so than non-science majors [t(58) = 2.86, p < .05] and reported a greater change in their opinion of homosexuality after reading the article [t(58) = 3.11, p < .05]. When participants scored high on scientific reasoning, they were also more likely to be influenced by the material in the article regardless of condition. Together, this research suggests that opinions concerning the biological basis of homosexuality can be changed with exposure to research, and in some case the use of fMRI images is more persuasive.
Journal Entries & T-AccountsACT300 Principles of Accounting IModul.docxchristiandean12115
Journal Entries & T-AccountsACT300 Principles of Accounting IModule 2: Critical Thinking Template Option #1Journal EntriesDateAccount NameT-AccountsJanuaryDebitCredit1CashCapital Stock23BalanceBalance4Accounts ReceivableAccounts Payable5BalanceBalance6Equipment7BalanceSupplies8BalanceRevenueBalanceRent ExpenseBalanceUnadjusted Trial BalanceAccount NameDebitCreditCash- 0Accounts receivable- 0Equipment- 0Supplies- 0Accounts payable- 0Capital stock- 0Revenue- 0Rent expense- 0 Total- 0- 0
Unadjusted Trial BalanceACT300 Principles of Accounting IModule 2: Critical Thinking Template Option #1Unadjusted Trial Balance[NAME OF COMPANY]Unadjusted Trial Balance[DATE]Account balancesAccountDebitCreditCashAccounts receivableEquipmentSuppliesAccounts payableCapital stockRevenueRent expense Totals$ -$ -
Bethany Fulcher
Professor Custer
Sociology 101
7/22/2018
Summary of an Academic Journal Article
The journal that I have decided to research served to answer the question of, to what extent are young adults engaging in “Relationship Work” with a partner and with a friend?”. These researchers focused on the differences that these behaviors caused within creating a functioning relationship that lasts within young couples. They decided to focus on dating couples because of a previous article about married couples that stated that relationships are greatly affected by outside factors like friends and family because they can influence the individual to believe that their status is either good or bad, (Proulx, Helms & Payne). This made the researchers believe there was still a piece missing in the study and that piece was young and fresh relationships. They wanted to know how this relationship work could change the overall wellbeing of that couple and how happy the two individuals were within it.
Before they surveyed the individuals, the authors came up with a few hypotheses. The first hypothesis that they explored was that females would be more willing to talk to their friends about relationship problems than their partners and that males would be the exact opposite, talking to their significant others more than their friends. The second hypothesis that they believed would be true is that unlike the study that observed older couples, younger relationships would struggle greatly if they were talking to their friends more than each other. This was assumed because the artists realized that older people tend to pick friends that would be more supportive of their relationships while younger people choose friends that trend to have information that can be “incorrect, misleading, and unsupportive.”(Jensen & Rauer).
The main factor that they were testing, or the dependent variable, was a combination of three different areas: happiness, commitment, and relationship quality. They used the quantitative method of surveying to sample individuals that both volunteered and were convenient to the authors. In other words, the researchers put out a questionnaire as ext.
The paper explores masculinity and / or femininity and their relationship to the prevalence of HIV and AIDS in Zimbabwe. The paper implicates both masculinity and femininity as accomplices in spreading HIV and AIDS. The purpose of the paper is to highlight the growing concern that cultural practices contribute to the prevalence of HIV and AIDS in Zimbabwe and beyond. The paper further argues that whereas the masculine (male or female) may impose themselves on the feminine (female or male), the latter also contributes to the prevalence of HIV and AIDS by willingly accepting the imposition as a societal ‘norm’ or value to use Taylor’s (2003) theory of scenarios. The unquestioned acceptance of the masculine’s demands becomes the norm or scenario that should be viewed as ‘natural’ by both the hegemonic masculine and the subaltern feminine in a relationship. To carry out the study, a case study design was adopted as the operational framework for data gathering. Data was collected from Mount Zion, Temeraire Baptist Church in Mashava, Masvingo province by engaging Practice As Research (PAR) and participant observation. The sample comprised 20 adolescents made up of 10 boys and 10 girls. The results gathered from the research confirmed that to a greater extent, societal norms and attitudes influence one’s behaviour towards life in general and sex to be specific. These findings demonstrate the need for academics, government, families and other interested stakeholders to re-evaluate cultural practices and specifically, gender roles.
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This study was designed to test for a relationship between gender and knowledge fabrication. 24 subjects (12 male,
12 female) were paired into groups of two (one male, one female). Subjects were then prompted to answer a series
of 12 questions that were read aloud by the female practitioner. Questions varied in subject matter from mathematics
to current events. Among the 12 questions were 3 questions containing false information and 6 questions providing
further opportunities for subjects to fabricate knowledge. The results showthe confirmation of the hypothesis and
clear significance in the relationship between gender and knowledge fabrication, as 21% of the time men spoke was
dedicated to knowledge fabrication while 7% of the time women spoke was dedicated to knowledge fabrication.
Additional results were calculated through various measures to find that women engage in more nonverbalcues than
men. Further additional results were calculated to find that a significant relationship is shown through descriptive
statistical data that men are more likely to have a higher self-esteem than women when it comes to knowledge,
whereas women are more likely to feel more pressure to be smarter than men when it comes to knowledge.
WHO LIES? : A STUDY ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENDER AND
KNOWLEDGE FABRICATION
Mark C. H. Byars and Emma M. Cox
Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania
Various primary, scholarly research studies, which will be indicated below, have
addressed possible relationships between gender and a number of components of lying and
dishonesty. However, much of it is limited, specific and difficult to locate. Lying is frequent,
unavoidable, and used in everyday life. In one-out-of-every-three interactions, college students
reported lying (DePaulo, Kashy, Kirkendol, Wyer, & Epstein, 1996). So, if lying is so frequent,
why is the research so limited? There are many aspects of lying that can be further studied and
addressed to enhance and broaden current research. In Lying in Everyday Life, a research study
addressing the many aspects of lying, it is brought to attention that many questions about lying,
or in this case knowledge fabrication, need to be addressed (DePaulo et al., 1996). The question
being asked in this study is—Is there a relationship between gender and knowledge fabrication,
which is tied closely to lying?
According to Dictionary.com, a lie is “a false statement made with the intent to deceive”
(Lie¹). According to the same source, fabrication is “something fabricated, especially an
untruthful statement” (Fabrication). In addition, and of significance, Thesaurus.com also lists
fabrication as a synonym for lie (Lie²). For the purposes of this study, knowledge fabrication is a
false statement with the intent to pass as the truth. Throughout this study, these terms will be
used interchangeably.
2. 2
GENDER DIFFERENCES
Men and women are socialized differently from childhood. Boys are raised to think
about rules and individual rights, while girls focus more on relationships and compassion. “This
can lead boys to have more self-centered values, to believe that the ends can justify the means
and to, therefore, be predisposed to pursue competitive success more strongly than girls” (Hogue,
Levashina, & Hang, 2011, p. 401). Women are also more likely to disclose personal information
than men. From childhood, parents tend to discuss emotions with girls, not boys. At the same
time, boys may feel pressure from their parents and/or peers to “avoid emotional expression”
(Landoll, Schwartz-Mette, Rose, & Prinstein, 2011, p. 411). This could be a factor when an
individual presented with a question does not have an answer; men may do what they have to do
to cover up any vulnerability, while women may open up about the problems that they have with
the question
GENDER AND LYING
A limited number of studies show that men are more likely to lie than women. For
example, a study observed whether men or women would more readily “fake it” in a job
interview, meaning fabricate knowledge in order to appear more knowledgable. The researchers
created scales to measure extensive image creation, “the complete invention of an image of a
good job applicant,” image protection, “defending the image of a good job applicant,” slight
image creation, “enhancing personal qualities to present the image of a good job applicant,” and
ingratiation, “gaining favor with the interviewer to improve the appearance of being a good job
applicant” (Hogue, et al., 2011, p. 403). The researchers found that men use the most severe
form of lying, extensive image creation, more than women. This corresponds with the above
mentioned “self-centered values” of men (p. 401). Another study that shows that men are more
likely to deceive than women, had 128 college students (64.4% women, 34.6% men) take their
midterm exam. The students completed the exam and handed it in to be graded. While they
were actually graded and recorded, the students were told that they had to grade their own exams
in the interest of time. When the instructor was finished going through all of the correct answers
the students resubmitted the graded exams. Those grades were then compared to the original
grades that were previously recorded. Results found that 39.29% of men cheated and only 10%
of women cheated (Ward & Beck, 2001). Also, Robinson, Obler, Boone, Adamjee, and
Anderson (1998) found that society view men as less truthful than women, in a study that
included a series of listening to various statements by both men and women.
LIE DETECTION AND ACCEPTABILITY
Some studies go into detail about gender and lie detection and acceptability. Lie
acceptability is best described as the attitude a person has concerning the acceptance of deceit
(Oliveira & Levine, 2008). A previous study had 385 subjects view four different videotaped
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scenarios that depicted simulated job interviews. This study’s purpose was to find a relationship
between gender and lie detection ability. Two interviews were made up of true information and
two included fabricated information. The participants were then asked to assess the honesty
levels of the interviewees, as well as address the communicator styles through a questionnaire.
The results showed that there are possible differences between genders, when differentiating
truth from lies. Women base honesty on attentiveness and men were more likely to base
dishonesty in males on attentiveness and honesty in women on friendliness (O’Hair, Cody, Goss,
& Krayer, 1988). An additional study that focused on gender and lie detection saw 46 subjects
(23 male, 23 female) rate how believable a male and a female speaker were. The subjects rated
the speakers on a 5-point Likert type scale (1 = “definitely telling the truth,” 2 = “probably
telling the truth,” 3 = “the rater cannot be sure,” 4 = “probably lying,” and 5 = “definitely
lying”). The results showed that the male speaker was perceived as “less truthful” than the
female speaker (Robinson et al., 1998). This shows us that women are less likely to have their
lies detected than men. DePaulo, Stone and Lassiter (1985) performed a study in which they
focused on the differences in sincerity among lies in regards to different genders and how
genders detect a liar based on same-sex and opposite-sex pairings. The researchers tested to see
if men and women were more likely to notice a lie among the same or opposite genders, as well
as which gender gives off more easily detectable actions while lying. The subjects were 64 (32
male, 32 female) University of Virginia students. The study tested the subjects on how they
indicated a lie or the truth through genders, as they discuss four controversial topics, including
both facts and fictions on their feelings of the topic. The results of the study oppose other
research that we found, and previously indicated. It says that lies of women are more easily
detected than lies of men. The study also found that individuals are able to detect lies told by the
opposite sex, more easily than individuals of the same sex (DePaulo et al., 1985).
Along those same lines, a study went into further detail about which gender is more likely
to accept or deny lies. The subjects were given a scenario and four responses to that scenario.
One of the responses was a complete lie, another was a lie of omission, one equivocation and the
last option was the honest truth. The subjects responded to each of the options on a 7-point
Likert-type scale. Although the results of this study were inconclusive, the data show a slight
sway in the direction that men reported higher levels of lie acceptability (Oliveira & Levine,
2008).
LYING AND NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
There is variety of research going into detail about different nonverbal cues associated
with lying. A study suggests that the subject’s level of relaxation is a big indicator of whether or
not deception is being used. A high level of relaxation indicates honesty while nervous behavior
such as leg/foot movement indicates deceit (O’Hair et al., 1988). Eye contact and general
attentiveness are also important indicators of deception. “Communicators who are perceived as
attentive may imbue an impression of thoughtful receptivity, intuitively associated with
truthfulness,” (O’Hair et al., 1988, p.80). In the same vein, liars tend to avoid eye contact and
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when they try to recite a prepared lie a conscious effort is made to maintain eye contact.
Research from the same study also shows that nervous laughter is more prominent in females
than males (Cody & O’Hair, 1983).
In this study we will test a two-tailed hypothesis: There is a relationship between gender
and knowledge fabrication. There is not enough conclusive evidence to say that men or women
will fabricate more knowledge, thus we made the decision to include a two-tailed hypothesis in
our study. This study is aimed to further research so that scholars and practitioners will have
enough evidence to further research on the matter, as well as supplying the general public with
more research-oriented information on the subject matter, which is part of everyday life.
METHOD
SUBJECTS
Twenty-four college students (12 male, 12 female), ranging from ages 18-24, participated
in this experiment and survey research. Subjects were randomized in a convenient sample in the
Bailey Library and the Smith Student Center (SSC) at Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania.
DESIGN AND EXPERIMENTAL TASK
This study was a single factor (knowledge fabrication), two group (gender—male,
female) design.
The task, being a single-blind experimental study, consisted of having the subjects (in
groups of two—one male, one female) believe they were part of a study on the relationship
between gender and various areas of knowledge, rather than the relationship between gender and
knowledge fabrication. This belief was brought on by brief instructions (see PROCEDURE and
Appendix A) given by the practitioners. The reasoning behind the instructions, masking the true
reason of the study, was due to a previous study that shows that subjects give more legitimate
answers, allowing for more accurate data, if they do not feel as though they are being
manipulated (Fisher, 2013). Following the instructions, the subjects were verbally asked a twelve
question questionnaire (See Appendix A), constructed by the practitioners, made up of various
areas of knowledge, including sports, art, popular culture, science, mathematics, politics, and
common knowledge. Nine of the questions included factual content, some basic knowledge and
some harder, possibly less known content. Three of the questions included fictional content (i.e.
fictional names of individuals and content). The fiction-oriented questions, as well as the harder,
possibly less known questions, were designed in order to observe and indicate whether or not a
subject would fabricate an answer that they did not have a clear answer to.
After the initial questionnaire, subjects participated in survey research, where they were
asked to complete a written eleven question questionnaire (See Appendix B), constructed by the
5. 5
practitioners, by writing their responses on a Likert scale from “strongly agree” to “strongly
disagree,” in order to further research and possible findings concerning why the subjects
fabricated their knowledge. The questions ranged from confidence in their answers,
discouragement when they do not know the answers to questions, self-esteem when it comes to
knowledge and whether or not they feel pressure to be more knowledgeable than members of
their opposite gender.
DEPENDENT MEASURES
Knowledge fabrication was assessed and measured by the number of times a subject gave
an answer to the fiction-based questions, as well as when subjects answered factual questions
with false information (coded 1 = fabrication evident or 0 = no fabrication evident). Four
questions in the questionnaire were not used in the calculations of knowledge fabrication data, as
they were not clear, nor significant, detectors of knowledge fabrication, just simple errors (the
four discarded questions are addressed in bolded font, within Appendix A). The three fiction-
based questions included were: (1) “In honor of the recent passing of Eliza Ducane (fictional),
what qualities, if any, do you believe made her a successful actress?”; (2) “How do you think
possible Democratic candidate for the 2016 presidential election, Malcolm Foxberg (fictional),
will be able to help our nation?”; (3) “How does hybodroxyl (fiction) fertilization help the
growth of plants?”
Fiction-based questions (1) and (3) were designed to seem factual, as they are believable
information, as science and popular culture knowledge vary through an extensive amount of
topics. In designing fiction-based question (2), the construction and content were based on a
study concerning politics and young adults. Mueller and Reichert (2004) found that though
young adults were being targeted at a much larger rate (69%), through media outlets, such as
Rolling Stones (300%), their knowledge of the subject was not increasing. These findings
brought us to believe that young adults do not know much information concerning politics,
making it more likely that they would fabricate knowledge concerning a political figure, if they
are inclined, rather than skip it over or make a connection with previous and prior fiction-based
statements (1) and (2). All other questions ranged a variety of topics, as indicated above, and
fabrications of knowledge involved were dependent on the knowledge of the subject (See
Appendix A). The significance of difference (Chi Square alpha) for this result was .05.
ADDITIONALDEPENDENT MEASURES
With regard to knowledge fabrication, additional significant dependent measures were
involved, including confidence, discouragement, self-esteem, and gender role pressure. All of the
following statements were voted on a 5-point Likert scale included on the eleven (four
significant to research, seven repetitive/filler) question post-experimental questionnaire (See
Appendix B). The subjects’ confidence in their answers was assessed through the statement:
“You feel confident in your answers to the previous questions.” (5 = strongly agree to 1 =
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strongly disagree). The subjects’ level of discouragement when they do not know answers was
assessed through the statement: “You feel discouraged when you do not know the answers to
questions.” (5 = strongly agree to 1 = strongly disagree). The subjects’ level of self-esteem
pertaining to knowledge was assessed through the statement: “You have a high level of self-
esteem when it comes to knowledge.” (5 = strongly agree to 1 = strongly disagree). And lastly,
the subjects’ tendency to feel pressure in being more knowledgeable than members of the
opposite gender: “You feel pressure to be more knowledgeable than individuals that are of the
opposite gender of you.” (5 = strongly agree to 1 = strongly disagree). The significance of each
quality, in relationship to gender, was measured through descriptive statistics by finding the
mode of each gender in terms of each statement, as well as the sum of the scores each gender
scored on each of the four characteristics.
Previous research was the base of reasoning behind statements involving self-esteem and
gender roles. The calculations involved were put in place to back up the current research stating
that men have higher self-esteem than women (Witt & Wood., 2010), and that men are more
concerned with holding a higher standing of reputation (gender roles) than women (Hogue et al.,
2011). Based off of our own curiosity and similarities with prior research, we made the addition
of calculating the relationship, if any, between gender and confidence and discouragement, in
terms of knowledge, with gender.
Along with the data collected from the areas indicated above, during the time of verbal
questioning, the listening practitioner calculated the nonverbal communication behaviors of the
subjects during time of knowledge fabrication and uncertainty of content in an original three
categories, based on research involved with the relationship between gender and lying: eye-
contact, leg movement, and nervous laughter/smiling. An additional fourth category, agreement,
was added in during the time of the experiment, based on observation and a clear relationship
concerning gender. Each of these nonverbal traits were simply counted each time they occurred
in each gender (coded 1 = nonverbal cue displayed or coded 0 = no nonverbal cue displayed).
That data was then combined into one total score to represent each gender. The significance of
difference (Chi square alpha) for this result was .05.
The amount of time each gender talked was also calculated to detect which gender, if
any, spoke more often, as well as calculate how much of the percentage of time each gender
spoke was made up of knowledge fabrication. The data were collected by simply counting each
time a gender gave an answer to the verbal questionnaire (coded 1 = answer or coded 0 = no
answer). That data were then used to test the significance of difference. The significance of
difference (Chi square alpha) for this result was .05.
PROCEDURE
Subjects were randomly selected in a convenience sample at Bailey Library and SCC and
paired into groups of two (one male, one female). Before each session, subjects were given
instruction by the female practitioner that read: “We are conducting a study on the relationship
between gender and different areas of knowledge. Please answer the following twelve questions
7. 7
to the best of your ability. Everyone has the chance to answer each question, though it is not
mandatory.” The instruction was included to make sure the subjects did not feel forced into
answering questions to which they did not have a clear answer. Prior research shows that male
voices are viewed to be less truthful and more easily detected in terms of dishonesty than female
voices (Robinson et al., 1998), so we chose to have the female practitioner ask the subjects
questions. This decreased the chance that participants would suspect that they were involved in
anything other than what was explained to them.
The subjects then went through the twelve question questionnaire (See Appendix A),
which were also asked verbally by the female practitioner, while the male practitioner observed
and recorded the subjects nonverbal cues. The subjects were given no help or further instruction
concerning the questions during the time of the experimentation by the practitioners, when
asked.
Following the verbal questionnaire, subjects were asked to fill out the eleven question
questionnaire (Appendix B) without discussing the content with one another.
Following the experiment and survey research, the subjects were then thanked and
debriefed. Oliveira and Levine (2008) indicated, through a study, that men are more likely to
accept lies than women. Due to this source, we were ready to dehoax subjects, if need be.
However, none of the subjects verbalized or showed signs of feeling deceived or manipulated.
RESULTS
RATE OF LYING
The rate of lying was observed and counted based on frequency of lies among each
gender (coded 1 = fabrication evident, or coded 0 = no fabrication evident). Knowledge
fabrication counted when a subject answered a fiction-based question or gave a false answer to a
question of significance. As indicated above and bolded in Appendix A, four items that lacked
significance and clear ability to fabricate knowledge, were discarded in the counting of possible
times a subject was able to lie. That broke the results down to be based on calculations that each
gender had the possibility to lie a total of 96 times. Out of those 96 possible times, results
showed that men fabricated knowledge a total of 22 times throughout the experiment, where
women fabricated knowledge a total of 7 times throughout the experiment.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
The gender of the subject was the independent variable in this study. Gender is defined
by the practitioners as the subjects’ identified gender (male, female).
8. 8
TEST OF HYPOTHESIS
The hypothesis stated that there is a relationship between gender and knowledge
fabrication. In order to test the hypothesis, the frequencies of lying (men=22, women=7) were
then calculated into a Chi Square test, as shown in Table 1. The total number of lies made
throughout the study by both men and women (29), went into testing the significance of the
relationship at a significance level of .05. The test tested a hypothesis of a 1:1 ratio of
relationship between gender and knowledge fabrication, in order to see if an even relationship
was shown. If there was a failure to confirm a significant equal relationship of the topics, we
would be able to confirm our hypothesis that there is a relationship between gender and
knowledge fabrication. After finding ᵡ² (7.76), the result was then compared to the Chi Square
alpha (critical value) 3.841. The critical value was found through the significance value (.05) and
the degrees of freedom ((n-1) = (2-1) = 1). With ᵡ² (7.76) exceeding the critical value (3.841), the
hypothesis of the study was confirmed. A full layout of the calculations can be found in Table 1.
ADDITIONALRESULTS
Throughout our research, various findings were mentioned concerning the reasons people
lie, based on gender, and nonverbal cues of lying/uncertainty based on gender. We found this
information significant enough to test throughout our study, to further knowledge of the topic, as
well as giving various reasoning and signs behind of our dependent variable. We went through a
variety of measures in calculating this data, as well.
The first additional test we performed concerned the relationship between gender and the
frequency of speech. This study was conducted not only to test a relationship, but to allow for the
percentages of lying in regards to frequency of speech among each gender. The significance of
the relationship was tested in a Chi Square test (Table 2). The frequency of speech among each
gender was calculated throughout the time of experimentation (coded 1 = answer, or coded 0 =
no answer). Those numbers (men=105, women=87), were then tested on a 1:1 ratio relationship
between gender and frequency of speech. After finding ᵡ² (1.68), the result was then compared to
the Chi Square alpha (critical value) 3.841. The critical value was found through the significance
value (.05) and the degrees of freedom ((n-1) = (2-1) = 1). With the critical value (3.841)
exceeding ᵡ² (1.68), a hypothesis of 1:1 ratio was confirmed, showing no true significant
relationship between gender and frequency of speech. A full layout of calculations can be found
in Table 2.
A third Chi Square test was performed to test the significance of the relationship between
gender and nonverbal cues of knowledge fabrication/lying and/or uncertainty. The nonverbal
cues were measured through frequency of occurrence (coded 1 = nonverbal cue evident, or coded
0 = no nonverbal cue evident evident) on four aspects: loss of eye contact, leg movement,
nervous laughter/smiling, and agreement. The scores of each, indicated in Table 3, were then
added together to represent two scores (men=26, women=60). Those numbers, were then tested
on a 1:1 ratio relationship between gender and nonverbal cues of knowledge fabrication/lying
9. 9
and/or uncertainty in a Chi Square test (Table 4). After finding ᵡ² (13.44), the result was then
compared to the Chi Square alpha (critical value) 3.841. The critical value was found through the
significance value (.05) and the degrees of freedom ((n-1) = (2-1) = 1). With ᵡ² (1.68) exceeding
the critical value (3.841), a hypothesis of 1:1 ratio was rejected, confirming a large significant
relationship between gender and nonverbal cues of knowledge fabrication/lying and/or
uncertainty. A full layout of calculations can be found in Table 4.
Lastly, components in the reasoning people lie were tested. Measurements of the
components, confidence in answers, discouragement when not knowing an answer, self-esteem
in terms of knowledge, and pressure to be more knowledgeable than members of the opposite
gender, were obtained through a post-experimental questionnaire (See Appendix B). The
characteristics were measured on a Likert Scale (5 = strongly agree to 1 = strongly disagree).
Those numbers were then summed (Table 5), indicating an overall value of the characteristic of
each gender. The mode of agreement upon each gender in terms of each characteristic was also
calculated (5 = strongly agree to 1 = strongly disagree) to show further support. In this section,
confidence (men=50, women=50) and discouragement (men=46, women=46) had the same sums
for each gender, and slightly different modes, showing no trace of a significant relationship.
However, self-esteem showed an overall sum (men=50, women=36) and a mode (men=no mode
but the majority of answers fell within the “agree” and “strongly agree” rankings, women=2)
significance in terms of the relationship between gender and the level of self-esteem when it
comes to knowledge. The overall sum (men=22, women=49) and mode (men=no mode but the
majority of answers fell within the “disagree” and “strongly disagree” rankings, women=3) of
the pressure on gender roles shows significance in terms of the relationship between gender and
the pressure to be smarter than members of the opposite gender. No male subject indicated that
they “strongly agree” or “agree” to the statement: “You feel pressure to be more knowledgeable
than individuals that are of the opposite gender of you.” A full listing of the characteristic data
can be seen in Table 5.
Table 1: The Significance ofDifference Concerning the Relationship Between Gender and
Knowledge Fabrication (Chi Square Test)
H0: There is a 1:1 ratio relationship between gender and knowledge fabrication.
O E O - E (O - E)² (O - E)² / E
Men 22 14.5 7.5 56.25 3.88
Women 7 14.5 -7.5 56.25 3.88
Total: 29 29 ᵡ² = 7.76
Degrees of Freedom = (n-1) = (2-1) = 1
Critical Value = 3.841
Significance Value = 0.05
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Table 2: The Significance ofDifference Concerning the Relationship Between Gender and Quantity
of Speech (Chi Square Test)
H0: There is a 1:1 ratio relationship between gender and knowledge fabrication.
O E O - E (O - E)² (O - E)² / E
Men 105 96 9 81 .84
Women 87 96 -9 81 .84
Total: 192 192 ᵡ² = 1.68
Degrees of Freedom = (n-1) = (2-1) = 1
Critical Value = 3.841
Significance Value = 0.05
Table 3: Descriptive Statistical Data on the Relationship BetweenGender and Nonverbal
Cues of Knowledge Fabrication/Lying and/or Uncertainty
Dependent Independent Sum of
Occurrence
Variable Variable Among All
Subject
Nervous Laughter
Male 15
Female 22
Loss of Eye Contact
Male 10
Female 21
Leg Movement
Male 1
Female 11
Agreement
Male 0
Female 6
Gender Total: Male 26
Female 60
Overall Total: 86
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Table 4: The Significance ofDifference Concerning the Relationship Between Gender and
Nonverbal Cues ofKnowledge Fabrication/Lying and/or Uncertainty
H0: There is a 1:1 ratio relationship between gender and nonverbal cues of lying and uncertainty.
O E O - E (O - E)² (O - E)² / E
Men 26 43 -17 289 6.72
Women 60 43 17 289 6.72
Total: 86 86 ᵡ² = 13.44
Degrees of Freedom = (n-1) = (2-1) = 1
Critical Value = 3.841
Significance Value = 0.05
Table 5: Descriptive Statistical Data on the Relationship Between Gender and Reasoning For
Lying/Knowledge Fabrication
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DISCUSSION
DISCUSSION AND EXPLANATIONOF RESULTS
The relationship between gender and knowledge fabrication was examined through
experimental research, and furthered with additional findings through experimental and survey
research, on a series of questionnaires and observations. We proposed a two-tailed hypothesis:
There is a relationship between gender and knowledge fabrication. Through a Chi Square test,
we were able to confirm our hypothesis. The critical value (3.841) was less than the ᵡ² (7.78), as
indicated in Table 1. That means that we were able to reject the null hypothesis that there is no
relationship between gender and knowledge fabrication, as well as that relationship being equal,
in return confirming our hypothesis. The findings show that there is a clear relationship that men
fabricate knowledge more than women.
Through frequency results, the number of times each genders talked in the study were
calculated (men=105, women=87). From that information, we were able to calculate the
percentage of times each gender lied (men=22, women=7), with regard to the number of times
they spoke. These numbers brought us to the findings that 21% of the time men spoke was
dedicated to lying (22/105), whereas 8% of the time women spoke was dedicated to lying (7/87).
With regard to gender and frequency of speech, additional results, shown in Table 2,
show that there is no significance in the relationship between the two areas. Through a Chi
Square test (Table 2), designed much like the one indicated above, a hypothesis that there is a 1:1
ratio relationship between men and women was confirmed, as the critical value (3.841) exceeded
the chi square value (1.68), showing support for no significant relationship between gender and
frequency of speech. The significance was based on a .05 significance value. However, there
were slight difference shown, as men spoke 55% of the time (105/192), whereas women spoke
45% of the time (87/192). This is further addressed in SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE
RESEARCH, below.
Nonverbal cues, with regard to knowledge fabrication and/or uncertainty, are also
addressed and measured (see Tables 3), showing that women give off a significant amount (See
Table 4) more nonverbal cues (loss of eye contact, leg movement, nervous laughter/smiling, and
agreement) than men. Within the Chi Square test, the chi square value (13.44) exceeded the
critical value (3.841), supporting research that there is a relationship between gender and
nonverbal cues of lying. The significance was based on a .05 significance level. In regards to the
total number of nonverbal cues throughout the whole study (men (26) + women (60) = 86),
women gave off 70% of nonverbal cues (60/86), whereas men gave off 30% of nonverbal cues
(26/86).
Lastly, results of the relationship between gender and characteristics of knowledge show
possible support for the research (See Table 5). No significant difference was found concerning
the relationship between gender and confidence or discouragement concerning knowledge, as
both genders had similar responses. However, a seemingly significant relationship is shown
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through descriptive statistical data, concerning gender and high self-esteem in terms of
knowledge, as well as pressure to be more knowledgeable than members of the opposite gender.
In terms of simple calculations, as well as central tendencies (mode), it is shown that men are
more likely to have a higher self-esteem than women when it comes to knowledge, whereas
women are more likely to feel more pressure to be smarter than men when it comes to
knowledge.
Through the results found in the testing and confirming of our hypothesis (there is a
relationship between gender and knowledge fabrication), as well as additional research and
results, our study adds a variety of primary research, along with extensions and support of
scholarly, primary research studies, to the study of gender and lying, or in this case, knowledge
fabrication. There are also areas involved that did not show a clear significant relationship, such
as gender and frequency of speech, as well as characteristics and feelings concerning lying,
which could be addressed and extended upon in further studies. The overall relationship between
gender and lying/knowledge fabrication has been confirmed and supported through this study, as
well as various other aspects that tie into the topic, such as nonverbal characteristics and
reasoning behind and feelings toward knowledge and lying, in general.
LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH
With all research come limitations. There are a variety of different factors that could
have affected the results of the study. One of those factors is the insinuation that lying and
knowledge fabrication are synonymous. There was no way for us to tell with full certainty if
someone was fabricating knowledge with the intent to deceive. Though the definitions are
closely related, they are not the same. For our intents and purposes the terms could be used
interchangeably, but without asking the subjects if they fabricated knowledge on purpose, there
is no clear way to know.
Another limitation is the fact that we had a small sample size. 24 college students
collected in a randomized convenience sample, around the same age, is not a sizeable
representation of the parameter of the population in terms of gender. However, the subjects were
made of up various ethnicities, backgrounds, and characteristics, showing some level of
variation.
Another limitation is that the subjects were paired into groups of two, consisting of one
male and one female. Research suggests that an individual will disclose more when they are
paired with a person of the same gender (DePaulo et al., 1996). If we had same-gender pairs it
would be more likely that the subjects would express if they didn’t know an answer, changing
the results of the study.
A substantial limitation to this study is the fact that neither practitioner involved is trained
in more than the basic measure of detecting nonverbal communication. Background research
was conducted, but that is no substitute for proper training. Some nonverbal cues could have
been misinterpreted, making the information involved irrelevant to the study.
14. 14
A limitation that was apparent from the beginning of this research process was a lack of
pertinent primary scholarly research. The final limitation that will be discussed is the presence of
outside variables, such as the various levels of concentration subjects possessed, pressure felt by
subjects to answer questions (regardless of where that pressure came from), and nervousness of
the subjects, along with other aspects that may have varied from person-to-person.
In further research of the topic, these limitations could be taken into account and
modified to make the areas of this study more reliable, significant and representative.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Researchers could move forward by asking, why do men fabricate knowledge more than
women? This could be done by leading men to answer questions using false knowledge followed
by asking them why they gave the answer that they did. Do they do it to save their image? Do
they do it because it’s easier than searching for the real answers to questions? These questions
should be addressed in a controlled environment with a large sample of men. There should be a
male practitioner present to ask the questions because as we’ve seen, individuals are more open
with individuals of the same gender (DePaulo et al., 1996). This sort of study would benefit
researchers by expanding the vast wealth of research there is on various gender differences. This
example would be a more in-depth look into the thought processes of men, in regards to
lying/knowledge fabrication.
This study could also help researchers focused on the effects of a child’s upbringing look
for things that potentially influence that part of their development. If they get close to the exact
practices or occurrences that assign the male gender roles they could figure out ways to decrease
these influences or shape them to create something more positive.
Due to the limited amount of training in analyzing nonverbal cues, further research could
be done. These experiments should include a videotaped question and answer session with the
same kind of questionnaires that were designed in this study. This way, experts can go over the
results as many times as they need, so they are able report more concrete, accurate data. This
could help people in management positions when they are looking to hire. It could provide them
with details to look for in their interviewees in order to see if they really know what you are
asking them or if they’re making it up. This would lead to hiring more legitimately qualified
employees which would obviously be beneficial to their business.
We did not find a significant difference between gender and the number of times
individuals spoke. Researchers could once again assemble a larger, more controlled sample of
men and women with the sole purpose of recording the frequency at which people spoke with
regard to gender. The results from that type of study would aid in understanding gender
differences concerning speech dominance and level of comfort either gender has with speaking
to individuals of the same and opposite gender.
Further research should be extended to different medias and enhance the validity of this
study; would a person be more likely to fabricate knowledge orally or in a written environment?
This could be tested by having a two-part questionnaire, half oral and half written questions. This
15. 15
would open a whole new set of nonverbal cues with which the practitioner would need to be
familiar (such as time taken writing responses, length of responses, etc.). This would help in
finding the most effective ways to avoid knowledge fabrication in classroom settings, job
interviews or any other scenario in which knowledge fabrication could be evident.
Would a person be more likely to fabricate knowledge in low-stakes or high-stakes
situations? Research shows that “men are more likely than women to make up untrue
information during an upcoming job interview” (Hogue et al., 2011). The very same study goes
on to say that people who use one of the most severe forms of lying, extensive image creation,
will move further in the hiring process than those who had a genuinely bad outcome. What does
this mean? It means that when the stakes are high, like when a job is on the line, people tend to
fabricate quite a bit, and why shouldn’t they if research shows that they’ll get ahead? But what
would happen if the stakes were low, or there were no stakes? Would those same people who
employed extensive image creation be as likely to fabricate knowledge in our study? This all
could be tested in a job interview setting in which normal, high-stakes questions would be asked.
Either before or after that interview, a confederate (such as a secretary or other building
employee) could ask a series of low-stakes questions without any interview-related material.
These two data sets would then be compared side-by-side to determine where they’d be more
likely to fabricate knowledge or if they’d fabricate in both situations.
16. 16
APPENDIX A
The following is a list of questions that will be verbally asked to the
subjects by the investigators:
Verbal instructions prior to questions: We are conducting a study on the
relationship between gender and different areas of knowledge. Please answer
the following 12 questions to the best of your ability. Everyone has the
chance to answer each question, though it is not mandatory.
1. Off the top of your head, what is 8 X 9?
2. What do you think is the main reason Tom Wolf won the Pennsylvania
Governor’s Election over Tom Corbett?
3. What is gluten?
4. In honor of the recent passing of Eliza Ducane, what qualities, if any, do
you believe made her a successful actress?
5. Which of Shakespeare’s plays is your favorite and why?
6. Is Coach Mike Tomlin a better coach than Bill Cowher to the Pittsburgh
Steelers? Why or Why not?
7. What’s your best explanation as to why Pluto is no longer a planet?
8. What day of the year does the United States of America celebrate
Valentine’s Day?
9. How do you think possible Democratic candidate for the 2016 presidential
election, Malcolm Foxberg, will be able to help our nation?
10. Do you believe Taylor Swift is a good role model for young
girls? Why or why not?
11. How does hybodroxyl fertilization help the growth of plants?
12. In your opinion, what are the advantages or disadvantages of
Obamacare?
17. 17
APPENDIX B
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENDER AND DIFFERENT AREAS OF KNOWLEDGE: FOLLOW-UP
QUESTIONNAIRE
Gender:
Age:
Instructions: Please mark an (X) in the circle, where it best applies to you,
following each statement.
1. You feel confident in your answers to the previous questions.
2. You feel you gave your answer in a timely manner.
3. You feel that you are knowledgeable in a variety of topics.
18. 18
4. You feel discouraged when you do not know the answers to questions.
5. You found the questions asked easy to answer.
6. You feel pressure to know the answer to questions, even outside of this
study, when asked.
7. You have a high level of self-esteem when it comes to knowledge.
8. You fabricate your knowledge to seem smarter, at times.
19. 19
9. You believe that it is okay to lie in certain situations.
10. You were completely truthful when answering the questions given
prior to this survey.
11. You feel pressure to be more knowledgeable than individuals
that are of the opposite gender of you.
20. 20
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