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![Academic • Civic • Goals• Socia
Editorials • Experience • Interest
Pedagogy • Debate• Opinion•
oncepts • Politics • Achievemen
Editorials • Democracy• Schoo
Responsibility • Leadership • Re
Assess• Community Involvem
Enhance• Power • Collaboratio
Quick Hits for Educating Citizens presents university faculty and administrators with
ideas and strategies for integrating civic education into university curricula. Emphasizing the
importance of preparing today’s students to be active and responsible participants in local,
national, and global communities, the 58 contributions from across the disciplines offer
successful models of curriculum-based civic education activities and strategies for engaging
students inside and outside the classroom. These essays not only present individual approaches
to educating students for citizenship, but collectively reflect best practices for faculty to emulate.
Contributors discuss a range of ideas and strategies for engaging students in contemporary
social and political issues, such as using theater to dramatize civic learning, writing op-ed
pieces and letters to the editor, and observing and simulating the activities of public institutions.
The volume also provides guidelines for assessing the impact of service-learning activities. It is
an outstanding resource for university faculty in every discipline as well as administrators and
students in schools of education.
JAMES L. PERRY is Chancellor’s Professor in the School of Public and Environmental Affairs
and Senior Scholar in the Center for Service and Learning at Indiana University–Purdue
University Indianapolis. He directs the Indiana University American Democracy Project.
STEVEN G. JONES is Coordinator of the Office of Service Learning in the Center for Service
and Learning at Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis.
THOMAS EHRLICH is Senior Scholar at The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of
Teaching and President Emeritus of Indiana University.
“[This volume] makes the statement that democracy matters,
that engagement in the community is essential to maintain our
democratic values, and that civic engagement plays a
significant role in educating our citizens.”
—SHARON J. HAMILTON AND ROBERT H. ORR, DIRECTORS,
INDIANA UNIVERSITY FACULTY COLLOQUIUM ON EXCELLENCE IN TEACHING (FACET)
EDUCATION
ISBN-13: 978-0-253-21867-4
ISBN-10: 0-253-21867-5
INDIANA
University Press
Bloomington & Indianapolis
http://iupress.indiana.edu
1-800-842-6796
SUCCESSFUL STRATEGIES BY
AWARD-WINNING TEACHERS
Edited by
JAMES L. PERRY and STEVEN G. JONES
Foreword by
THOMAS EHRLICH
INDIANA
PERRY
and
JONES
QuickHits
forEducating
Citizens
QuickHits
forEducating
Citizens
QUICK
HITS
FOR
EDUCATING
CITIZENS
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HITS
FOR
EDUCATING
CITIZENS](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/84387-250511231053-53c2456c/75/Quick-Hits-for-Educating-Citizens-James-L-Perry-4-2048.jpg)
![and Wutdorf 1988). Consequently, this volume provides a rationale for educating stu-
dents for civic engagement and includes concise, helpful advice and models from suc-
cessful college teachers on incorporating civic-engagement activities into courses.
Like previous Quick Hits volumes, this volume is organized with brief articles linked
to speci¤c topics related to civic engagement.
What Do We Mean by “Educating Citizens”?
We take as a starting point Colby, Ehrlich, Beaumont, and Stephens’ (2003) vol-
ume, Educating Citizens: Preparing America’s Undergraduates for Lives of Moral and
Civic Responsibility. Although “educating citizens”means many things to many people,
we agree with Colby, et al.’s observation:
If today’s college graduates are to become positive forces in this world, they need
not only to possess knowledge and intellectual capacities but also to see themselves
as members of a community, as individuals with a responsibility to contribute to
their communities. They must be willing to act for the common good and capable of
doing so effectively [italics added]. (7)
In other words, educating citizens means providing students with the knowl-
edge, skills, and experiences needed “to act for the common good.” Of course, not
every educator will agree with this interpretation of educating citizens. For some,
educating citizens simply means educating students about the nature and functions
of political institutions. For others, it means preparing students to become agents
of social change, particularly for oppressed or underrepresented groups. Individual
articles in this volume represent each of those perspectives. What they share is an
emphasis on educating students to be active participants in our local, national, and
global communal life.
Elements of Good Teaching for Educating Citizens
The individual contributions in this volume not only present individual ap-
proaches to educating students for citizenship, but, collectively, re®ect best practices
for faculty to emulate. As readers of this volume will see, elements of good teaching
for educating citizens include:
Intentionality: “Acting for the common good” is not necessarily a natural by-
product of undergraduate education. We must be intentional in our efforts if we want
to prepare students for active civic and political participation (Colby et al. 2000, xl).
This means involving students in learning activities that require them to think about
their individual and group roles in contributing to the common good.
Engagement/Active Learning: In order to prepare students for active civic and
political participation, we must provide them with active, engaged learning experi-
ences (Kolb 1984; Sax 2000,16–17).As Colby,et al.point out,“if used well these student-
centered, or active pedagogies, can have a positive impact on many dimensions of
moral and civic learning as well as on other aspects of academic achievement”(Colby,
et al. 2003, 136). All of the contributions in this volume involve active-learning strate-
gies to one degree or another, ranging from active reading and analysis of current
events to active participation in the community through service learning and other
forms of community-based learning.
xx INTRODUCTION](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/84387-250511231053-53c2456c/75/Quick-Hits-for-Educating-Citizens-James-L-Perry-24-2048.jpg)
![class discussions, individual journal entries, and a fol-
low-up assignment.
The follow-up assignment requires that every stu-
dent get involved in one of several ways. They may vol-
unteer additional hours for the shelter or the accompa-
nying soup kitchen; they may research the needs of the
homeless in the community and communicate their
concerns to public of¤cials, or they may organize a fo-
rum (on or off campus) to bring together speakers on
the topic of homelessness. For these activities, they are
encouraged to work in groups once they select which
assignment option they wish to pur-
sue. The idea behind the follow-up
assignments is to keep students in-
volved and talking about the issues.
Giving them options allows them
an opportunity to discover that en-
gagement may take many forms.
The same or a similar activity
could be used as part of a class in
any discipline, although the read-
ing materials and follow-up assign-
ments might vary. After the initial
experience described above, stu-
dents in an art course might pro-
duce and provide artwork to either
decorate the shelter or be sold at an
auction to generate funds for the
shelter; students in an architectural
design course might volunteer their
expertise toprepareplansforanex-
pansion or re-design of the shelter
facilities; and students in a marketing course could pre-
pare brochures or posters advertising shelter services or
fundraising events. In each case, the additional assign-
ments require some interaction with members of the
community.
Student feedback from this type of experience il-
lustrates that these smaller scale efforts are quite effec-
tive in generating enthusiasm about participation in the
community. Students are more excited and less hesitant
about continued involvement once they have had an in-
itial positive experience. Student reactions to this initial
experience have been overwhelmingly positive. Their
journal entries and course evaluations include com-
ments such as: “I had no idea that I could make such a
difference in someone else’s life,” “The handouts were
just boring facts until I saw the faces of some of those
people at the shelter,” and “I never would have dared to
go there on my own,but now my roommate and me [sic]
go help out regularly.” Some comments indicate an in-
creased identi¤cation with and commitment to the
community following the experience, which suggests
support for Campbell’s assertions that an individual’s
sense of their own identity is a social construct which is
“in®uenced, shaped, and achieved
through relationships, experiences,
participation,and discourse”(690).
An individual experienced in
the art of ¤shing knows that you
must patiently allow a ¤sh to take
the bait before setting the hook
and reeling in the line. The short,
highly structured service activi-
ties act as “bait”that lures students
into the community and allows
them to experience a positive as-
pect of engagement. For many,
this experience hooks them on the
bene¤ts of engagement and sets
them on a path to continued in-
volvement in their communities.
References
Campbell, K. B. 2005. Theorizing the authentic: Identity, en-
gagement, and public space. Administration & Society
36:668–705.
Eyler, J., D. E. Giles, Jr., and A. Schmiede. 1996. A practitioner’s
guide to re®ection in service-learning: Student voices &
re®ections. Nashville, Tenn.: Vanderbilt University.
Kirlin,J.J.andM.K.Kirlin.2002.Strengthening effective gov-
ernment-citizen connections through greater civic en-
gagement. Public Administration Review 62:80–85.
Verba, S., K. L. Schlozman, and H. E. Brady. 1995. Voice and
equality: Civic voluntarism in American politics. Cam-
bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
The short, highly
structured service
activities act as “bait”
that lures students
into the community
and allows them to
experience a positive
aspect of
engagement.
4 QUICK HITS FOR EDUCATING CITIZENS](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/84387-250511231053-53c2456c/75/Quick-Hits-for-Educating-Citizens-James-L-Perry-34-2048.jpg)
![grams,suchasAmeriCorps.Programs of this magnitude
may realistically strive to achieve measurable improve-
ments in the quality and quantity of service provided to
the target populations,or to realize institutional or com-
munity-wide changes, in addition to the bene¤ts ac-
crued to student participants. Courses that incorporate
community-based learning as a central pedagogical fea-
ture may also aspire to go beyond individual student
bene¤ts to make a noticeable contribution to the com-
munity, although their ability to do so may be limited
(Barber 1997).When designing community engagement
activities that will serve only as one component of a
course, an instructor would be well advised to focus on
the outcomes which more directly affect the student.
Student bene¤ts from civic engagement may take
many forms, including increased skills, a heightened
senseof civicresponsibility,greaterself-esteem,increased
tolerance for diversity, a sense of satisfaction, improved
mental or physical well-being, or more educational op-
portunities (PerryandThomson2004),or a greater sense
of empowerment (Schwerin 1997).It is unrealistic to ex-
pect that all or even most of these would be achieved
through an individual service activity or that they are
of equal importance to all students. Depending on the
subject matter of the course, the instructor’s goals, and
the students’ goals for themselves, some outcomes may
be of higher priority than others.
In a political science or public administration
course, having the student develop or enhance their
sense of civic responsibility may be deemed most im-
portant, whereas a class in sociology may identify in-
creased tolerance for diversity as the most desired out-
come of the service. An engineering course may place
greater emphasis on skill development and application.
Within the context of an instructor’s expectations for a
course, there are also considerations about individual
student needs and motivations.
When I ¤rst began requiring community service
activities as a component in my courses on public ad-
ministration and public policy, I allowed students to se-
lect almost any service activity and simply required
documentation of hours they contributed and a paper
on what they learned in relation to the course material.
This was a largely unsatisfactory process for everyone
involved. Undergraduate and graduate students alike
seemed unable to identify appropriate activities and to
make meaningful connections to the course. Students
who volunteer in the community in the absence of en-
thusiasm and motivation cannot possibly re®ect well on
the university, nor are they likely to generate any long-
term commitments to engagement.
I have found that it is important to spend time on
the front end to identify students’ interests, interaction
preferences, and attitudes about issues and groups be-
fore asking them to get involved in the community.This
information is then used to identify goals and objectives
for the service activity, and to determine an appropriate
activity.
To obtain information about students’ interests
and attitudes, I provide students with a list of ¤ve to 10
issues facing the community and I ask them to “[r]ank
the following issues in terms of their importance to the
community” and “[r]ank the following issues in terms
your interest in them.”For those issues at the top of both
lists,eachstudentanswersanadditionalsetof questions.
These questions assess the student’s knowledge of the
current status of that issue in the community, under-
standing of and/or experience with the public and pri-
vate entities involved in the issue, and personal views
regarding how the issue should be addressed. Docu-
menting the students’ perceptions on the issues at this
stage gives them a basis for comparison to assess how
their views may have changed as a result of their com-
munity involvement.
Once the listof potentialissueshasbeennarrowed,
the next step is to determine appropriate goals and de-
¤ne the scope of the service activity. Self-re®ection and
self-assessments are the most valuable tools in this pro-
cess. Carr-Ruf¤no (2003) provides several useful in-
struments to gauge students’ values and comfort with
diversity. Student preferences for methods of learning
and types of interactions can be assessed through well-
established tests such as the Learning Styles Inventory
(Kolb 1984) or the Keirsey Temperament Sorter, an ab-
breviated version of the Myers Briggs Type Inventory
(Keirsey and Bates 1984). In addition, I ask students to
self-evaluate their writing, research, presentation, and
interpersonal skills. Alternatively, students can be given
assignments which allow the instructor to assess these
skills. Finally, students are asked to list key aspects of
their educational and/or professional aspirations.
I review the results of these varied assessments and
then meet with the student to identify civic engagement
activities which would best meet the student’s needs
and interests, while also serving a useful, albeit lim-
ited, function for the community. In small, graduate
TIPS FOR FIRST TIMERS 11](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/84387-250511231053-53c2456c/75/Quick-Hits-for-Educating-Citizens-James-L-Perry-41-2048.jpg)
![courses, I meet individually with each student to dis-
cuss the results of their assessments. In larger, under-
graduate classes, I meet with groups of students who
identify similar sets of strengths,weaknesses,and inter-
ests, to discuss service options that would meet their
needs.
Students are encouraged to build upon their
strengths,but to also address at least one weakness.That
is,the service activity should allow them to spend much
of their time and energy in ways which they feel com-
fortable and have interest. A small amount of the ac-
tivity should force them to work on improving skills
or expanding their experiences to address their self-
identi¤ed weaknesses. Consider the situation where the
assessments indicate that a student who has administra-
tive aspirations has strong research and writing skills,
but is an introvert who is terri¤ed of public speaking
andhashadlittleornoexperienceinteractingwithpub-
lic of¤cials. In this case, I would encourage the student
to select a project for which most of the work would
take the form of research and writing a report, but that
would include one short presentation to a small audi-
ence or several meetings with agency of¤cials, to either
gather information or to share the results of the re-
search.
One of the obstacles to civic engagement is that
students may not know how or where to begin. Self-
assessments can give students direction and focus for
their service activities. In my experience, when students
approach the service activity with a sense of purpose,
their passion is more likely to ®ow from the experience,
and they are more likely to continue their engagement
in the future.
References
Barber, B. R. 1997. Afterword. In R. M. Battistoni and W. E.
Hudson, eds. Experiencing citizenship: Concepts and mod-
els for service-learning in political science, 227–235. Wash-
ington,D.C.:American Association for Higher Education.
Carr-Ruf¤no, N. 2003. Managing diversity: People skills for a
multicultural workplace. Boston: Pearson.
Keirsey,D.and M.Bates.1984.Please understand me: Character
& temperament types. Del Mar, Calif.: Prometheus Neme-
sis Book Co.
Perry, J. L. and A. M. Thomson. 2004. Civic service: What dif-
ference does it make? Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe.
Schwerin, E. 1997. Service-learning and empowerment. In
R. M. Battistoni and W. E. Hudson, eds., Experiencing citi-
zenship: Concepts and models for service-learning in politi-
cal science, 203–214.Washington,D.C.: American Associa-
tion for Higher Education.
Setting Service-Learning Goals
Lisa Dicke and Gera McGuire
University of North Texas
To effectively design a service-learning course fac-
ulty members should carefully consider the learning ob-
jectives that are desired. Below are several perspectives,
each of which pursues a different set of learning objec-
tives.
Perspectives on Service-Learning
Community Service
This perspective recognizes the bene¤ts of service
to students and to the community through partnerships
with local nonpro¤ts.Among the learning objectives are
helping students develop feelings of personal ef¤cacy
and stronger ties with their community. Grassroots or-
ganizations may be able to build administrative capaci-
ties and initiate projects that could not otherwise be
pursued.
Moral Development
Service learning can be used to create experiences
that promote moral development through the recogni-
tion of others, respect for collaboration, and steward-
ship. In light of technological advances that have iso-
lated people and left them with fewer social skills, the
learning objectives include helping students become
more aware of the needs of others.Empathy is an “emo-
tional response to a perceived need [which] is a result of
the perceiver adopting the perspective of the person in
need” (Batson 1991, 83). Projects that provide opportu-
12 QUICK HITS FOR EDUCATING CITIZENS](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/84387-250511231053-53c2456c/75/Quick-Hits-for-Educating-Citizens-James-L-Perry-42-2048.jpg)
![Moreover, the organization of existing birds is, in its essential
features, singularly uniform; the entire class presenting less diversity
of structure than many orders of Fishes, Amphibians, and
Reptiles.”[1]
The feathers are the most unique features of birds, and
are not found in any other group of the animal kingdom; moreover
the plan on which they are formed is essentially the same
throughout the group, yet in no two species are the feathers
identical, but differ not only in form and proportions, but even in the
character of the barbs and hooks for holding the vane together. The
modification of the fore-limbs for flight is another characteristic
feature; yet in some birds, as the ostrich and kiwi, although the wing
has the same general plan as in other birds, it is not used for flight.
In the latter it is so small that it does not project beyond the
feathers, and in some birds, as in the penguins, the wings are used
only as organs for swimming.
1. Parker and Haswell: “Text Book of Zoology.”
In spite of these differences we have no difficulty in recognizing
throughout the group of birds a similarity of plan or structure,
modified though it be in a thousand different ways.
Enough has been said to illustrate what is meant by the
similarities of organisms on which we base our system of
classification. When we conclude from the statement that all
vertebrates have a skull that they owe this to a common descent, we
do not mean that a particular structure has been handed down as a
sort of entailed heirloom, but that the descendants have followed
the same plan of structure as that of their ancestors, and have the
brain enclosed in a covering of harder material, although this
material may not have exactly the same form, or be made of the
same substance in all cases. Furthermore while we may recognize
that the cartilaginous skull of the shark is simpler in structure than
that of the cartilaginous-bony skull of the frog, and that the skull of
the frog is simpler than that of the rabbit, yet we should not be
justified in stating, except in a metaphorical sense, that something
has been added to the skull of the shark to make that of the frog,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/84387-250511231053-53c2456c/75/Quick-Hits-for-Educating-Citizens-James-L-Perry-54-2048.jpg)
![EVIDENCE FROM DIRECT OBSERVATION AND
EXPERIMENT
Within the period of human history we do not know of a single
instance of the transformation of one species into another one, if we
apply the most rigid and extreme tests used to distinguish wild
species from each other.[2]
It may be claimed that the theory of
descent is lacking, therefore, in the most essential feature that it
needs to place the theory on a scientific basis. This must be
admitted. On the other hand, the absence of direct observation is
not fatal to the hypothesis, for several reasons. In the first place, it
is only within the last few hundred years that an accurate record of
wild animals and plants has been kept, so that we do not know
except for this period whether any new species have appeared.
Again, the chance of observing the change might not be very great,
especially if the change were sudden. We would simply find a new
species, and could not state where it had come from. If, on the other
hand, the change were very slow, it might extend over so many
years that the period would be beyond the life of an individual man.
In only a few cases has it been possible to compare ancient pictures
of animals and plants with their prototypes living at the present
time, and it has turned out in all cases that they are the same. But
these have been almost entirely domesticated forms, where, even if
a change had been found, it might have been ascribed to other
factors. In other cases, as in the mummified remains of a few
Egyptian wild animals (which have also been found to be exactly like
the same animals living at the present day), it was pointed out by
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire that, since the conditions of the Egyptian
climate are the same to-day as they were two thousand years ago,
there is no reason to expect any change would have taken place.
But waiving this assumption, we should not forget that the theory of
evolution does not postulate that a change must take place in the
course of time, but only that it may take place sometimes.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/84387-250511231053-53c2456c/75/Quick-Hits-for-Educating-Citizens-James-L-Perry-61-2048.jpg)
![of a pair of fore-legs and a pair of hind-legs, appear under the form
of cylindrical outgrowths of the body. In the salamander, in the
turtle, in the dog, the cylindrical legs, supporting the body and
serving to support it above the ground, are used also for
progression. The general purpose to which the limbs are put as
organs of locomotion has not interfered with an astonishing number
of varieties of structure, adapted to different conditions of existence,
such as the short legs used for creeping in salamanders, lizards,
turtles, crocodiles; the long and thin legs of good runners, as the
hoofed animals; the mobile legs of the apes used for climbing; and
the parachute legs of some squirrels used for soaring. Even more
striking is the great variety of hands and feet, as seen in the flat,
hairy foot of the bear; the fore-foot of the armadillos, carrying long,
sickle-shaped claws; the digging foot of the mole; the plump foot of
the elephant, ending in a broad, flat pad with nails around the
border, and without division into fingers; the hand of man and of the
apes ending with fine and delicate fingers for grasping. To have
discovered a general plan of structure running through such a great
variety of forms was proclaimed a triumph of anatomical study.[3]
3. This paragraph is a free translation of Fleischmann’s text.
A study of the bony structure of the limb shows that typically it
consists of a single proximal bone (the humerus in the upper arm,
the femur in the thigh), followed by two bones running parallel to
each other (the radius and ulna in the arm and the tibia and fibula in
the shank); these are succeeded in the arm by the two series of
carpal bones, and in the leg by the two series of tarsal bones, and
these are followed in each by five longer bones (the metacarpals
and metatarsals), and these again by the series of long bones that
lie in the fingers and toes. Despite the manifold variety of forms,
Fleischmann admits that both the hind- and the fore-limbs are
constructed on the same plan throughout the vertebrates. Even
forms like the camel, in which there are fewer terminal bones, may
be brought into the same category by supposing a reduction of the
bones to have taken place, so that three of the digits have been lost.
In the leg of the pig and of the reindeer, even a greater reduction](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/84387-250511231053-53c2456c/75/Quick-Hits-for-Educating-Citizens-James-L-Perry-64-2048.jpg)
![pointed to by the advocates of the transmutation theory as receiving
confirmation in the existence of animals like those in the group of
dipnoan fishes. In these animals both gills and a swim-bladder, that
can be used as a lung, are present; and through some such
intermediate forms it is generally supposed that the lung-bearing
animals have arisen. Fleischmann argues, however, that, on account
of certain trivial differences in the position of the duct of the swim-
bladder in living species, the supposed comparison is not to the
point; but the issue thus raised is too unimportant to merit further
discussion. Leaving aside also some even more doubtful criticisms
which are made by Fleischmann, and which might be added to
indefinitely without doing more than showing the credulity of some
of the more ardent followers of the transmutation theory, or else the
uncertainty of some of the special applications of the theory, let us
pass to Fleischmann’s criticism of the problem of development.[4]
4. The long argument of Fleischmann in regard to the origin of the fresh-water
snails, as illustrated by the planorbis series, and also the origin of the
nautiloid group, has been recently dealt with fully by Plate, and, therefore,
need not be considered here.
With fine scorn Fleischmann points to the crudity of the ideas of
Oken and of Haeckel in regard to the embryology (or the ontogeny)
repeating the ancestral history (or the phylogeny). We may consider
briefly (since we devote the next chapter almost entirely to the same
topic) the exceptions to this supposed recapitulation, which
Fleischmann has brought together. The young of beetles, flies, and
butterflies creep out of the egg as small worm-like forms of
apparently simple organization. They have a long body, composed of
a series of rings; the head is small and lacks the feelers, and often
the faceted eyes. The wings are absent, and the legs are short. At
first sight the larva appears to resemble a worm, and this led Oken
to conclude that the insects appear first in the form of their
ancestors, the segmented worms. If we examine the structure of the
larva more carefully, we shall find that there are a great many
differences between it and the segmented worms; and that even the
youngest larva is indeed a typical insect. The tracheæ, so](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/84387-250511231053-53c2456c/75/Quick-Hits-for-Educating-Citizens-James-L-Perry-73-2048.jpg)
![CHAPTER III
THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION (Continued)
The Evidence from Embryology
THE RECAPITULATION THEORY
At the close of the eighteenth, and more definitely at the
beginning of the nineteenth, century a number of naturalists called
attention to the remarkable resemblance between the embryos of
higher animals and the adult forms of lower animals. This idea was
destined to play an important rôle as one of the most convincing
proofs of the theory of evolution, and it is interesting to examine, in
the first place, the evidence that suggested to these earlier writers
the theory that the embryos of the higher forms pass through the
adult stages of the lower animals.
The first definite reference[5]
to the recapitulation view that I have
been able to find is that of Kielmeyer in 1793, which was inspired,
he says, by the resemblance of the tadpole of the frog to an adult
fish.[6]
This suggested that the embryo of higher forms corresponds
to the adult stages of lower ones. He adds that man and birds are in
their first stages plantlike.
5. The earlier references of a few embryologists are too vague to have any
bearing on the subject.
6. Autenrieth in 1797 makes the briefest possible reference to some such
principle in speaking of the way in which the nose of the embryo closes.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/84387-250511231053-53c2456c/75/Quick-Hits-for-Educating-Citizens-James-L-Perry-77-2048.jpg)
![more nearly alike is their development, and so much longer in their
development do they follow in the same path. For example two
similar species of pigeons will follow the same method of
development up to almost the last stage of their formation. The
embryos of these two forms will be practically identical until each
produces the special characters of its own species. On the other
hand two animals belonging to different families of the same phylum
will have only the earlier stages in common. Thus, a bird and a
mammal will have the first stages similar, or identical, and then
diverge, the mammal adding the higher characters of its group. The
resemblance is between corresponding embryonic stages and not
between the embryo of the mammal and the adult form of a lower
group.
Von Baer was also careful to compare embryos of the same
phylum with each other, and states explicitly that there are no
grounds for comparison between embryos of different groups.[7]
7. In one place Von Baer raises the question whether the egg may not be a
form common to all the phyla.
We shall return again to Von Baer’s interpretation and then discuss
its value from our present point of view.
Despite the different interpretation that Von Baer gave to this
doctrine of resemblance the older view of recapitulation continued to
dominate the thoughts of embryologists throughout the whole of the
nineteenth century.
Louis Agassiz, in the Lowell Lectures of 1848, proposed for the
first time the theory that the embryo of higher forms resembled not
so much lower adult animals living at the present time, as those that
lived in past times. Since Agassiz himself did not accept the theory
of evolution, the interpretation that he gave to the recapitulation
theory did not have the importance that it was destined to have
when the animals that lived in the past came to be looked upon as
the ancestors of existing animals.[8]
But with the acceptation of the
theory of evolution, which was largely the outcome of the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/84387-250511231053-53c2456c/75/Quick-Hits-for-Educating-Citizens-James-L-Perry-80-2048.jpg)
![In the lowest adult form of the vertebrates, amphioxus, the gill-
system is used largely as a sieve for procuring food, partly also,
perhaps, for respiration. In the sharks, bony fishes, and lower
amphibians, water is taken in through the mouth, and passes
through the gill-slits to the exterior. As it goes through the slits it
passes over the gills, that stand like fringes on the sides of the slits.
The blood that passes in large quantities through the gills is aerated
in this way. In the embryos of the higher vertebrates the gill-slits
may appear even before the mouth has opened, but in no case is
there a passage of water through the gill-slits, nor is the blood
aerated in the gill-region, although it passes through this part on its
way from the heart to the dorsal side of the digestive tract. It is
quite certain that the gill-system of the embryo performs no
respiratory function.[9]
9. This statement is not intended to prejudice the question as to whether the
presence of the gill-slits and arches may be essential to the formation of
other organs.
In the higher amphibians, the frogs for example, we find an
interesting transition. The young embryo, when it emerges from the
egg-membranes, bears three pairs of external gills that project from
the gill-arches into the surrounding water. Later these are absorbed,
and a new system of internal gills, like those of fishes, develops on
the gill-arches. These are used throughout the tadpole stage for
respiratory purposes. When the tadpole is about to leave the water
to become a frog, the internal gills are also absorbed and the gill-
clefts close. Lungs then develop which become the permanent
organs of respiration.
There are two points to be noticed in this connection. First, the
external gills, which are the first to develop, do not seem to
correspond to any permanent adult stage of a lower group. Second,
the transition from the tadpole to the frog can only be used by way
of analogy of what is supposed to have taken place ancestrally in the
reptiles, birds, and mammals, since no one will maintain that the
frogs represent a group transitional between the amphibians and the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/84387-250511231053-53c2456c/75/Quick-Hits-for-Educating-Citizens-James-L-Perry-82-2048.jpg)
Quick Hits for Educating Citizens James L. Perry
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- 4. Academic • Civic• Goals• Socia Editorials • Experience • Interest Pedagogy • Debate• Opinion• oncepts • Politics • Achievemen Editorials • Democracy• Schoo Responsibility • Leadership • Re Assess• Community Involvem Enhance• Power • Collaboratio Quick Hits for Educating Citizens presents university faculty and administrators with ideas and strategies for integrating civic education into university curricula. Emphasizing the importance of preparing today’s students to be active and responsible participants in local, national, and global communities, the 58 contributions from across the disciplines offer successful models of curriculum-based civic education activities and strategies for engaging students inside and outside the classroom. These essays not only present individual approaches to educating students for citizenship, but collectively reflect best practices for faculty to emulate. Contributors discuss a range of ideas and strategies for engaging students in contemporary social and political issues, such as using theater to dramatize civic learning, writing op-ed pieces and letters to the editor, and observing and simulating the activities of public institutions. The volume also provides guidelines for assessing the impact of service-learning activities. It is an outstanding resource for university faculty in every discipline as well as administrators and students in schools of education. JAMES L. PERRY is Chancellor’s Professor in the School of Public and Environmental Affairs and Senior Scholar in the Center for Service and Learning at Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis. He directs the Indiana University American Democracy Project. STEVEN G. JONES is Coordinator of the Office of Service Learning in the Center for Service and Learning at Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis. THOMAS EHRLICH is Senior Scholar at The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and President Emeritus of Indiana University. “[This volume] makes the statement that democracy matters, that engagement in the community is essential to maintain our democratic values, and that civic engagement plays a significant role in educating our citizens.” —SHARON J. HAMILTON AND ROBERT H. ORR, DIRECTORS, INDIANA UNIVERSITY FACULTY COLLOQUIUM ON EXCELLENCE IN TEACHING (FACET) EDUCATION ISBN-13: 978-0-253-21867-4 ISBN-10: 0-253-21867-5 INDIANA University Press Bloomington & Indianapolis http://iupress.indiana.edu 1-800-842-6796 SUCCESSFUL STRATEGIES BY AWARD-WINNING TEACHERS Edited by JAMES L. PERRY and STEVEN G. JONES Foreword by THOMAS EHRLICH INDIANA PERRY and JONES QuickHits forEducating Citizens QuickHits forEducating Citizens QUICK HITS FOR EDUCATING CITIZENS QUICK HITS FOR EDUCATING CITIZENS
- 5. Quick Hits forEducating Citizens
- 6. ii INTRODUCTION ii Academic• Civ EditorialsExpe Pedagogy Deb Concepts Polit Editorials• Dem Responsibility Assess• Comm Enhance• Pow H Qu
- 7. INTRODUCTION iii vic Goals•Soc erience Interes bate Opinion tics Achievem mocracy Scho Leadership Re munityInvolvem wer• Collaborat Hits ickQuick Hits for Educating Citizens Edited by JAMES L. PERRY and STEVEN G. JONES Foreword by THOMAS EHRLICH SHARON J. HAMILTON and ROBERT H. ORR, Consulting Editors INDIANA UNIVERSITY PRESS Bloomington and Indianapolis
- 8. This book isa publication of Indiana University Press 601 North Morton Street Bloomington, IN 47404-3797 USA http://iupress.indiana.edu Telephone orders 800-842-6796 Fax orders 812-855-7931 Orders by e-mail iuporder@indiana.edu © 2006 by Indiana University Faculty Colloquium on Excellence in Teaching All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. The Association of American University Presses’ Resolution on Permissions constitutes the only exception to this prohibition. The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48–1984. Manufactured in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Quick hits for educating citizens / edited by James L. Perry and Steven G. Jones ; Sharon J. Hamilton and Robert H. Orr, consulting editors. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 0-253-21867-5 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Student service—United States. 2. Student service— United States—Curricula. 3. Political participation— United States. I. Perry, James L. II. Jones, Steven G. LC220.5.Q53 2006 378.1′03—dc22 2005031633 1 2 3 4 5 11 10 09 08 07 06
- 9. JP To Tyler Genovese, mygrandson, who gives me hope about our civic future SJ To Rebekah, my wife, my soul mate, and my foundation JP & SJ To our students and colleagues
- 11. CONTENTS FACET Directors’ Welcome SharonJ. Hamilton and Robert H. Orr xi Foreword Thomas Ehrlich xiii Acknowledgments xvii Introduction: Why “Educating Citizens”? Why Now? Steven G. Jones and James L. Perry xix 1 Tips for First Timers Easy to Use and Easy to Do 1 Let Students Take the Bait before You Set the Hook 3 Strong at the Seams: Joining Academic and Civic Interests 5 Can’t We All Just (Dis)Agree? 6 Doing It Right: Re®ections on Experience 8 Matching Goals to Students’ Interests 10 Setting Service-Learning Goals 12 2 Classroom Activities Making Democracy Matter in the Classroom 15 “Doing” Engagement 17 Understanding and Working with Perspectives 19 Citizens Talking across the Curriculum 22 Getting People’s Attention 24 Pedagogy of Collegiality 26 Debating Issues through Opinion-Editorials and Letters to the Editor 28 Building Skills for Social Action 30 Using Readers’ Theater 32 Public Achievement and Teacher Education 34 Expanding Civic Involvement and the Learning Landscape through Courtroom Observations 35 Connecting Scholarship and Social Responsibility 37
- 12. Motivating Mathematical Conceptswith Politics 39 The Do-It-Yourself Interest Group 40 An Exercise in Community Transformation 42 Using Political Activism to Teach Critical Thinking 44 A Compelling Reason to Study Cities 46 Student Philanthropy as a Vehicle for Teaching the Subject Matter 48 3 Service Learning and Educating Citizens A Service-Learning Checklist 51 Building the Right Relationship: Collaboration as a Key to Successful Civic Engagement 53 Maximizing the Power of Re®ection 55 Moving from Service to Justice 58 Developing the Attitudes and Practices of Civic Engagement with Service-Learning Course Development 60 Improving Literacy through Service Learning 61 Texts and Contexts: Performance, Community, and Service Learning 63 Using Community-Based Learning Modules to Introduce Languages and Culture 65 Developing Citizenship through a Service-Learning Capstone Experience 66 4 Assessing Student Learning Using the National Survey of Student Engagement to Assess and Enhance Civic Engagement in the Classroom 69 Assessing the Multiple Dimensions of Student Civic Engagement: A Preliminary Test of an ADP Survey Instrument 71 Assessing Student Learning in Service-Learning Internships 78 5 Departmental and Disciplinary Approaches to Educating Citizens Department-Wide Engagement: Creating and Supporting Durable Structures for Campus and Community Change 82 Creating and Sustaining a Culture of Engagement 85 Maximizing Collaboration for Sustainable Innovation 86 viii CONTENTS
- 13. Rethinking the Boundariesof the Classroom 89 Infusing Service Learning in Teacher Education Programs 90 Engaging Future Teachers about Civic Education 92 Fostering Service Learning in a Small Department 94 Service Learning in Asian American Studies 96 6 Educating Citizens through Research Immersing the Student Researcher in Community 99 Using the Research Process to Enhance Civic Engagement 101 Cultivating Commitment: A Role for Ethnography in Teacher Education 103 Involving Students in Campus-Wide Assessment of Civic Engagement 105 Increasing Political Ef¤cacy through Community-Based Research 107 Teaching Race and Politics through Community-Based Research 109 7 Overcoming Barriers to Educating Students for Citizenship From Oblivion to Engagement: Dissolving Barriers to Thoughtful Response 111 Creating Classrooms as “Safe Space” 113 Faculty Development for Facilitating Civil Discourse 115 “Writing” the Civic into the Curriculum 117 Reaching Out to Tomorrow’s Scientists, Technologists, Engineers, and Mathematicians 119 Using Organizational Writing to Engage Engineering and Business Students 121 Cal Campaign Consultants: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Civic Education, Leadership, and Community Involvement 122 Contributors 125 Index 131 CONTENTS ix
- 15. FACET DIRECTORS’ WELCOME SharonJ. Hamilton and Robert H. Orr Welcome to Quick Hits for Educating Citizens, the fourth volume of Quick Hits spon- sored by the Indiana University Faculty Colloquium on Excellence in Teaching (FACET). Founded in 1989, FACET is a growing community of more than four hun- dred faculty dedicated to and recognized for excellence in teaching and learning. The ¤rst volume, Quick Hits (1994), resulted from a collection of ideas from these award- winning faculty for engaging students in learning.Intended for our own membership, it caught national attention when it was referenced in the Chronicle of Higher Educa- tion, and completely sold out its initial and subsequent printing. More Quick Hits (1998) repeated the pattern established by Quick Hits and became immediately popu- lar. A more targeted volume, Quick Hits for New Faculty (2004), while retaining the “quick hits” nomenclature, moved towards a more contextualized and scholarly ap- proach to engaging students, providing further resources and applications. This fourth volume, targeted for faculty who are interested in strategies for involving students in civic engagement, marks an important departure for our Quick Hits series. For the ¤rst time, almost half of our contributors are from outside FACET membership, and represent institutions across the United States. Our two editors, James Perry and Steve Jones, are not FACET members, but work very closely with FACET through the FACET Leadership Institute and the American Democracy Project. And, while retain- ing the Quick Hits name for recognition as a FACET volume, we offer much more fully articulated and developed essays in order to be as helpful and as informative about the suggested strategies as possible. FACET members are advocates for creating engaging environments for learning in their classrooms, across the University, and in the community. We concur with Robert Hutchins that “The death of democracy is not likely to be an assassination from ambush” but rather “a slow extinction from apathy, indifference, and undernourishment.” Civic engagement is proving to be one major source of intellectual nourishment for our students as they learn what it means to be a citizen of a democracy, and a citizen in their community. This volume provides a wealth of resources for faculty in search of strategies and suggestions for involving their students in service-learning activities in the commu- nity. It makes the statement that democracy matters, that engagement in the commu- nity is essential to maintain our democratic values, and that civic engagement plays a signi¤cant role in educating our citizens. FACET is both proud and privileged to sponsor this collection of essays.
- 17. FOREWORD Thomas Ehrlich This splendidvolume weaves together three primary strands in my professional past—Indiana University, teaching, and civic engagement. I came to Indiana University as its president in 1987, convinced that this great university—with close to 100,000 students on eight campuses—is absolutely vital to the state of Indiana and to the preparation of its youth for lives of civic engagement, both in their local communities and in the broader communities of state, nation, and world. “One University with Eight Front Doors” was a mantra we used in those days to capture an essential truth—IU is an institution of opportunity, enabling Hoosiers throughout the state, and many from other regions as well, to gain the understanding and skills needed to empower them to use their talents and to realize their ambitions. Like other great public universities, IU must ensure both access and excellence in everything it does. No arena is more important than teaching and learning, and in no arena was I more struck by the dedication of the faculty. In the early 1990s, Eileen Bender, a wonderful professor of English at IU South Bend, came to me with a pro- posal to start a new program called FACET that would bring together the best teach- ers from each IU campus. Under Professor Bender’s leadership, the program ®our- ished. It not only honored outstanding IU teachers, it also helped those teachers spread the bene¤ts of their good teaching to other faculty throughout the university on all its campuses. One of the ¤rst tangible results of FACET was a volume called Quick Hits. It was the brainchild of a group of FACET faculty who wanted to enable college and uni- versity faculty everywhere to gain the insights and understandings that seasoned FACET faculty had developed after years of experience. Much to our pleasure, the book proved to be a big success, and it was followed over time with two sequels, one especially for ¤rst-time teachers. This is the fourth in the series, and in time I expect others will be published. The aim of this volume of Quick Hits, like its predecessors, is to help overcome the greatest single challenge in promoting good teaching—it evaporates once exposed to students. As a result,good teaching is left undocumented and, therefore, unavailable for others to build on or to learn from. As Lee Shulman, president of The Carnegie Foundation has said, teaching should be “community property.” The Quick Hits se- ries is not based on an underlying grand theory of good teaching. Rather, it is pre- pared on the simple premise that all faculty want to improve their teaching and that sharing the classroom-tested experiences of master teachers is a particularly useful way to further that objective. Quick Hits serves an important need. One of the most troublesome weaknesses in higher education is the lack of preparation faculty members receive before plung- ing into the classroom as teachers. Some may have exposure as teaching assistants in graduate school, but even that exposure is too rarely supervised by a teaching mentor
- 18. with anywhere nearthe care and attention given to the supervision of research. Al- though a few universities, including IU, now sponsor “future faculty” programs for some of their graduate students, many faculty members, especially in professional schools, have no exposure at all. I well remember being told that I would teach Con- tracts and International Law in my ¤rst year on the Stanford Law School faculty forty years ago, and heard not a word abut how I would do so—let alone an expression of concern from my colleagues about how well I would teach. Even today, the quality of teaching in higher education is too often a secret except to students who may have little incentive to do more than express relief to their peers when they are ¤nally free of an inadequate teacher. When my wife, Ellen, and I left Indiana University—the ¤rst strand of my past that’s woven into this book—we returned to California to be closer to our family of children and grandchildren. I then returned to teaching, the second strand—this time on the campus of San Francisco State University. Over the next ¤ve years, I taught a number of different courses, all designed to promote the civic engagement of under- graduates. This was an opportunity to help students gain the understanding, skills, and motivation they needed to be responsible and engaged citizens of their communi- ties. A number of those courses involved community-service learning, the strategy of integrating academic learning with community service using various modes of struc- tured re®ection. In the process, students come to understand how they think about what they feel and how they feel about what they think. This volume of Quick Hits provides important insights on how to enhance the civic dimensions of community- service learning. When I returned to California, I did not anticipate that I would have the good fortune to add a new chapter to my professional life at The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, one focused on civic engagement of undergraduates, which is the third strand of my academic adventure and the major theme of this book. Beginning in 1997, as part of a new Carnegie Foundation initiative, Anne Colby and I, together with Elizabeth Beaumont and Jason Stephens, spent several years ex- amining how America’s undergraduates are being prepared for lives of moral respon- sibility and civic engagement. We studied twelve campuses, ranging from a research university to a community college, that are particularly focused on the moral and civic responsibly of their students and reviewed courses and programs at many other campuses as well. The results of our work were published in Educating Citizens (Jossey-Bass 2003), the book that gives the title to this volume. In writing Educating Citizens, my colleagues at the Carnegie Foundation and I found much to encourage us. But we also found, as survey data con¤rms, much more interest in individual civic engagement—cleaning up a park, tutoring a kid, serving at a community kitchen—than interest in trying to bring about systemic change through the only means we have in this country, politics. And we found no campus that prioritized political engagement, broadly de¤ned to include all public policy making, as well as partisan politics. In response, we have been examining courses and programs aimed particularly at what is needed for political engagement. We are pleased that our work shows that faculty and administrators who want to make a difference in this arena can do so. No one can predict today exactly where our students will be in the decades ahead or what they will be doing. But we can be sure that our democracy will face dif¤cult xiv FOREWORD
- 19. challenges and thatits strength will depend on an educated and engaged citizenry. And we can prepare our students for their roles as citizens in conscious and deliber- ate ways, based on the wisest learning from our best teachers. That is the goal of this ¤ne book. Thomas Ehrlich Senior Scholar The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and President Emeritus, Indiana University FOREWORD xv
- 21. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We owe debtsto many who have helped us move this book quickly from idea to reality. Sharon Hamilton and Bob Orr, our consulting editors and the Indiana Uni- versity Faculty Colloquium on Excellence in Teaching’s (FACET) leaders for the past ¤ve years, got the project off the ground by recruiting us as editors. They helped fa- cilitate Indiana University Press’s publication of the book, the fourth volume in the highly successful Quick Hits series. After the project formally got under way, Sharon and Bob provided much appreciated encouragement and guidance. This book is embedded in a larger national initiative, the American Democracy Project, which is sponsored by the American Association of State Colleges and Uni- versities (AASCU) and the New York Times. George Mehaffy,AASCU’s vice president, has been a continuous source of inspiration because of his commitment to re-orient- ing the way universities educate citizens and his optimism about the payoffs from this work. Janet Rabinowitch, director of IU Press, Greg Domber, project manager, and all the Press staff have been highly supportive and professional throughout the process. The Center for Service and Learning and the School of Public and Environmental Affairs, our academic units at IUPUI, were congenial homes for pursuing this project. In particular, we would like to acknowledge the support of Robert Bringle and Julie Hatcher, director and associate director of the Center for Service and Learning. Our campus leadership, Chancellor Charles Bantz and Executive Vice Chancellor William Plater, who value community engagement, created both the climate and infrastruc- ture that encouraged us to pursue this project. Alison Morris of the FACET staff deserves special credit for doing much of the hard work. Ali organized and standardized the formats of the essays as they arrived, facilitated communications with authors, and tended to last-minute details. Kim Lane, Ali’s supervisor, was gracious to share Ali’s time and talents with us for this endeavor. Jim Perry and Steve Jones Indianapolis
- 23. INTRODUCTION WHY “EDUCATING CITIZENS”?WHY NOW? Steven G. Jones and James L. Perry This volume in the Quick Hits series focuses on educating citizens, providing a ra- tionale for making civic education an intentional component of the curriculum, as well as offering successful models of curriculum-based civic education activities from faculty across the disciplines. We believe civic engagement is a timely theme for the Quick Hits series. Colleges and universities are reassessing their roles in preparing future citizens for engagement in civic and political life. Three leading associations of colleges and universities—the AmericanAssociationof State Colleges and Universities (AASCU), the National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges (NASULGC),and the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U)— are independently pursuing efforts to enhance the attention their member organiza- tions give to civic engagement (Kellogg Commission on the Future of State and Land Grant Universities 2000; AAC&U n.d.). The missions of other associations of higher education institutions, such as Campus Compact, revolve exclusively around promot- ing civic engagement. In addition, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching has two major projects, Higher Education and the Development of Moral and Civic Responsibility Project and the Political Engagement Project, devoted to understanding and improving how higher education institutions educate their stu- dents for lives of civic and moral responsibility (Carnegie Foundation for the Ad- vancement of Teaching). Increasing interest in and concern about civic engagement, particularly among our youth, is manifest in other arenas. The 2004 presidential election sparked in- creased interest in political issues from college-aged students. Many public and pri- vate colleges and universities have recommitted themselves to their civic engagement missions. Regional accrediting bodies, such as the North Central Association (2003), have made institutional service and engagement core criteria for the accreditation of institutions of higher education. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, which is responsible for the Carnegie Classi¤cation System, is embarking on a pilot project to include a classi¤cation for community engagement (Carnegie Foundation). The service-learning movement in higher education continues to grow, with many colleges and universities institutionalizing service learning through service- learning of¤ces and service-learning requirements. Professional associations are iden- tifying civic, as well as technical competencies, in their professional standards. De- spite these trends, some faculty are likely to see civic engagement as the work of only a few academic units or as an inherent by-product of a college education—they do not see a need to intentionally integrate education for civic engagement into their teaching. Research indicates, however, that where teaching and learning activities are not intentionally linked to learning objectives, the learning we want for our students is unlikely to occur (Chickering and Gamson 1987; Eyler and Giles 1999; Hutchings
- 24. and Wutdorf 1988).Consequently, this volume provides a rationale for educating stu- dents for civic engagement and includes concise, helpful advice and models from suc- cessful college teachers on incorporating civic-engagement activities into courses. Like previous Quick Hits volumes, this volume is organized with brief articles linked to speci¤c topics related to civic engagement. What Do We Mean by “Educating Citizens”? We take as a starting point Colby, Ehrlich, Beaumont, and Stephens’ (2003) vol- ume, Educating Citizens: Preparing America’s Undergraduates for Lives of Moral and Civic Responsibility. Although “educating citizens”means many things to many people, we agree with Colby, et al.’s observation: If today’s college graduates are to become positive forces in this world, they need not only to possess knowledge and intellectual capacities but also to see themselves as members of a community, as individuals with a responsibility to contribute to their communities. They must be willing to act for the common good and capable of doing so effectively [italics added]. (7) In other words, educating citizens means providing students with the knowl- edge, skills, and experiences needed “to act for the common good.” Of course, not every educator will agree with this interpretation of educating citizens. For some, educating citizens simply means educating students about the nature and functions of political institutions. For others, it means preparing students to become agents of social change, particularly for oppressed or underrepresented groups. Individual articles in this volume represent each of those perspectives. What they share is an emphasis on educating students to be active participants in our local, national, and global communal life. Elements of Good Teaching for Educating Citizens The individual contributions in this volume not only present individual ap- proaches to educating students for citizenship, but, collectively, re®ect best practices for faculty to emulate. As readers of this volume will see, elements of good teaching for educating citizens include: Intentionality: “Acting for the common good” is not necessarily a natural by- product of undergraduate education. We must be intentional in our efforts if we want to prepare students for active civic and political participation (Colby et al. 2000, xl). This means involving students in learning activities that require them to think about their individual and group roles in contributing to the common good. Engagement/Active Learning: In order to prepare students for active civic and political participation, we must provide them with active, engaged learning experi- ences (Kolb 1984; Sax 2000,16–17).As Colby,et al.point out,“if used well these student- centered, or active pedagogies, can have a positive impact on many dimensions of moral and civic learning as well as on other aspects of academic achievement”(Colby, et al. 2003, 136). All of the contributions in this volume involve active-learning strate- gies to one degree or another, ranging from active reading and analysis of current events to active participation in the community through service learning and other forms of community-based learning. xx INTRODUCTION
- 25. Meaningfulness: Another characteristicshared by the contributions in this vol- ume is that the teaching and learning strategies are meaningful.That is,they integrate civic-learning activities with students’ personal and professional goals and interests (Long 2002). The learning activities are not seen as an “add on” to coursework, but as a vital component to the students’ personal, career, and academic development. DemonstrableOutcomes: Good teaching and learning always results in demon- strable outcomes (Angelo and Cross 1993). There is a measurable change in students’ knowledge, skills, attitudes, dispositions, etc. as a result of their learning experi- ence(s). One of the reasons we included chapters on goals and objectives and assess- ment is because faculty may not always know how to de¤ne or measure those learning outcomes. Integrated Teaching and Learning: Finally, educating citizens requires that stu- dents realize not only the importance of active civic and political participation for its own sake, but that the critical thinking, communication, quantitative research, pro- fessional, and other skills they are developing are essential components of active citi- zenship (American Association of Colleges and Universities 2002). Consequently, they learn that being a nurse, for example, is not only a personal career, but is also a profession that makes unique, specialized contributions to the “common good” (Sul- livan 2005, 14, 288–290). Organization of the Book The primary audience for Quick Hits for Educating Citizens is full- and part-time university faculty from every discipline. The contributors have made a special effort to illustrate how the curricular and co-curricular activities they describe and discuss are relevant for many different disciplines and professional ¤elds. The book should also be useful for the larger community of people interested in the knowledge, skills, and dispositions students acquire,not just faculty.Administrators,student affairs pro- fessionals, institutional research staff and others will ¤nd valuable and useable ideas in this book. Re®ecting the interests of the different audiences that will use the book, we have organized it into seven chapters. We begin with an introductory section that puts the reasons and content of the book into the perspective of larger developments in our society and higher education. In our introduction, we discuss several important ques- tions: What developments in society at large are driving the movement toward re- newal of civic education in our colleges and universities? How have universities come together to respond to perceived needs? What does educating citizens entail? In chapter 1, “Tips for First Timers,” contributors help readers to cope with the inevitable challenges associated with getting started. This chapter presents ideas for simple classroom activities to get started, anecdotes about others’initial mistakes and how to avoid them, tips for creating a classroom climate that pays off for civic learn- ing, and ideas for setting goals and how to use them for course planning and assess- ment. Chapter 2, “Classroom Activities,” presents an extensive array of classroom techniques that engage students in the development of citizenship outcomes. Con- tributors discuss many general pedagogical strategies for educating citizens, includ- ing using theatre to dramatize civic learning, writing op-eds and letters to the editor as ways to motivate students to discover public issues, and observing and simulating INTRODUCTION xxi
- 26. public institutions. Inaddition to explicating general pedagogical strategies, several essays illuminate effective tactics that have been used nationally on many campuses, including Public Achievement, Democracy Lab, and Democracy Matters. “Service Learning and Educating Citizens” (chapter 3) presents a range of ideas about engaging students in contemporary social and political issues outside of the classroom. Service learning is viewed by many as a particular pedagogy that unites concepts and theory with service and re®ection to reinforce both academic and civic learning. Contributors cover issues ranging from using service to form civic attitudes and sensitivity to social justice, to maximizing the value of re®ection, to employing service learning as a capstone experience. Chapter 4, “Assessing Student Learning,” turns to questions that inevitably arise both as a result of universal expectations about accountability and from particular concerns about whether interventions to change student civic understanding, moti- vations, and dispositions make a difference. Contributors present strategies for assess- ing particular interventions, as well as ways to use the National Survey of Student Engagement for course planning and assessment. We would be remiss if we left the impression that educating citizens is the do- main of individual faculty. Our view is that responsibility for educating citizens is quite the opposite. Each and every faculty member can make a difference. More im- portantly, faculty must act in concert with colleagues in their disciplines, depart- ments, and schools. Chapter 5, “Departmental and Disciplinary Approaches to Edu- cating Citizens,” makes precisely these points. This chapter provides examples of the collective work of faculty through their academic departments, exploring the notion of the engaged department. We believe the transformation and institutionalization of civic education in higher education is dependent upon departments, disciplines, and individual faculty accepting responsibility for educating citizens. Thus, this chapter conveys messages central to higher education’s long-term success to transform itself. Chapter 6, “Educating Citizens through Research,” discusses another powerful tool available for engaging students in civic and public life. It includes descriptions of participatory action research and other forms of community-based research as ex- amples of how can we use the research process to enhance civic engagement. The concluding chapter, “Overcoming Barriers to Educating Students for Citi- zenship,” acknowledges that efforts to transform the way we educate citizens will en- counter barriers. One of the foremost is that many faculty believe civic education is the domain of select disciplines and academic units. This chapter addresses a range of barriers, giving particular attention to how civic engagement relates to “non- traditional” civic disciplines, e.g., engineering, science, and technology, by providing examples of courses from those disciplines that integrate civic engagement activities. References American Association of State Colleges and Universities. American Democracy Project. http:// www.aascu.org/programs/adp. Angelo, T. A., and K. P. Cross. 1993. Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook for college teachers. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Association of American Colleges and Universities. 2002. Greater expectations: A new vision for learning as a nation goes to college. Washington, D.C.: Association of American Colleges and Universities. xxii INTRODUCTION
- 27. Association of AmericanColleges and Universities. AAC&U Civic Engagement Project. http:// www.aacu.org/issues/civicengagement/index.cfm. Campus Compact. Website. http://www.compact.org. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Classi¤cation of Community Engagement Pilot Project. http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/Classi¤cation/community-engagement.html. 1. Higher Education and the Development of Moral and Civic Responsibility Project. http:// www.carnegiefoundation.org/MCR/index.htm. 1. Political Engagement Project. http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/PEP/index.htm. Chickering, A., and Z. Gamson. 1987. Seven principles of good practice in undergraduate educa- tion.” AAHE Bulletin 39, no. 7:3–7. Colby, A., T. Ehrlich, E. Beaumont, J. Rosner, and J. Stephens. 2000. Higher education and the devel- opment of civic responsibility.” In T. Ehrlich, ed., Civic responsibility and higher education, xxi– xliii. Phoenix, Ariz.: Oryx Press. Colby, A., T. Ehrlich, E. Beaumont, and J. Stephens. 2003. Educating citizens: preparing America’s undergraduates for lives of moral and civic responsibility. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Ehrlich, T., ed. 2000. Civic responsibility and higher education. Phoenix, Ariz.: Oryx Press. Eyler, J., and D. E. Giles, Jr. 1999. Where’s the learning in service-learning? San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Hutchings,P.,and A.Wutdorff,eds.1988.Knowing and doing: Learning through experience. San Fran- cisco: Jossey-Bass. Kellogg Commission on the Future of State and Land-Grant Universitites. 2000. Renewing the cove- nant: Learning, discovery, and Engagement in a new age and different world. Washington, D.C.: National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges. Kolb, D. 1984. Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Long, S. 2002. The new student politics: The wingspread statement on student civic engagement. Provi- dence, R. I.: Campus Compact. North Central Association of Colleges and Universities. 2003. Handbook of accreditation. 3rd ed. Chicago: The Higher Learning Commission. Also available online at: http://www. ncahigherlearningcommission.org/download/Handbook03.pdf.. Sax, L. 2000. Citizenship development and the American college student. In T. Ehrlich, ed., Civic responsibility and higher education, 3–18. Phoenix, Ariz.: Oryx Press. Sullivan, W. M. 2005. Work and integrity: The crisis and promise of professionalism in America. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. INTRODUCTION xxiii
- 29. Quick Hits forEducating Citizens
- 31. TIPS FOR FIRSTTIMERS Easy to Use and Easy to Do Pamela Jean Owens University of Nebraska Omaha Before students can venture forth into engaged civic action in response to their education, they ¤rst must recognize thelinksbetweenwhattheyarestudying and how they might act as engaged citizens. I make it a practice to have at least one activity which pushes my students to make such links in every course I teach. As I see it, the key to incorporating a civic engagement ac- tivity in every class is to make the activities easy for the teacher to assign and score, and easy for the students to understand and complete. First time civic engagement activities should allow the student to earn credit simply for completing the activity; the activities should require a relatively small amount of time, compared to the amount of work for the entire course. First timers might start with a single course, but I encourage the discipline of pushing yourself as an edu- cator to ¤nd the civic engagement links to every class you teach and to devise an activity that highlights those links, even in classes where you can’t imagine squeezing anything else into your schedule. Here are some simple activities that have worked well for me: “YOUR SUBJECT in the News” I am convinced this activity can ¤t just about any subject matter. Here is how it works, using some of my courses as examples: • Students watch for and report on news stories in which knowledge related to the subject being stud- ied improves understanding of the event reported. • For example, in “Introduction to World Reli- gions,” students divide into groups, each of which focuses for the semester on a particular world re- ligion. Each student must watch for news articles in which knowledge of “their”religion is necessary in order to understand contemporary world events. Similarly, in “Introduction to Native American Studies,” groups follow a particular tribe for the semester and watch for news involving that tribe. • How to make it work: • Post on-line a simple form students print out to turn in with their news stories. Here they re- cord the title of the article,the news source and date, the connection to the course material, a summary of the key points of the story in light of these connections, and a concluding para- graph discussing follow-up stories for which an interested person would watch. • Students sign upfordatesonwhichto present the “News Brie¤ng” segment of class. I make these the very ¤rst item on the day’s agenda. In the past I have used a paper sign-up sheet or calendar, but now I use an on-line Discussion Board for the sign-ups.Having the sign-up cal- endar on-line has saved countless requests of “Can I see the sign-up sheet again? I’ve forgot- ten what day I signed up for.” • I require students to turn in at least two sto- ries (both with an analysis form),but to present only once.In a smallerclass,studentscouldpre- sent more often. If class size prohibits having every student present to the whole class, then giving the oral news brie¤ng might have to be done in discussion sections or might have to be optional, perhaps for extra credit. • Keeping this activity going throughout the se- mester, not just making it apply to one portion of the course, shows students that their course mate- rial continually engages the world, not just at des- ignated moments called “political”or “relevant”or “controversial.” • The students’ brief presentations become the teachable moments in which to make real-life con- 1
- 32. nections, pointing towhat we are studying as it in- tersects the civic arena throughout the world. This approach makes opportunities for the connections which would not have made it into the prepared syllabus, because they are connections to events which had not yet happened as the syllabus was being written.Theparagraphortwo of my planned lecture that is sacri¤ced is a small price to pay for the self-awareness of engagement between the course content and the real world which students regularly report when ¤lling out their end of term course evaluation forms. “YOUR SUBJECT in the News” as a Closure Activity In some courses the “In the News” Activity lends itself to expansion into an activity to bring closure to a course. For example, with “Indians in the News”: • After a semester of hearing news reports from Indian Country,we form several inter-tribal coun- cils (the number would depend on your class size) with students distributed among the councils to maximize the number of tribes represented in each council. • The task of each council is to consider the news of Indian Country presentedoverthesemesterand then formulate a statement of the ¤ve most press- ing issues for Native Americans in the coming dec- ade.Representatives of each council read the state- ments in our closing class session. I suggest they write their statement in the form of an editorial which might be printed in the newspaper Indian Country Today. • Any course in a discipline which has pressing is- sues facing it for the future is a likely candidate for this expanded activity. Martin Luther King Day Assignment • MLK day falls early in the second semester and students often see it as just an extra day off. I offer extra credit to students who attend a MLK day event of any kind. They are to use the Discussion Board for their responses. They write a thoughtful response to the event they attended and draw a connection to the topic of our class if they see one. Even when they don’t ¤nd a connection, they have practiced the idea of making suchconnectionsand that, in itself, is a habit I am trying to help them develop. Election Season Activity • Identify the campaign issues relating to your subject matter. Surely almost every academic dis- cipline has a stake in the outcome of at least one race in every election season: scienti¤c research and its funding, education, women’s issues, mi- nority issues, church/state issues, economic issues, international affairs, etc. • Students choose a race to analyze (or you can assign one) and make a list of the issues addressed which relate to the chosen subject. Sometimes a race in another state offers the most interest, de- pending on the issues. The race need not be one in which the students themselves would be voting,al- though it can be if that race is most relevant. • Students search each candidate’s web site for his or her position on the issues chosen. • They report their ¤ndings in a chart, with the ¤rst column listing the issues and subsequent col- umns showing the positions of the various candi- dates on each issue, leaving a blank when a candi- date makesnomentionof anissuebeing examined. • Imagining themselves as someone for whom these issues are the deciding factors, they argue for the candidate they consider the better choice. • To receive credit for the assignment, the student must clearly lay out the issues, correctly present the views of each candidate, and then give a well- argued rationale for the candidate selected. • As with most civic engagement assignments,the only wrong answers are ones which are poorly pre- sented or poorly argued. 2 QUICK HITS FOR EDUCATING CITIZENS
- 33. Let Students Takethe Bait before You Set the Hook Nadia Rubaii-Barrett Binghamton University Exposing students to civic engagement does not have to begin with a large scale project.Introductory ex- periences should emphasize the positive aspects and nu- merousrewardsassociatedwith being an involved mem- ber of the community, rather than the long hours and hard work that may accompany engagement. Civic en- gagement occurs when three conditions are met: the in- dividual is motivated to get involved, the individual has skills and resources which permit involvement, and the individualhasaccesstoavenuesfor participation (Verba, Schlozman, and Brady 1995). In an introductory level course, it is not safe to assume that students meet any, let alone all, of these conditions. The more assistance instructors provide in each of these areas, the more likely students will have a positive experience which may, in turn, lead to continued engagement in the com- munity. Some students in an introductory class may dem- onstrate high levels of motivation for civic participa- tion, and a small percentage may have long histories of volunteerism which pre-date their college years. Most students, however, will not have the experience or moti- vation, and may be overwhelmed by an unstructured or large-scale assignment requiring them to get involved in the community. For those with no prior experience, the instructor may need to combine providing assistance with generating a sense of motivation, in addition to helping students identify what they have to offer and how to connect with groups in the community. The key is to have students experience the rewards of their involvement before they are asked to give too much of their time and energy. So, rather than ask stu- dents to spend numerous hours over the course of an entiresemestervolunteeringtheirtimeforacommunity group, I keep things simple and I use class time for stu- dents to get their initial exposure. Although the time commitment is kept to a minimum and I make the ar- rangements for the class, students must still “step out- side the box”in terms of their physical location and the nature of their activities.They must get out of the class- room, off campus, and into the community, and they must interact directly with people other than the in- structor and their fellow students. I arrange to have one class session scheduled for an off-campus location where students can interact face-to-face with others in the community. It is essential that this off-campus ses- sion place students in a position of interacting with not simply passively observing members of the community. In my introductory American government course, I ask each student to bring one item of clothing (in good shape) which they are willing to donate to a person in need. Rather than simply collect these items or have a representative of the homeless shelter pick them up, the class takes a trip to the shelter to deliver the items. Sim- ply donating money or other items—without also shar- ing one’s skills and ideas and without making connec- tions with individuals engaged in civic life—will most likely not translate into sustained civic engagement (Kirlin and Kirlin 2002). Thus, I arrange in advance for the students to be able to participate in the distribution of items so they can talk with and experience the appre- ciation of those who receive the items. Prior to this activity, I provide students with fac- tual information about the shelter and the homeless population in the community. I also assign readings fromthedisciplinerelatedtothetopic.Wedonotdiscuss this material before the visit, nor do I caution students about what they should expect. I want students to be as unbiased and honest in their reactions as possible and to not be swayed by what I or anyone else tells them to expect or to feel. I do, however, provide some basic guidelines and my expectations regarding respectful conduct. Following that initial experience, which is eye- opening for many students, they are required to re®ect on the experience and to discuss the experience in the context of the previously assigned readings. The most effective forms of re®ection are somewhat structured and guided by the instructor to ensure that students are challengedtoconsiderissuesmorecritically,connectthe experience with their studies,place the experience in the context of community, and continuously assess and re- assess their perceptions and beliefs (Eyler, Giles, and Schmiede, 1996). These re®ections take the form of in- TIPS FOR FIRST TIMERS 3
- 34. class discussions, individualjournal entries, and a fol- low-up assignment. The follow-up assignment requires that every stu- dent get involved in one of several ways. They may vol- unteer additional hours for the shelter or the accompa- nying soup kitchen; they may research the needs of the homeless in the community and communicate their concerns to public of¤cials, or they may organize a fo- rum (on or off campus) to bring together speakers on the topic of homelessness. For these activities, they are encouraged to work in groups once they select which assignment option they wish to pur- sue. The idea behind the follow-up assignments is to keep students in- volved and talking about the issues. Giving them options allows them an opportunity to discover that en- gagement may take many forms. The same or a similar activity could be used as part of a class in any discipline, although the read- ing materials and follow-up assign- ments might vary. After the initial experience described above, stu- dents in an art course might pro- duce and provide artwork to either decorate the shelter or be sold at an auction to generate funds for the shelter; students in an architectural design course might volunteer their expertise toprepareplansforanex- pansion or re-design of the shelter facilities; and students in a marketing course could pre- pare brochures or posters advertising shelter services or fundraising events. In each case, the additional assign- ments require some interaction with members of the community. Student feedback from this type of experience il- lustrates that these smaller scale efforts are quite effec- tive in generating enthusiasm about participation in the community. Students are more excited and less hesitant about continued involvement once they have had an in- itial positive experience. Student reactions to this initial experience have been overwhelmingly positive. Their journal entries and course evaluations include com- ments such as: “I had no idea that I could make such a difference in someone else’s life,” “The handouts were just boring facts until I saw the faces of some of those people at the shelter,” and “I never would have dared to go there on my own,but now my roommate and me [sic] go help out regularly.” Some comments indicate an in- creased identi¤cation with and commitment to the community following the experience, which suggests support for Campbell’s assertions that an individual’s sense of their own identity is a social construct which is “in®uenced, shaped, and achieved through relationships, experiences, participation,and discourse”(690). An individual experienced in the art of ¤shing knows that you must patiently allow a ¤sh to take the bait before setting the hook and reeling in the line. The short, highly structured service activi- ties act as “bait”that lures students into the community and allows them to experience a positive as- pect of engagement. For many, this experience hooks them on the bene¤ts of engagement and sets them on a path to continued in- volvement in their communities. References Campbell, K. B. 2005. Theorizing the authentic: Identity, en- gagement, and public space. Administration & Society 36:668–705. Eyler, J., D. E. Giles, Jr., and A. Schmiede. 1996. A practitioner’s guide to re®ection in service-learning: Student voices & re®ections. Nashville, Tenn.: Vanderbilt University. Kirlin,J.J.andM.K.Kirlin.2002.Strengthening effective gov- ernment-citizen connections through greater civic en- gagement. Public Administration Review 62:80–85. Verba, S., K. L. Schlozman, and H. E. Brady. 1995. Voice and equality: Civic voluntarism in American politics. Cam- bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. The short, highly structured service activities act as “bait” that lures students into the community and allows them to experience a positive aspect of engagement. 4 QUICK HITS FOR EDUCATING CITIZENS
- 35. Strong at theSeams: Joining Academic and Civic Interests Diane Chin, Ann M. Feldman, Megan Marie, and Candice Rai University of Illinois at Chicago Educators who plan civic engagement programs soon stumble over the sturdy roots of the clichéd notion that academia is a domaindistinct from “therealworld.” After a few semesters on campus, it is easy to forget that the aims and interests shaping the everyday pursuits of faculty and students really do differ from the day-to-day concerns of people who live and work in the off-campus community. The rediscovered differences may be so stark that the task of ¤nding mutual ground on which to build a program appears discouragingly dif¤cult. Hope dawns with the realization that meaningful engagement does not require creation of a bland utopia in which all difference disappears. Instead, as we have learned while developing the Chicago Civic Leadership Certi¤cate Program (CCLCP), commitment to engage- ment motivates the invention of partnerships in which differing interests dovetail. When we thoughtfully and creatively join dissimilar interests and aims, we create relationships that endure because they are strong at the seams. CCLCP, funded by a Learn and Serve America matching grant from the Corporation for National and Community Service, is a three-year pilot program with one year under its belt as of May 2005. CCLCP offers a cohort of undergraduates ¤ve different academic courses over ¤ve semesters while sending them into the city to practice what faculty preach. We believe that by taking course content to the street and, simultaneously, apply- ing off-campus experience to a critique of “book learn- ing,” students will learn more, and learn it in greater depth, than they would simply by attending even the most brilliantly taught traditional class. And while ab- sorbing disciplinary knowledge, students accomplish valued goals for our partner non-pro¤t organizations.In the longer run, CCLCP adds value to higher education by fostering in our students habits of mind that encour- age and enrich lifelong engagement with civil society. As we look ahead to CCLCP’s second year, can we claim to have crafted a perfectly articulated program? Do our students, community partners, and faculty ex- perience campus and community as a smooth con- tinuum of academic and community-based experi- ences? Certainly not,although perfect mutuality remains a cherished goal. Wedobelieve,however,that we have hit on a method of realizing the vision of campus-®owing- into-community-®owing-into campus for the better- ment of both. The key is to be clear, ¤rst, about the foundational concepts of one’s discipline and, second, about the ways in which those concepts attain incarnation outside the classroom.The prime pedagogical move is to enablestu- dents to transport disciplinary concepts into an arena in which those ideas can (and do, every day, without our help) drive tangible accomplishment. Such pedagogy is extended and completed by our partners, off-campus community service professionals who daily breathe life into a discipline’s body of knowledge. Clarity about foundationalconcepts develops when program faculty talk to each other and agree on the dis- ciplinary essentials that students must learn to enact “out there.” Understanding exactly how essential disci- plinary knowledge plays out off campus develops when faculty listen to community partners.Community part- ners,in turn,must become familiar with and supportive of the academic goals faculty set for students. (Happily, we have found our community partners as eager to help students attain academic success as they are to put stu- dents to work on behalf of their civic missions.) The intention of all this thinking, talking, and listening is to help everyone concerned, including students, develop and share a vision of how academic aims and civic mis- sion might ¤t together to create a structure strong enough to support both. Here’s what happens when the pieces ¤t: 1. The ¤rst year of CCLCP consists of a sequence of two writing courses, remodeled into service- learning courses that encourage civic engagement. Our First-Year Writing Program helps students understand and accomplish writing by teaching them to analyze a completed or proposed piece of writing in terms of its situation, genre, language, and consequences. 2. This understanding of writing was called into play when one of our community partners needed a fact sheet explaining a program for grade-school TIPS FOR FIRST TIMERS 5
- 36. children. To producea useful document, the stu- dent writer needed to: fathom the expectations, needs, and resources of both the partner organiza- tion and its primary audience (mostly low-income, Latino families); grasp the capacities and limita- tions of the “fact sheet”genre; make choices about style,tone,and vocabulary; and anticipate the con- sequences of writing so as to pursue the positive and avoid the negative. 3. A tall order for a ¤rst-year college writer—but achievable because key disciplinary principles were introduced and variously exempli¤ed in the class- room. Writing instruction occurred before, dur- ing, and after ongoing off-campus experience in which the student tested her developing rhetorical knowledge by doing “real work.” 4. The simultaneity of on- and off-campus learn- ing in CCLCP is tremendously important because, as mentioned,a student’s struggle to apply discipli- nary concepts in the “real world” teaches the deep meaning of the concepts far better than endless hours of classroom instruction ever could.Moving the lesson to a venue in which the outcome of stu- dent effort counts for more than a mere grade— well, that’s a strategy with real pedagogical power. And real risk. 5. The risk, of course, is that a seam joining cam- pus to community will pop if, through lack of in- struction, student work falls short of a community partner’s expectations, or if a partner overlooks the importance of students’ engaging with an aca- demic discipline as well as with an agency’s mis- sion. All through the stresses of the semester, per- fecting the campus-community dovetail requires continual awareness and an unhesitating, yet deli- cate touch. Both are enacted in continual, respect- ful communication among instructors, students, and community partners.This three-way commu- nication absorbs incredible quantities of time, yet cannot be foregone: when seams split, the failure most often can be traced to a communication lapse. 6. CCLCP faculty meet formally with commu- nity partners several times during summer and immediately before the opening of each semester to share aims and ideas and make plans for stu- dent projects. But a few planning meetings are not enough to transform community service profes- sionals into co-teachers, or college teachers into seasoned community workers who understand what’s happening on the ground: we ¤nd we must continually share our perspectives, ideas, prob- lems, and solutions. We believe civic engagement can be implemented across the curriculum. The second year of our program now involves faculty from the College of Urban Plan- ning and Policy Administration. As word of our pro- gram spreads around the university,our director is ¤nd- ing it increasingly possible to interest faculty from other disciplines in future iterations of CCLCP. We feel our program’s academic breadth is almost limitless because at the vital center of every discipline is a set of ideas that live even more robustly outside the core texts. We imag- ine students “doing” political science, history, botany, accounting, computer programming, statistics, theater, literature in a way that teaches them to think in disci- plinary terms and work with people in communities that face real challenges and offer important life lessons. The ongoing task of our and every civic engagement program is to smooth the junctures of campusandcom- munity, to reveal human enterprise made beautifully whole. Can’t We All Just (Dis)Agree? Jennifer S. Simpson Indiana University–Purdue University Fort Wayne The ability of students and an instructor to dis- agree on contentious social issues is an important com- ponent of civic engagement. Civic learning includes “tolerance of perspectives different from one’s own . . . and the capacity to conduct moral discourse across points of view”(Colby,Ehrlich,Beaumont,and Stephens 2003,16).Inaclassroomthatincludescivicengagement– related learning outcomes, students must be “encour- 6 QUICK HITS FOR EDUCATING CITIZENS
- 37. aged to thinkindependently,”and to disagree with each other and the instructor (Colby et al. 2003, 16). Students must become familiar with the practice of “moral argu- mentation,” and of “acknowledging agreement where it exists; considering alternative positions to common de- bates; and avoiding simple dichotomies” (Colby et al. 2003, 145). This essay articulates pedagogical strategies for supporting disagreement linked to contentious so- cial issues in the context of civic engagement–related learning outcomes. Civic engagement principles do not support argu- ment in the form of competitive debate, the necessity of one uniform conclusion, or the desirability of persua- sion.Rather,civicengagement prin- ciples support listening for the sake of understanding, complexity, and collaborative dialogue. In such a framework, classroom discussion is a chance totakerisks,articulate new ideas, come to grips with one’s own lack of evidence,ask questions,seek clari¤cation, ask why and why not, and consider multiple perspectives on any one issue, including those that may at ¤rst be dif¤cult to hear. Finally, to engage with others on dif¤cult issues in the face of strong disagreement, and to do so class meetingafterclassmeeting, requires aregardforandconcernwithothers in the classroom. Such practices re- quire a cognitive and affective com- mitment not only to dialogue itself, but also to those with whom one is in dialogue. Finding a balance between the articulation of sharply different viewpoints, and course content and learning objectives is dif¤cult. How can in- structors structure learning so that students begin to see thoughtful disagreement as central and routine to their learning? At one level, an instructor can make students aware of existing institutional support for such dis- agreement and difference; at a second level,he or she can integrate difference and disagreement into all aspects of their class. At my institution during the 2004 presidential election, individuals on campus removed public notices when those announcements advertised events to which they were opposed. In response, the chancellor and vice chancellor for academic affairs wrote a letter that states in part, “As members of the IPFW academic commu- nity, we are obliged to respect the opinions of others, even if we disagree, and to hear them out in the spirit of mutual respect and shared commitment to the pur- suit of knowledge.” My departmental mission includes educating students “as concerned, caring citizens in a democracy.”What are the sources of support for differ- ence and disagreement at your institution? How can we communicate to students that a university educa- tion involves grappling with viewpoints different from one’s own? It is useful to locate institutional support for constructive disagreement,andtodiscussthesedocu- ments with students. Students of- ten have no way of being aware of such priorities unless we tell them they exist. In addition to institutional support for a range of viewpoints, it is crucial for individual faculty to take stock of our own comfort level with disagreement in the classroom. How do we respond when students disagree, raise an issue about which we have strong feelings, or assert viewpoints on social issues about which we have little knowledge? Particularly when instructors feel unfamiliar with sharp differences in the classroom and with facilitat- ing related conversations, it can be useful to begin such dialogue with topics with which we are familiar and feel more at ease discussing. In short,instructors might construct a few class sessions around conten- tious social issues thatfeelapproachable, and then evalu- ate: Who was comfortable? Who was not? What did I do? How did I feel? Who spoke up? Who did not? What did students learn? What did I learn? Instructors can also create a classroom environ- ment that normalizes the relevance of different view- points to the learningprocess.Thesyllabus,assignments, and readings all offer opportunities for integrating dis- agreement into the learning process. Syllabi might in- cludeguidelinesfordisagreementanddialogue.Readings can encourage consideration of a range of viewpoints or an awareness of democratic practices and the com- ponents of dialogue (Guttman and Thompson 2004; In addition to institutional support for a range of viewpoints, it is crucial for individual faculty to take stock of our own comfort level with disagreement in the classroom. TIPS FOR FIRST TIMERS 7
- 38. Opposing Viewpoints, ResourceCenter). Finally, as- signments can require analysis of two or more different perspectives. In this way, disagreement and multiple viewpoints become central to all aspects of learning. In addition to reconsideration of the syllabus, readings, and assignments, it is possible to structure in- class time so that the instructor integrates different viewpoints into group work and class discussion. In- structors might begin the semester with students dis- cussing their experiences with con®ict related to dif¤- cult social issues in class. Students might individually write down: What are their experiences with disagree- ment in class? How did disagreement feel? What were the outcomes? In pairs, students can discuss what they wrote. Finally, as a class, students can articulate guide- lines for disagreement that the class will rely on over the semester. These guidelines can also be posted on a class website.This process signals the desirabilityof disagree- ment, and the idea that such dialogue requires thought- fulness. A second classroom strategy is engaging and vali- dating students’ differing perspectives. When students do in-class group work, I will often ask them to write their answers to focused questions, such as “What does this article say about the media,race,and crime?”In ad- dition to each group writing responses on paper, stu- dents then write group responses on the board.Students might put an “A” by statements on which group mem- bers agree,and a “D”by those on which group members disagree. Once all groups have done this, there may be 20 or 30 statements on the board. I then ask students to engage each other.Regarding what is on the board,what needs clari¤cation? Where do they have questions for each other? Where do they disagree and why? In some cases, I will put what they have written on the board on the class website as a way of validating their knowledge. We can return to conversations, pick up assertions they have made and discuss them from a different angle.Stu- dents become eager to articulate their own ideas and to understand others’. This process of articulation, ques- tioning, disagreeing, clarifying, and listening can be- come a way of learning. Disagreement and sharply different opinions in classroom settings rarely come in comfortable or con- tained packages. Rather, such conversations are unpre- dictable, leak out where we did not even see the possi- bility of a hole, disappoint, and disturb. Instructors can work at building a classroom environment in which constructive disagreement related to dif¤cult social is- sues is central to the learning process, and in doing so, can communicate the idea that such dialogue is possible and has concrete bene¤ts, both pedagogical and demo- cratic. References Colby, A., T. Ehrlich, E. Beaumont, and J. Stephens. 2003. Edu- cating citizens: Preparing America’s undergraduates for lives of moral and civic responsibility. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass. Gutmann, A. and D. Thompson. 2004. Why deliberative de- mocracy? Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center, Greenhaven Press. http://www.galegroup.com/OpposingViewpoints/. Doing It Right: Re®ections on Experience Thomas A. P. Sinclair Binghamton University Civic engagement is becoming a vital part of the development of higher education curricula. Students want their education to be relevant and to make a dif- ference. Community organizations with limited mana- gerial capacity are under pressure to deliver their serv- ices in increasingly complex environments, and they want to draw upon the resources of students and faculty at their local universities to help them. Faculty and ad- ministrators view civic engagement as one strategy to bridge the gap between town and gown. While the po- tential bene¤ts are high, more than any other classroom experience, a service-learning project demands careful planning and high levels of commitment from you for it to contribute to the civic engagement of students 8 QUICK HITS FOR EDUCATING CITIZENS
- 39. and/or community members.Service-learning projects merge service activities with learning objectives (Eyler and Giles 1999,3–5).The learning experience affects real people in tangible ways and re®ects upon your students, your program, and you. This essay offers tips for plan- ning and implementing service-learning projects that will improve the chances that everyone involved will have a positive experience. While I work with master’s level public administration students, many of these tips will apply to any in-depth, classroom-based service- learning projects. Planning Many community-based organizations contact university faculty looking for expertise and assistance. These requests may cover almost any discipline or pro- fession. A historical district might seek help in develop- ing an inventory of a neighborhood’s historical assets, or a small airport might want an economic impact as- sessment completed, or an environmental group might want to assess the health of a local watershed.Indeed the list of possible service projects exceeds any department’s capacity to complete them.Consequently,faculty mem- bers can afford to be selective about choosing projects that match their courses’ learning objectives. When evaluating a potential project, ask yourself and the requesting group some key questions. • Are there directandspeci¤clinkages between the project and your course objectives? Assess whether the required course readings will help the students complete their project. If they do not, then you should consider revising the course or the project, or wait for another project that better ¤ts your course objectives. • Do project deadlines line up with your academic calendar? If most of the project work occurs early in the semester, you may overload students early on. On the other hand, if the project is due after the semester is over, the students will not be avail- able to help with any last minute tasks required to complete it. • Does the proposed project enjoy the full support of the stakeholders who will need to be involved to make it happen? You do not want your students to become participants in dif¤cult political battles. No matter howexcitingtheprojectsounds,doyour homework before committing a class to a project. You may assume that a match between your course objectives and the scope of the project along with your good will, extraordinary energy, commitment to the ideals of service learning, and knowledge of the subject matterissuf¤cienttomakeaprojectsucceed.Whilenec- essary, these are not suf¤cient conditions for success. Study the growing literature on service learning (Jacoby & Associates 1996; Eyler and Giles 1999; Kenny, et al. 2002) and, if you have one, talk with staff in your uni- versity’s service-learning of¤ce.Assess whether the work that students will do falls within the scope of human subjects review atyouruniversity.Even“small”commu- nity-based learning projects will take signi¤cant prepa- ration, and time in-class and during your of¤ce hours. If you intend to involve all your students in a course, think through how you and the participating organiza- tion will provide a consistent and meaningful experi- encefor15–40students.Solvingthatproblembycreating more than one service-learning project in a course mul- tiplies the logistical and pedagogical issues that you will need to address. Implementation When you design a community-based learning project,you are creating an organization staffed by part- timeemployeeswithvaryinglevelsof commitmentand, as a colleague noted,you have no control over the hiring process. Take time to prepare your students for their service work by introducing them to the basic rules of conduct,decorum,dress,team work,and ethics.Debrief students frequently as they work with their organiza- tions or clients. If you approach these matters system- atically as part of your course objectives, your students will be more effective participants in the project, and you will limit con®icts or uncomfortable situations. No matter what level of experience your students have,you should expect them to make uneven contribu- tions to the project, with varying degrees of enthusiasm and ability.Your project should have suf¤cient “slack”so that it does not depend on outstanding contributions from every student. A service-learning project requires you to balance project outcomes with course objectives. These projects are like dissertations, they look easy when you are de- signing them, but executing those designs often en- tails scaling them back to a more manageable size. For example, because it almost always takes considerable ef- TIPS FOR FIRST TIMERS 9
- 40. fort for studentteams to organize themselves, it often takes longer to conduct interviews or participate in meetings than you might expect.Be careful not to orient your course (and possibly student assessment) around unattainable project expectations. One semester, I prom- isedtohelpasmallcountydevelopaperformance-based budget using twenty ¤ve graduate students as liaisons with the different county departments. In contrast, one of my colleagues had her students conduct just one brief analysis as part of a strategic planning course. Guess which professor got the rave reviews? It was not the one whose students needed to travel to interviews and have frequent contact with preoccupied department heads to ¤nish their assignments! Make sure that the staff in the participating or- ganization who will be working with your students are prepared. Orient them to the course objectives, and the students’ roles in the project. Manage all critical opera- tional communications with organizational staff your- self, and be very precise with your students if they need to give a consistent message to organizational personnel or clients. The success of a project depends upon your detailed knowledge of the communications between students and organizational personnel and your ability to correct misperceptions quickly and effectively. Build redundancies into your community-based projects.If your project depends upon everything work- ing like clockwork, it may be threatened by relatively minor problems.Inevitably,team members will miss as- signments or make mistakes and have to redo tasks. Or- ganizational staff will get sick, or not return telephone calls. You will make mistakes too. Mistakes are easy to correct when you are working alone, but not when an entire class is conscientiously repeating an error.Careful preparation will reduce problems,butyoushouldexpect mistakes, so create ®exible processes that identify prob- lems quickly and facilitate their correction. Conclusion Service-learning projects are outstanding tools for bringing together students and communities and en- gaging them in a joint learning activity. The more you combine careful planning with ®exible implementa- tion, the greater your chances are of providing your stu- dents and participatingorganizationswithpositiveout- comes and a memorable learning experience. References Eyler, J. and D. E. Giles, Jr. 1999. Where’s the learning in serv- ice-learning? San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Jacoby, B., ed. 1996. Service-learning in higher education: Con- cepts and practices. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Kenny, M. E., L. A. K. Simon, K. Kiley-Brabeck, and R. M. Lerner. 2002. Learning to serve: Promoting civil society through service-learning. Boston: Kluwer. Matching Goals to Students’ Interests Nadia Rubaii-Barrett Binghamton University Effective civic engagement is as much about ad- dressing the individual needs of one’s students as it is about serving the needs of a community. If one of the goals is to encourage students to stay involved beyond the duration and scope of class activities, they must de- velop a sense that the engagement is meaningful and rewarding, not simply a ful¤llment of a course require- ment. In my experience, students and the community gain so much more, and the relationship is much more likely to continue after the semester, when I have stu- dents conduct self-assessment activities early in the se- mester, then discuss with them how to use those self- assessments to identify appropriate volunteer activities that will advance their personal and professional goals and contribute to the community. When designing civic engagement activities for your class, it is important to consider which outcomes aremostimportant.PerryandThomson(2004)identify ¤fteen potential outcomes or bene¤ts that may accrue to individuals performing the service, the bene¤ciar- ies of the service, or institutions and the broader com- munities. Their focus is on large-scale civic service pro- 10 QUICK HITS FOR EDUCATING CITIZENS
- 41. grams,suchasAmeriCorps.Programs of thismagnitude may realistically strive to achieve measurable improve- ments in the quality and quantity of service provided to the target populations,or to realize institutional or com- munity-wide changes, in addition to the bene¤ts ac- crued to student participants. Courses that incorporate community-based learning as a central pedagogical fea- ture may also aspire to go beyond individual student bene¤ts to make a noticeable contribution to the com- munity, although their ability to do so may be limited (Barber 1997).When designing community engagement activities that will serve only as one component of a course, an instructor would be well advised to focus on the outcomes which more directly affect the student. Student bene¤ts from civic engagement may take many forms, including increased skills, a heightened senseof civicresponsibility,greaterself-esteem,increased tolerance for diversity, a sense of satisfaction, improved mental or physical well-being, or more educational op- portunities (PerryandThomson2004),or a greater sense of empowerment (Schwerin 1997).It is unrealistic to ex- pect that all or even most of these would be achieved through an individual service activity or that they are of equal importance to all students. Depending on the subject matter of the course, the instructor’s goals, and the students’ goals for themselves, some outcomes may be of higher priority than others. In a political science or public administration course, having the student develop or enhance their sense of civic responsibility may be deemed most im- portant, whereas a class in sociology may identify in- creased tolerance for diversity as the most desired out- come of the service. An engineering course may place greater emphasis on skill development and application. Within the context of an instructor’s expectations for a course, there are also considerations about individual student needs and motivations. When I ¤rst began requiring community service activities as a component in my courses on public ad- ministration and public policy, I allowed students to se- lect almost any service activity and simply required documentation of hours they contributed and a paper on what they learned in relation to the course material. This was a largely unsatisfactory process for everyone involved. Undergraduate and graduate students alike seemed unable to identify appropriate activities and to make meaningful connections to the course. Students who volunteer in the community in the absence of en- thusiasm and motivation cannot possibly re®ect well on the university, nor are they likely to generate any long- term commitments to engagement. I have found that it is important to spend time on the front end to identify students’ interests, interaction preferences, and attitudes about issues and groups be- fore asking them to get involved in the community.This information is then used to identify goals and objectives for the service activity, and to determine an appropriate activity. To obtain information about students’ interests and attitudes, I provide students with a list of ¤ve to 10 issues facing the community and I ask them to “[r]ank the following issues in terms of their importance to the community” and “[r]ank the following issues in terms your interest in them.”For those issues at the top of both lists,eachstudentanswersanadditionalsetof questions. These questions assess the student’s knowledge of the current status of that issue in the community, under- standing of and/or experience with the public and pri- vate entities involved in the issue, and personal views regarding how the issue should be addressed. Docu- menting the students’ perceptions on the issues at this stage gives them a basis for comparison to assess how their views may have changed as a result of their com- munity involvement. Once the listof potentialissueshasbeennarrowed, the next step is to determine appropriate goals and de- ¤ne the scope of the service activity. Self-re®ection and self-assessments are the most valuable tools in this pro- cess. Carr-Ruf¤no (2003) provides several useful in- struments to gauge students’ values and comfort with diversity. Student preferences for methods of learning and types of interactions can be assessed through well- established tests such as the Learning Styles Inventory (Kolb 1984) or the Keirsey Temperament Sorter, an ab- breviated version of the Myers Briggs Type Inventory (Keirsey and Bates 1984). In addition, I ask students to self-evaluate their writing, research, presentation, and interpersonal skills. Alternatively, students can be given assignments which allow the instructor to assess these skills. Finally, students are asked to list key aspects of their educational and/or professional aspirations. I review the results of these varied assessments and then meet with the student to identify civic engagement activities which would best meet the student’s needs and interests, while also serving a useful, albeit lim- ited, function for the community. In small, graduate TIPS FOR FIRST TIMERS 11
- 42. courses, I meetindividually with each student to dis- cuss the results of their assessments. In larger, under- graduate classes, I meet with groups of students who identify similar sets of strengths,weaknesses,and inter- ests, to discuss service options that would meet their needs. Students are encouraged to build upon their strengths,but to also address at least one weakness.That is,the service activity should allow them to spend much of their time and energy in ways which they feel com- fortable and have interest. A small amount of the ac- tivity should force them to work on improving skills or expanding their experiences to address their self- identi¤ed weaknesses. Consider the situation where the assessments indicate that a student who has administra- tive aspirations has strong research and writing skills, but is an introvert who is terri¤ed of public speaking andhashadlittleornoexperienceinteractingwithpub- lic of¤cials. In this case, I would encourage the student to select a project for which most of the work would take the form of research and writing a report, but that would include one short presentation to a small audi- ence or several meetings with agency of¤cials, to either gather information or to share the results of the re- search. One of the obstacles to civic engagement is that students may not know how or where to begin. Self- assessments can give students direction and focus for their service activities. In my experience, when students approach the service activity with a sense of purpose, their passion is more likely to ®ow from the experience, and they are more likely to continue their engagement in the future. References Barber, B. R. 1997. Afterword. In R. M. Battistoni and W. E. Hudson, eds. Experiencing citizenship: Concepts and mod- els for service-learning in political science, 227–235. Wash- ington,D.C.:American Association for Higher Education. Carr-Ruf¤no, N. 2003. Managing diversity: People skills for a multicultural workplace. Boston: Pearson. Keirsey,D.and M.Bates.1984.Please understand me: Character & temperament types. Del Mar, Calif.: Prometheus Neme- sis Book Co. Perry, J. L. and A. M. Thomson. 2004. Civic service: What dif- ference does it make? Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe. Schwerin, E. 1997. Service-learning and empowerment. In R. M. Battistoni and W. E. Hudson, eds., Experiencing citi- zenship: Concepts and models for service-learning in politi- cal science, 203–214.Washington,D.C.: American Associa- tion for Higher Education. Setting Service-Learning Goals Lisa Dicke and Gera McGuire University of North Texas To effectively design a service-learning course fac- ulty members should carefully consider the learning ob- jectives that are desired. Below are several perspectives, each of which pursues a different set of learning objec- tives. Perspectives on Service-Learning Community Service This perspective recognizes the bene¤ts of service to students and to the community through partnerships with local nonpro¤ts.Among the learning objectives are helping students develop feelings of personal ef¤cacy and stronger ties with their community. Grassroots or- ganizations may be able to build administrative capaci- ties and initiate projects that could not otherwise be pursued. Moral Development Service learning can be used to create experiences that promote moral development through the recogni- tion of others, respect for collaboration, and steward- ship. In light of technological advances that have iso- lated people and left them with fewer social skills, the learning objectives include helping students become more aware of the needs of others.Empathy is an “emo- tional response to a perceived need [which] is a result of the perceiver adopting the perspective of the person in need” (Batson 1991, 83). Projects that provide opportu- 12 QUICK HITS FOR EDUCATING CITIZENS
- 43. nities for studentsto adopt the perspective of another are most likely to be helpful. Political Activism Service learning can be used as a means for pro- moting the cause of social justice (Rocha 2001), and combatingpublicapathy,distrust,andcontempttoward governmentandamongcitizensthroughstudentandcom- munity involvement (Barber and Battistoni 1993; Kahne and Westheimer 1996; Astin 1997). Service learning asks students to do things with others rather than for them (Karasik 1993). Instrumental Successful service-learning projects from this perspective result in the students’ demonstration of speci¤c academic or work-related competencies (Kenworthy-U’ren 1999). Although, by de¤nition a re®ective component is required, personal growth or political achieve- ments are by-products of the experi- ence. Students lacking practical ex- perience have opportunities to apply learning outside of the classroom and build a resume that extends be- yond academics. Projects enhance and strengthen students’ knowledge and skills. Tips for First Timers: • Determine which perspec- tive(s) promote your learning objectives. • Identify the types of activi- ties that are most likely to lead to the achievement of the ob- jectives. Projects should be de- signed to include these activities. • A job description should be prepared to ensure understanding among all parties,and expectations regarding dress, behavior, etc., should be outlined. • Offer several projects so that each student may participate in one that is personally rewarding. • Be aware of the diversity of students and make efforts to align opportunities appropriately. • Design challenging but not overly ambitious projects that ¤t available time frames. • Evaluate to determine if the desired learning ob- jectives were met. Encompassing Service Learning in Non-Traditional Areas of Study Although courses in public affairs, political sci- ence, or education are a natural ¤t for service learning, other ¤elds also may bene¤t. • Computer science majors could co-design a website for a nonpro¤t or minority-owned business. • A business major might facilitate strategic planning sessions or create a business plan for a resale shop. • Chemistry or math majors might serve as mentors for students in un- derserved schools. • Physical sciences students could research or test the velocity of crash impacts on children not properly restrained. Such information could be provided to a nonpro¤t seek- ing funding for a child restraint program. Practical Lessons Learned Regardless of how well de- signed the service-learning project, there are always surprises (Dicke, Dowden and Torres 2004). In an undergraduate American Govern- ment course recently, among the projects was a voter registration drive. The learning objectives for the course were aligned with the in- strumental perspective; that is, it was hoped that stu- dents would learn more about voting processes through conducting a voter registration drive. What follows, however, is an account taken from student evaluations. Five students participated in a voter registration drive at a local store. Two students (both Caucasians) arrived early to set-up. During the initial contacts, the manager of the store had been pleasant and even helped the students set up the tables. Shortly thereafter, three . . . an experience of racism, re®ected upon in the safety of a classroom, could create optimal conditions for learning. Injustices experienced by fellow students could be introduced to those who would otherwise not know or feel racism directly. TIPS FOR FIRST TIMERS 13
- 44. other students arrived(all African-American). At that juncture the manager informed the group that they did not represent “the look”the store wanted to portray. As one student reported, “I immediately knew what im- age we did not exemplify. We were the wrong color . . . and . . . on the wrong side of town.” The subsequent discussion in the classroom raised important Constitutional issues. It also sparked the de- sire among some to consider staging a boycott. But, one student said “something like this shouldn’t happen in a school-based project.” When facilitated correctly, an experience of rac- ism, re®ected upon in the safety of a classroom, could create optimal conditions for learning. Injustices expe- rienced by fellow students could be introduced to those who would otherwise not know or feel racism directly. From a political activism perspective it also might result in student activism. However, the learning outcomes were not those that were anticipated. And the question remains, should something like this have happened in a “school-based project”? Conclusion The more transparent the reasons for using service learning,“the more likely it is that the service and learn- ing outcomes will be successful” (Morton 1996, 278). Community organizations have needs that encompass a broad scope of potential service-learning opportuni- ties. Projects that offer few opportunities for students to interact with others, however, are less likely to result in the achievement of objectives aligned with a moral de- velopment perspective since feelings of empathy are not likely to emerge. Likewise, projects that encourage stu- dents to challenge injustices may help students achieve learning objectives congruent with the political activ- ism perspective, but they may also result in con®ict and unanticipated consequences. There is no magic formula that can be used to en- sure that students will become actively engaged in their communities.With careful design,however,servicelearn- ing offers faculty members a means for creating power- ful community-based learning opportunities. References Astin, A. W. 1997. Liberal education and democracy: The case for pragmatism. Liberal Education 83, no. 4:4–15. Barber, B. R., and R. Battistoni. 1993. A season of service: In- troducing service learning into the liberal arts curricu- lum. PS: Political Science and Politics 26:235–240. Batson, C. D. 1991. The altruism question: Toward a social- psychological answer. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Dicke, L. A., S. A. Dowden, and J. L. Torres. 2004. Successful service learning: A matter of ideology? JPAE: Journal of Public Affairs Education 10, no. 3:199–208. Kahne,J.,and J.Westheimer.1996.In the service of what?: The politics of service learning. Phi Delta Kappan 77, no. 9:593–599. Karasik, J. 1993. Not only bowls of delicious soup: Youth serv- icetoday.InS.SagawaandS.Halperin,eds.,Visions of serv- ice: The future of the national and community service act, 1–61. Washington, D.C.: National Women’s Law Center and American Youth Policy Forum. Kenworthy-U’ren, A. L. 1999. Management students as consult- ants: An alternative perspective on the service-learning calltoaction.JournalofManagementInquiry8,no.4:379–387. Morton, K. 1996. Issues related to integrating service-learning into the curriculum. In B. Jacoby, ed. Service-learning in higher education: Concepts and practices, 276–296. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Rocha, C. J. 2000. Evaluating experiential teaching methods in a policy practice course: The case for service learning to increase political participation. Journal of Social Work Education 36, no. 1:53–63. 14 QUICK HITS FOR EDUCATING CITIZENS
- 45. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Making DemocracyMatter in the Classroom Joan Mandle Colgate University and Adam Weinberg World Learning Democracy Matters is a national organization started by a group of faculty at Colgate University dedi- cated to engaging students in politics. Our focus is on pro-democracy issues and especially involvement with the movement for a fair and accountable government and campaign ¤nance reform (voter-owned elections, often know as Clean Elections). Over the last four years, we have developed and tested a number of successful service-learning exercises. Each exercise follows a simple four-step model: Educate: Start by giving students readings and web- sites that inform them about the democratic process. Draw Connections: Work with students to draw connections to the larger substantive issues being dis- cussed in the class. Inform Others: Develop and pilot action campaigns to inform other students on campus and/or people in the community about the issue. Re®ection Exercise: Re®ect on the experience as it informs students’own views about politics and political involvement,and the opportunities to get their peers in- volved. Example of a Basic Exercise Our basic exercise is designed to help students ex- plore the issues of money in politics, while also devel- oping their political voice and expanding their available repertoire of political actions. Part 1: Educating and Drawing Connections The ¤rst part of the exercise is designed to get stu- dents to formulate their views about the effect of money as it shapes American politics. Typically, a faculty mem- ber will tailor this to a larger course theme (e.g. the en- vironment, race, women’s issues, elections). We suggest to students the following three websites: 1. www.democracymatters.org 2. www.publiccampaign.org 3. www.opensecrets.org We then ask them to come to class with a 2–4 page essay addressing the following question: Why do some people believe there is too much money in politics and how does the issue of money in politics affect the larger issues being explored in the class? Part 2: Taking an Action Students with similar views are asked to partici- pateingroupsof 3–5.Theyarethenaskedtodesignsome form of action campaign that raises awareness about the issues they explored in the essays.Each group should produce a 1–2 page description of their action campaign that includes: A) A Goal: What do they want to accomplish? What is the message they want to inform others about? B) A Strategy: Whom do they want to inform (the audience)? This could be the general student body, a subgroup on campus, or people in the local com- munity, and how do they intend to do this? C) Tactic: How are they going to get the message to the target audience? Students can go to the Democracy Matters website and follow the “Student Organizing Resources” link to ¤nd a large array of projects done by students on other campuses. They ¤nd examples of the following: A faculty member might give the students a week 2
- 46. to design thecampaigns. Groups then present the de- signs to the class. This allows for a robust conversation in class about the trade-offs inherent to different types of campaigns. One way to lead this discussion is to have students comment on each campaign design using the following questions: 1. Is it feasible? (How easy or hard is it to pull off the campaign?) 2. It is desirable? Will it work? What are the pros and cons? Part 3: Critical Re®ection Students are then asked to draw on the experience of their campaigns to comment on broader issues dis- cussed in the course. How would they develop a broad- basedcampaignoncampustogetstudentseducatedand activated around the issues discussed in the course? Or you can have students write more about the actions they took. One idea is to send the students back to the De- mocracy Matters website. Ask them to read and com- ment on a paper by Professor Adam Weinberg on the Democracy Matters website entitled, “Creating A Life Long Commitment To Politics.” Ask students to use their experience to comment on the article. Replicating the Model This exercise can be done in a number of different ways. It can be spread across an entire semester. It also makes a wonderful extra-credit project for 3–5 students ina larger class.It can be doneinabrief 2–3weekperiod. 16 QUICK HITS FOR EDUCATING CITIZENS
- 47. Regardless of howyou use the model, we would offer four observations based on our experiences: First, the basic model of educate, draw connections, take an action, and re®ect can be used for any issue. Start with open-ended web-based exploration that gets stu- dents to grapple with how change occurs through the democratic process.Then get students to re®ect on what this means for the course material. Students always come away from this process with ideas that they want to share with their peers. Give students space to raise those views on campus through an action campaign, and then give them time to re®ect on what they have learned. Second, faculty will ¤nd many nonpro¤t organiza- tions and local community groups excited to partner with you. You don’t have to partner, but most faculty ¤nd that nonpro¤ts can bring resources to projects in ways that deepens learning. Third, for many students this will be their ¤rst time trying to take a public stand on an issue. From our perspective,taking an action matters if they learn to de- velop an action campaign (goals, strategies, tactics) and they have time to re®ect on the experience. Fourth, ourmodelispurposefullyinterdisciplinary. The websites and readings pull from sociology,econom- ics, political science, the environmental sciences, and philosophy. Getting students to think across disciplines opens up room for them to develop their own views. Conclusion By engaging students in active learning and organ- izing around deepening democracy, they begin to un- derstand the importance of civic engagement and ac- quire some of the skills necessary for an engaged citizenry. The issue of money in politics is an excellent hook because it resonates with students and can be con- nected to a wide variety of subject and class material.By creating action projects to raise awareness, students not only learn to articulate their own positions but also to listentotheviewsof others—thusengagingintherespect- ful give and take essential to a functioning democracy. “Doing” Engagement Heather Laube University of Michigan–Flint I believe that asking students to “do”—and in “do- ing”tomakeconnectionsbetweenscholarship,theirlives, and larger social institutions and social structures—has a signi¤cant impact on students’sense of their ability to impact their communities,social policy,and the various organizations and institutions with which they interact. I use a very learning-centered (as opposed to content- centered) approach to course design, which focuses on application and re®ection, and on providing students with an opportunity to combine academic learning with practical applications—skills that will be useful to them as active and informed citizens. To me, the goal of a learning-centered approach is not only to provide a piece of work by which to judge a student’s knowledge or skills, but also to provide him or her with an opportu- nity to practice using the knowledge and skills acquired in the course. A primary civicengagementgoalistheexpectation that by the end of the course the students should have the skills to articulate concerns to their peers,the media, and decision makers in an intellectually informed and compelling way. I have assigned what I call a “talking paper” in several courses. The goal of this paper is for the student to become an “expert”on an issue by choos- ing a timely topic relevant to the course.Their goal is not to simply state an opinion or restate what others say about the issue, but to take an informed position (that might be presented to peers, colleagues and/or policy makers) based on what they’ve learned. As a sociologist I believe civic engagement requires structural analysis, so I insist the students engage in sociological (thus in- stitutional/structural/systemic) critique of their chosen issue. They must use strong evidence to support their assertions, taking an informed stance on this issue. I have found it useful to suggest that they consider what they can teach others who may not be familiar with this issue—de¤ning it, explaining what is at stake, and iden- tifying who bene¤ts and who is harmed by the current CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 17
- 48. state of affairs.They must address at least two questions/ critiques they might expect from an individual or group with a different point of view and propose at least one systemic change that might remedy the situation. Fi- nally, students include an appendix indicating how one might take further action on this issue. Each of these steps allows students to practice civic engagement, while at the same time providing me the opportunity to as- sess the degree to which they are successfully connecting their aca- demicknowledgeand skills to a con- temporary social concern. By fram- ing this assignment as a “talking” paper, as opposed to a research pa- per, I have found that students em- brace the role of expert and feel like they really do have the ability to contribute to the public discourse on their topic. Inmysocialmovementscourse, students choose a movement and movement organization in which they activelyparticipate.A colleague and I collaborated on developing two similar yet distinct engagement activities as a way to assess whether students achieved the goal of active participation and critical re®ection. The ¤rst is what we called a “Public Discourse Adventure.” One of the biggest challenges for many social movements is getting their issue(s) on the agenda, which often begins by thrusting the issue(s) into public discourse. Students must get their concern into the minds and on the tongues of people outside of their circle of concern, friends and fam- ily. In a two-to-three-page re®ec- tion, they relate their experience to course material. As you can imag- ine, this was dif¤cult for some stu- dents, but many were quite creative, and the challenge itself was a good way for them to learn about the com- plexity of this form of active civic engagement (clear articulation of message, legal issues, organization). In a similar vein, students were asked to participate in a sig- ni¤cant involvement experience with their movement organization. This enabled them to learn about speci¤c strategies and tactics of social movement organizations, practice various forms of engagement, and re®ect on their experiences in a written document. As an aside— be sure to remind your students not to do anything ille- gal! These opportunities do arise and seem exciting, but a student’s arrest related to ful¤ll- ment of a course requirement is, of course, not going to go over well with the administration. Not all assessments of civicen- gagement need to be “active” or fo- cused on “the public.”The ability to analyze and employ scholarly con- cepts is important for any civically engaged person. The awareness of potential costs and bene¤ts of vari- ous forms of civic engagement and the ability to discern which tactic is most likely to succeed in a given situation are necessary for those who hope to impact their communities. I have found that asking students to take the role of the expert in a given scenarioseemstogivethemthecon- ¤dence they need to really get be- hind and informed about an issue. Writing assignments that integrate course material with empirical ob- servations and ask students to en- gage in precise and insightful criti- cal analysis are useful for student practice and instructor assessment of civic engagement. While it is easy to see how civic engagement can be integrated into sociology courses, these assessments can easily be used in a wide range of courses. Science courses can address issues of the environment; health care/nursing can focus on issues of patient care, public health, and in- surance; education can concentrate on student learning,school funding,and teacher educa- tion; art and music can explore freedom of expression. The possibilities are endless.My overarching goal is that by the end of a course students possess the desire and capacity to be informed, engaged, and ACTIVE citi- zens, and the assessments I’ve described provide stu- Science courses can address issues of the environment; health care/nursing can focus on issues of patient care, public health, and insurance; education can concentrate on student learning, school funding, and teacher education; art and music can explore freedom of expression. The possibilities are endless. 18 QUICK HITS FOR EDUCATING CITIZENS
- 49. Discovering Diverse ContentThrough Random Scribd Documents
- 50. Evidence in Favorof the Transmutation Theory EVIDENCE FROM CLASSIFICATION AND FROM COMPARATIVE ANATOMY It does not require any special study to see that there are certain groups of animals and of plants that are more like each other than they are like the members of any other group. It is obvious to every one that the group known as mammals has a combination of characters not found in any other group; such, for instance, as a covering of hair, mammary glands that furnish milk to the young, and a number of other less distinctive features. These and other common characteristics lead us to put the mammals into a single class. The birds, again, have certain common characters such as feathers, a beak without teeth, the development of a shell around the egg, etc., and on account of these resemblances we put them into another class. Everywhere in the animal and plant kingdoms we find large groups of similar forms, such as the butterflies, the beetles, the annelidan worms, the corals, the snails, the starfishes, etc. Within each of these groups we find smaller groups, in each of which there are again forms more like each other than like those of other groups. We may call these smaller groups families. Within the families we find smaller groups, that are more like each other than like any other groups in the same family, and these we put into genera. Within the genus we find smaller groups following the same rule, and these are the species. Here we seem to have reached a limit in many cases, for we do not always find within the species groups of individuals more like each other than like other groups. Although we find certain differences between the individuals of a species, yet the differences are often inconstant in the sense that amongst the descendants of any individual there may appear any one of the other variations. If this were the whole truth, it would seem that we had here reached the limits of classification, the
- 51. species being theunit. This, however, is far from being the case, for, in many species we find smaller groups, often confined to special localities. These groups are called varieties. In some cases it appears, especially in plants, these smaller groups of varieties resemble in many ways the groups of species in other forms, since they breed true to their kind, even under changed conditions. They have been recognized as “smaller species” by a number of botanists. In this connection a point must be brought up that has played an important rôle in all discussion as to what limits can be set to a species. As a rule it is found that two distinct species cannot be made to cross with each other, i.e. the eggs of an individual of one species cannot be fertilized by spermatozoa derived from individuals of another species; or, at least, if fertilization takes place the embryo does not develop. In some cases, however, it has been found possible to cross-fertilize two distinct species, although the offspring is itself more or less infertile. Even this distinction, however, does not hold absolutely, for, in a few cases, the offspring of the cross is fertile. It cannot be maintained, therefore, that this test of infertility between species invariably holds, although in a negative sense the test may apply, for if two different forms are infertile, inter se, the result shows that they are distinct species. If they cross they may or may not be good species, and some other test must be used to decide their relation. We should always keep in mind the fact that the individual is the only reality with which we have to deal, and that the arrangement of these into species, genera, families, etc., is only a scheme invented by man for purposes of classification. Thus there is no such thing in nature as a species, except as a concept of a group of forms more or less alike. In nature there are no genera, families, orders, etc. These are inventions of man for purposes of classification. Having discovered that it is possible to arrange animals and plants in groups within groups, the question arises as to the meaning of this relation. Have these facts any other significance than that of a
- 52. classification of geometricfigures, or of crystals according to the relations of their axes, or of bodies as to whether they are solids, liquids, or gases, or even whether they are red, white, or blue? If we accept the transmutation view, we can offer an explanation of the grouping of living things. According to the transmutation theory, the grouping of living things is due to their common descent, and the greater or less extent to which the different forms have diverged from each other. It is the belief in this principle that makes the classification of the biologist appear to be of a different order from that in any other science; and it is this principle that appears to give us an insight into a large number of phenomena. For example, if, as assumed in the theory, a group of individuals (species) breaks up into two groups, each of these may be supposed to inherit a large number of common characteristics from their ancestors. These characters are, of course, the resemblances, and from them we conclude that the species are related and, therefore, we put them into the same genus. The differences, as has been said, between the species must be explained in some other way; but the principle of classification with which we are here concerned is based simply on the resemblances, and takes no account of the differences between species. In this argument it has been tacitly assumed that the transformation of one species into another, or into more than one, takes place by adding one or more new characters to those already present, or by changing over a few characters without altering others. But when we come to examine any two species whatsoever, we find that they differ, not only in one or in a few characters, but in a large number of points; perhaps in every single character. It is true that sometimes the differences are so small that it is difficult to distinguish between two forms, but even in such cases the differences, although small, may be as numerous as when they are more conspicuous. If, then, this is what we really find when we carefully examine species of animals or of plants, what is meant when we claim that our classification is based on the characters
- 53. common to allof the forms that have descended from the same ancestor? We shall find, if we press this point that, in one sense, there is no absolute basis of this sort for our classification, and that we have an unreal system. If this is admitted, does our boasted system of classification, based as it is on the principle of descent, give us anything fundamentally different from an artificial classification? A few illustrations may make clearer the discussion that follows. If, for example, we take a definition of the group of vertebrates we read: “The group of craniate vertebrates includes those animals known as Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals; or in other words, Vertebrates with a skull, a highly complex brain, a heart of three or four chambers, and red blood corpuscles.” If we attempt to analyze this definition, we find it stated that the skull is a characteristic of all vertebrates, but if we ask what this thing is that is called skull, we find not only that it is something different in different groups, being cartilaginous in sharks, and composed of bones in mammals, but that it is not even identical in any two species of vertebrates. If we try to define it as a case of harder material around the brain, then it is not something peculiar to the vertebrates, since the brain of the squid is also encased in a cartilaginous skull. What has been said of the skull may be said in substance of the brain, of the heart, and even of the red blood corpuscles. If we select another group, we find that the birds present a sharply defined class with very definite characters. The definition of the group runs as follows: “Birds are characterized by the presence of feathers, their fore-limbs are used for flight, the breast-bone is large and serves for the attachment of the muscles that move the wings; outgrowths from the lungs extend throughout the body and even into the bones and serve as air sacs which make the body more buoyant. Only one aortic arch is present, the right, and the right ovary and oviduct are not developed. The eyes are large and well developed. Teeth are absent. We have here a series of strongly marked characteristics such as distinguish hardly any other class.
- 54. Moreover, the organizationof existing birds is, in its essential features, singularly uniform; the entire class presenting less diversity of structure than many orders of Fishes, Amphibians, and Reptiles.”[1] The feathers are the most unique features of birds, and are not found in any other group of the animal kingdom; moreover the plan on which they are formed is essentially the same throughout the group, yet in no two species are the feathers identical, but differ not only in form and proportions, but even in the character of the barbs and hooks for holding the vane together. The modification of the fore-limbs for flight is another characteristic feature; yet in some birds, as the ostrich and kiwi, although the wing has the same general plan as in other birds, it is not used for flight. In the latter it is so small that it does not project beyond the feathers, and in some birds, as in the penguins, the wings are used only as organs for swimming. 1. Parker and Haswell: “Text Book of Zoology.” In spite of these differences we have no difficulty in recognizing throughout the group of birds a similarity of plan or structure, modified though it be in a thousand different ways. Enough has been said to illustrate what is meant by the similarities of organisms on which we base our system of classification. When we conclude from the statement that all vertebrates have a skull that they owe this to a common descent, we do not mean that a particular structure has been handed down as a sort of entailed heirloom, but that the descendants have followed the same plan of structure as that of their ancestors, and have the brain enclosed in a covering of harder material, although this material may not have exactly the same form, or be made of the same substance in all cases. Furthermore while we may recognize that the cartilaginous skull of the shark is simpler in structure than that of the cartilaginous-bony skull of the frog, and that the skull of the frog is simpler than that of the rabbit, yet we should not be justified in stating, except in a metaphorical sense, that something has been added to the skull of the shark to make that of the frog,
- 55. and something tothe latter to make that of the rabbit. On the contrary, while something may have been added, and the plan made more complicated, the skull has also been changed throughout in every single part. There is another point of some importance to be taken into account in this connection; namely, that each new generation begins life as a single cell or egg. The egg does not contain any preformed adult structures that it hands down unaltered, but it is so constructed that, under constant conditions, the same, or nearly the same, kind of structure is produced. Should something affect the egg, we can imagine that it might form a new combination on the same general plan as that of the old, yet one that differed from the original in every detail of its structure. It is this idea, I believe, that lies at the base of the transmutation theory. On some such assumption as this, and on this alone, can we bring the theory of transmutation into harmony with the facts of observation. What has been said in regard to individuals as a whole may be repeated also in respect to the study of the single organs. Selecting any one group of the animal or plant kingdom, we find the same organ, or the same combination of organs present in whole groups of forms. We can often arrange these organs in definite series passing from the simple to the complex, or, in case of degeneration, in the reverse order. However convenient it may be to study the structure of organisms from this point of view, the artificiality of the procedure will be obvious, since here also the organs of any two species do not differ from each other in only one point, but in many, perhaps in all. Therefore to arrange or to compare them according to any one scheme gives only an incomplete idea of their structure. We should apply here the same point of view that we used above in forming a conception of the meaning of the zoological and botanical systems. We must admit that our scheme is only an ideal, which corresponds to nothing real in nature, but is an abstraction based on the results of our experience. It might be a pleasing fancy to imagine that this ideal scheme corresponds to the plan of structure or of organization that is in every egg, and furnishes the basis for all
- 56. the variations thathave come or may come into existence; but we should find no justification whatsoever for believing that our fiction corresponds to any such real thing. To sum up the discussion: we find that the resemblances of animals and plants can be accounted for on the transmutation theory, not in the way commonly implied, but in a somewhat different sense. We have found that the resemblances between the different members of a group are only of a very general sort, and the structures are not identically the same in any two species—in fact, perhaps in no two individuals. This conclusion, however, does not stand in contradiction to the transmutation hypothesis, because, since each individual begins as an egg which is not a replica of the original adult from which it is derived, there can be no identity, but at most a very close similarity. Admitting, then, that our scheme is an ideal one, we can claim, nevertheless, that on this basis the facts of classification find a legitimate explanation in the transmutation theory.
- 57. THE GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE Onthe theory of descent, as well as on the theory of transmutation, the ancestors of all present forms are supposed to have lived at some time in the past on the surface of the earth. If, therefore, their remains should have been preserved, we should expect on the descent theory to find some, at least, of these remains to be like present forms, while on the transmutation theory we should expect to find most, if not all, of the ancestral forms to be different from the present ones. The evidence shows that fossil forms are practically all different from living forms, and the older they are the greater the difference from present forms. In general, therefore, it may be said that the evidence is in favor of the transmutation theory. It can scarcely be claimed that the evidence is absolutely conclusive, however probable it may appear, for the problem is complicated in a number of ways. In the first place, there is convincing evidence that some forms have been entirely exterminated. Other groups have very few living representatives, as is the case in the group containing nautilus, and in that of the crinoids. It is therefore always possible that a given fossil form may represent an extinct line, and may be only indirectly connected with forms alive at the present time. Again the historical record is so broken and incomplete in all but a few cases that its interpretation is largely a question of probability. We can easily conceive that it would be only in very exceptional cases that successive generations of the same form would be buried one above the other, so that we should find the series unbroken. This is evident not only because the conditions that were at one time favorable for the preservation of organic remains might not be favorable at another time, but also because if the conditions remained the same the organisms themselves might also remain unchanged. A new form, in fact, would be, ex hypothese, better suited to live in a
- 58. different environment, andconsequently we should not expect always to find its remains in the same place as that occupied by the parent species. This possibility of migration of new forms into a new locality makes the interpretation of the geological record extremely hazardous. Nevertheless, if the evolution of the entire animal and plant kingdoms had taken place within the period between the first deposits of stratified rocks and the present time, we might still have expected to find, despite the imperfections of the record, sufficient evidence to show how the present groups have arisen, and how they are related to one another. But, unfortunately, at the period when the history of the rocks begins, nearly all the large groups of animals were in existence, and some of them, indeed, as the trilobites and the brachiopods, appear to have reached the zenith of their development. On the other hand, the subdivisions of the group of vertebrates have evolved during the period known to us. It is true that the group was already formed when our knowledge of it begins, but, from the fishes onwards, the history of the vertebrates is recorded in the rocks. The highest group of all, the mammals, has arisen within relatively modern times. The correctness of the transmutation theory could be as well established by a single group of geological remains as by the entire animal kingdom. Let us, therefore, examine how far the theory is substantiated by the paleontological record of the vertebrates. We find that the earliest vertebrates were fishes, and these were followed successively by the amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, one of the last species of all to appear being man himself. There can be little doubt that this series, with certain limitations to be spoken of in a moment, represents a progressive series beginning with the simpler forms and ending with the more complicated. Even did we not know this geological sequence we would conclude, from the anatomical evidence alone, that the progression had been in some such order as the geological record shows. The limitation referred to above is this: that while the mammals arose later than the birds, we need not suppose that the
- 59. mammals arose fromthe birds, and not even perhaps from the reptiles, or at least not from reptiles like those living at the present day. The mammals may in fact, as some anatomists believe, have come direct from amphibian-like forms. If this is the case, we find the amphibians giving rise on one hand to reptiles and these to birds, and on the other hand to mammals. This case illustrates how careful we should be in interpreting the record, since two or more separate branches or orders may arise independently from the same lower group. If the mammals arose from the amphibians later than did the reptiles, it would be easy to make the mistake, if the record was incomplete at this stage, of supposing that the mammals had come directly from the reptiles. That the birds arose as an offshoot from reptile-like forms is not only probable on anatomical grounds, but the geological record has furnished us with forms like archæopteryx, which in many ways appears to stand midway between the reptiles and birds. This fossil, archæopteryx, has a bird-like form with feathered wings, and at the same time has a beak with reptilian teeth, and a long, feathered tail with a core of vertebræ. From another point of view we see how difficult may be the interpretation of the geological record, when we recall that throughout the entire period of evolution of the vertebrates the fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and birds remained still in existence, although they, or some of them, may have at one time given origin to new forms. In fact, all these groups are alive and in a flourishing condition at the present time. The fact illustrates another point of importance, namely, that we must not infer that because a group gives rise to a higher one, that it itself goes out of existence, being exterminated by the new form. There may be in fact no relation whatsoever between the birth of a new group and the extermination of an old one. On the transmutation theory we should expect to find not only a sequence of forms, beginning with the simplest and culminating with the more complex, but also, in the beginning of each new group,
- 60. forms more orless intermediate in structure. It is claimed by all paleontologists that such forms are really found. For example, transitional forms between the fishes and the amphibia are found in the group of dipnoans, or lung-fishes, a few of which have survived to the present day. There are many fossil forms that have characters between those of amphibians and reptiles, which if not the immediate ancestors of the reptiles, yet show that at the time when this group is supposed to have arisen intermediate forms were in existence. The famous archæopteryx remains have been already referred to above, and it appears in this case that we have not only an intermediate form, but possibly a transitional one. In the group of mammals we find that the first forms to appear were the marsupials, which are undoubtedly primitive members of the group. The most convincing evidence of transmutation is found in certain series of forms that appear quite complete. The evolution of the horse series is the most often cited. As this case will be discussed a little later, we need not go into it fully here. It will suffice to point out that a continuous series of forms has been found, that connect the living horses having a single toe through three-toed, with the five- toed horses. Moreover, and this is important, this series shows a transformation not only in one set of structures, but in all other structures. The fossil horses with three toes are found in the higher geological layers, and those with more toes in the deeper layers progressively. In some cases, at least, the fossils have been found in the same part of the world, so that there is less risk of arranging them arbitrarily in a series to fit in with the theory.
- 61. EVIDENCE FROM DIRECTOBSERVATION AND EXPERIMENT Within the period of human history we do not know of a single instance of the transformation of one species into another one, if we apply the most rigid and extreme tests used to distinguish wild species from each other.[2] It may be claimed that the theory of descent is lacking, therefore, in the most essential feature that it needs to place the theory on a scientific basis. This must be admitted. On the other hand, the absence of direct observation is not fatal to the hypothesis, for several reasons. In the first place, it is only within the last few hundred years that an accurate record of wild animals and plants has been kept, so that we do not know except for this period whether any new species have appeared. Again, the chance of observing the change might not be very great, especially if the change were sudden. We would simply find a new species, and could not state where it had come from. If, on the other hand, the change were very slow, it might extend over so many years that the period would be beyond the life of an individual man. In only a few cases has it been possible to compare ancient pictures of animals and plants with their prototypes living at the present time, and it has turned out in all cases that they are the same. But these have been almost entirely domesticated forms, where, even if a change had been found, it might have been ascribed to other factors. In other cases, as in the mummified remains of a few Egyptian wild animals (which have also been found to be exactly like the same animals living at the present day), it was pointed out by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire that, since the conditions of the Egyptian climate are the same to-day as they were two thousand years ago, there is no reason to expect any change would have taken place. But waiving this assumption, we should not forget that the theory of evolution does not postulate that a change must take place in the course of time, but only that it may take place sometimes.
- 62. 2. The transformationof “smaller species,” described by De Vries, will be described in a later chapter. The position that we have here taken in regard to the lack of evidence as to the transformation of species is, perhaps, extreme, for, as will be shown in some detail in later chapters, there is abundant evidence proving that species have been seen to change greatly when the conditions surrounding them have been changed; but never, as has been stated, so far, or rather in such a way, that an actual new species that is infertile with the original form has been produced. Whether, after all, these changes due to a change in the environment are of the kind that makes new species, is also a question to be discussed later. The experimental evidence, in favor of the transformation of species, relates almost entirely to domesticated forms, and in this case the conscious agency of man seems, in some cases, to have played an important part; but here, even with the aid of the factor of isolation, it cannot be claimed that a single new species has been produced, although great changes in form have been effected. It is clear, therefore, that we must, at present, rely on other data, less satisfactory in all respects, to establish the probability of the theory of transformation.
- 63. MODERN CRITICISM OFTHE THEORY OF EVOLUTION Throughout the whole of the nineteenth century a steady fire of criticism was directed against the theory of evolution; the names of Cuvier and of Louis Agassiz stand out preëminent in this connection, yet the theory has claimed an ever increasing number of adherents, until at the present time it is rare to find a biologist who does not accept in one form or another the general principle involved in the theory. The storm of criticism aroused by the publication of Darwin’s “Origin of Species,” was directed more against the doctrine of evolution than against Darwin’s argument for natural selection. The ground has been gone over so often that there would be little interest in going over it again. It will be more profitable to turn our attention to the latest attack on the theory from the ranks of the zoologists themselves. Fleischmann, in his recent book, “Die Descendenztheorie,” has made a new assault on the theory of evolution from the three standpoints of paleontology, comparative anatomy, and embryology. His general method is to try to show that the recognized leaders in these different branches of biology have been led to express essentially different views on the same questions, or rather have compromised the doctrine by the examples they have given to illustrate it. Fleischmann is fond of bringing together the antiquated and generally exaggerated views of writers like Haeckel, and contrasting them with more recent views on the same subject, without making sufficient allowances for the advances in knowledge that have taken place. He selects from each field a few specific examples, by means of which he illustrates the weakness, and even, as he believes, the falsity of the deductions drawn for the particular case. For example, the plan of structure of the vertebrates is dealt with in the following way: In this group the limbs, consisting typically
- 64. of a pairof fore-legs and a pair of hind-legs, appear under the form of cylindrical outgrowths of the body. In the salamander, in the turtle, in the dog, the cylindrical legs, supporting the body and serving to support it above the ground, are used also for progression. The general purpose to which the limbs are put as organs of locomotion has not interfered with an astonishing number of varieties of structure, adapted to different conditions of existence, such as the short legs used for creeping in salamanders, lizards, turtles, crocodiles; the long and thin legs of good runners, as the hoofed animals; the mobile legs of the apes used for climbing; and the parachute legs of some squirrels used for soaring. Even more striking is the great variety of hands and feet, as seen in the flat, hairy foot of the bear; the fore-foot of the armadillos, carrying long, sickle-shaped claws; the digging foot of the mole; the plump foot of the elephant, ending in a broad, flat pad with nails around the border, and without division into fingers; the hand of man and of the apes ending with fine and delicate fingers for grasping. To have discovered a general plan of structure running through such a great variety of forms was proclaimed a triumph of anatomical study.[3] 3. This paragraph is a free translation of Fleischmann’s text. A study of the bony structure of the limb shows that typically it consists of a single proximal bone (the humerus in the upper arm, the femur in the thigh), followed by two bones running parallel to each other (the radius and ulna in the arm and the tibia and fibula in the shank); these are succeeded in the arm by the two series of carpal bones, and in the leg by the two series of tarsal bones, and these are followed in each by five longer bones (the metacarpals and metatarsals), and these again by the series of long bones that lie in the fingers and toes. Despite the manifold variety of forms, Fleischmann admits that both the hind- and the fore-limbs are constructed on the same plan throughout the vertebrates. Even forms like the camel, in which there are fewer terminal bones, may be brought into the same category by supposing a reduction of the bones to have taken place, so that three of the digits have been lost. In the leg of the pig and of the reindeer, even a greater reduction
- 65. may be supposedto have taken place. Fleischmann points out that these facts were supposed to be in full harmony with the theory of descent. The analysis of the origin of the foot of the horse gave even better evidence, it was claimed, in favor of the theory. The foot consists of a single series of bones corresponding to the middle finger and toe. When, as sometimes happens, individual horses are found in which in addition to the single middle finger two smaller lateral fingers with small hoofs appear, the followers of the descent theory rejoiced to be able to bring this forward as a confirmation of their doctrine. The occurrence was explained as a sporadic return to an ancestral form. The naïve exposition of the laws of inheritance that were supposed to control such phenomena was accepted without question. And when finally a large number of fossil remains were found by paleontologists,—remains showing a gradual increase in the middle finger, and a decrease in size of the lateral fingers,—it was supposed that the proof was complete; and anatomists even went so far as to hold that the original ancestor of the horse was a five-fingered animal. This same law of type of structure was found to extend to the entire vertebrate series, and the only plausible explanation appeared to be that adopted by Darwin and his followers, namely, that the resemblance is the result of the blood-relationship of the different forms. But a simple comparison of the skeleton of the limbs if carried out without theoretical prejudice would show, Fleischmann thinks, that there is only a common style, or plan of structure, for the vertebrates. This anatomical result has about the same value as the knowledge of the different styles of historical architecture—that, for instance, all large churches of the Gothic period have certain general principles in common. The believers in the theory of descent have, however, he thinks, gone beyond the facts, and have concluded that the common plan in animals is the consequence of a common descent. “I cannot see the necessity for such a conclusion, and I certainly should unhesitatingly deny that the common plan of the Gothic churches depended on a common architect. The illustration
- 66. is, however, notperfect, because the influence of the mediæval school of stone-cutters on its wandering apprentices is well known.” Fleischmann adds that if the descent theory is true we should expect to find that if a common plan of structure is present in one set of organs, as the limbs, it should be present in all other organs as well, but he does not add that this is generally the case. The weakness of Fleischmann’s argument is so apparent that we need not attempt an elaborate refutation. When he says there is no absolute proof that the common plan of structure must be the result of blood-relationship, he is not bringing a fatal argument against the theory of descent, for no one but an enthusiast sees anything more in the explanation than a very probable theory that appears to account for the facts. To demand an absolute proof for the theory is to ask for more than any reasonable advocate of the descent theory claims for it. As I have tried to show in the preceding pages, the evidence in favor of the theory of descent is not absolutely demonstrative, but the theory is the most satisfactory one that has as yet been advanced to account for the facts. Fleischmann’s reference to the common plan of structure of the Gothic churches is not very fortunate for his purpose, since he admits himself that this may be the result of a common tradition handed down from man to man, a sort of continuity that is not very dissimilar in principle from that implied in the descent theory; in the latter the continuity of substance taking the place of the tradition in the other. Had the plan for each, or even for many of the churches, originated independently in the mind of each architect, then the similarity in style would have to be accounted for by a different sort of principle from that involved in the theory of descent; but as a matter of fact the historical evidence makes it probable that similar types of architecture are largely the result of imitation and tradition. Certain variations may have been added by each architect, but it is just the similarity of type or plan that is generally supposed to be the outcome of a common tradition.
- 67. Fleischmann’s attempt inthe following chapter to belittle Gegenbaur’s theory of the origin of the five-fingered type of hand from a fin, like that of a fish, need not detain us, since this theory is obviously only a special application which like any other may be wrong, without in the least injuring the general principle of descent. That all phylogenetic questions are hazardous and difficult is only too obvious to any one familiar with the literature of the last thirty years. Fleischmann devotes a long chapter to the geological evidences in connection with the evolution of the horse, and attempts to throw ridicule on the conclusions of the paleontologists by emphasizing the differences of opinion that have been advanced in regard to the descent of this form. After pointing out that the horse, and its few living relatives, the ass and the zebra, are unique in the mammalian series in possessing a single digit, he shows that by the discovery of the fossil horses the group has been simply enlarged, and now includes horses with one, three, and five toes. The discovery of the fossil forms was interpreted by the advocates of the descent theory as a demonstration of the theory. The series was arranged by paleontologists so that the five-toed form came first, then those with three and one toe, the last represented by the living horses. But the matter was not so simple, Fleischmann points out, as it appeared to be to the earlier writers, for example to Haeckel, Huxley, Leidy, Cope, Marsh. Different authors came to express different opinions in regard to the genealogical connection between the fossil forms. Several writers have tried to show that the present genus, Equus, has not had a single line of descent, but have supposed that the European horses and the original American horses had different lines of ancestry, which may have united only far back in the genus Epihippus. Fleischmann points out that the arrangement of the series is open to the criticism that it is arbitrary, and that we could equally well make up an analogous series beginning with the five-fingered hand of man, then that of the dog with the thumb incompletely developed, then the four-fingered hind-foot of the pig without a big toe and with a weak second and fifth digit, then the foot of the
- 68. camel with onlytwo toes, and lastly the foot of the horse with only one toe. It sounds strange that Fleischmann should make such a trivial reply as this, and deliberately ignore the all-important evidence with which he is, of course, as is every zoologist, perfectly conversant. Not only are there a hundred other points of agreement in the horse series, but also the geological sequence of the strata, in which some at least of the series have been found, shows that the arrangement is not arbitrary, as he implies. Fleischmann then proceeds to point out that when the evidence from other parts of the anatomy is taken into account, it becomes evident that all the known fossil remains of horses cannot be arranged in a single line, but that there are at least three families or groups recognizable. Many of these forms are known only from fragments of their skeletons—a few teeth, for instance, in the case of Merohippus, which on this evidence alone has been placed at the uniting point of two series. At present about eight different species of living horses are recognized by zoologists, and paleontological evidence shows only that many other species have been in existence, and that even three- and one-toed forms lived together at the same time. Fleischmann also enters a protest against the ordinary arrangement of the fossil genera Eo-, Oro-, Meso-, Merohippus in a series, for these names stand not for single species, but for groups containing no less than six species under Protohippus, fourteen under Equus, twelve under Mesohippus, and twenty under Hipparion. Fleischmann concludes: “The descent of the horses has not been made out with the precision of an accurate proof, and it will require a great deal of work before we get an exact and thorough knowledge of the fossil forms. What a striking contrast is found on examination between the actual facts and the crude hopes of the apostles of the descent theory!...” In so far as this criticism of Fleischmann’s applies to the difficulties of determining the past history of the horse, it may be granted that he has scored a point against those who have pretended that the
- 69. evidence is simpleand conclusive; but we should not fail to remember that this difficulty has been felt by paleontologists themselves, who have been the first to call attention to the complexity of the problem, and to the difficulties of finding out the actual ancestors of the living representative of the series. And while we may admit that the early enthusiasts exaggerated, unintentionally, the importance of the few forms known to them, and went too far in supposing that they had found the actual series of ancestors of living horses, yet we need not let this blind us to the importance of the facts themselves. Despite the fact that it may be difficult and, perhaps, in most cases, impossible, to arrange the fossil forms in their relations to one another and to living forms, yet on an unprejudiced view it will be clear, I think, that so far as the evidence goes it is in full harmony with the theory of descent. This is especially evident if we turn our attention to a part of the subject that is almost entirely ignored by Fleischmann, and yet is of fundamental importance in judging of the result. The series of forms beginning with the five-toed horses and ending with those having a single toe has not been brought together haphazard, as Fleischmann’s comparison might lead one to suppose, but the five- fingered forms are those from the older rocks, and the three-toed forms from more recent layers. The value of this kind of evidence might have been open to greater doubt had the series been made up of forms found scattered over the whole world, for it is well known how difficult it is to compare in point of time the rocks of different continents. But in certain parts of the world, especially in North America, series of fossil horses have been found in sedimentary deposits that appear to be perfectly continuous. This series, by itself, and without regard to the point as to whether in other parts of the world other series may exist, shows exactly those results which the theory of descent postulates, and we find here, in all probability, a direct line of descent. While it may be freely admitted that no such series can demonstrate the theory of descent with absolute certainty, yet it would be folly to disregard evidence as clear as this.
- 70. In regard tothe other point raised by Fleischmann concerning the large number of species of fossil horses that have existed in past times, it is obvious that while this greatly increases the difficulty of the paleontologist it is not an objection to the descent theory. In fact, our experience with living species would lead us to expect that many types have been represented at each geological period by a number of related species that may have inhabited the same country. On the descent theory, one species only in each geological period could have been in the line of descent of the present species of horse. The difficulty of determining which species (if there were several living in a given epoch) is the ancestor of the horse is increased, but this is not in itself an objection to the theory. The descent of birds from flying reptiles is used by Fleischmann as another point of attack on the transmutation theory. The theory postulates that the birds have come from ancestors whose fore-legs have been changed into highly specialized wings. The long vertebrated tail of the ancestral form is supposed to have become very short, and long feathers to have grown out from its stump which act as a rudder during flight. Flying reptiles with winged fore- legs and a long vertebrated tail have been actually found as fossil remains, as seen in the pterodactyls and in the famous archæopteryx. The latter, which is generally regarded either as the immediate ancestor of living birds, or at least as a closely similar form, possessed a fore-leg having three fingers ending in claws, and feathers on the forearm similar to those of modern birds. It had a long tail, like that of a lizard, but with well-developed feathers along its sides. It had pointed teeth in the horn-covered jaws. Fleischmann proceeds to point out that the resemblance of the hand of archæopteryx to that of the reptiles is not very close, for two fingers are absent as in modern birds. The typical form of the foot is that of the bird, and is not the simple reptilian type of structure. Feathers and not scales cover the body, and give no clew as to how the feathers of birds have arisen. He concludes, therefore, that archæopteryx, having many true bird-like characters, such as feathers, union of bones in the foot, etc., has other characters not
- 71. possessed by livingbirds, namely, a long, vertebrated tail, a flat breastbone, biconcave vertebræ, etc. Therefore, it cannot be regarded as an intermediate form. Fleischmann does not point out that it is just these characters that would be postulated on the descent theory for the ancestor of the birds, if the latter arose from reptiles. Even if it should turn out that archæopteryx is not the immediate forefather of living birds, yet the discovery that a form really existed intermediate in many characters between the reptiles and the birds is a gain for the transmutation theory. It is from a group having such characters that the theory postulates that the birds have been evolved, and to have discovered a member of such a group speaks directly and unmistakably in favor of the probability of the transmutation theory. Fleischmann again fails to point out that the geological period in which the remains of archæopteryx were found, is the one just before that in which the modern group of birds appeared, and, therefore, exactly the one in which the theory demands the presence of intermediate forms. This fact adds important evidence to the view that looks upon archæopteryx as a form belonging to a group from which living birds have arisen. That a number of recent paleontologists believe archæopteryx to belong to the group of birds, rather than to the reptiles, or to an intermediate group, does not in the least lessen its importance, as Fleischmann pretends it does, as a form possessing a number of reptilian characters, such as the transmutation theory postulates for the early ancestors of the birds. The origin of the mammalian phylum serves as the text for another attack on the transmutation theory. Fleischmann points out that the discovery of the monotremes, including the forms ornithorhynchus and echidna, was hailed at first as a demonstration of the supposed descent of the mammals from a reptilian ancestor. The special points of resemblance between ornithorhynchus and reptiles and birds are the complete fusion of the skull bones, the great development of the vertebræ of the neck region, certain similarities in the shoulder girdle, the paired oviducts opening
- 72. independently into thelast part of the digestive tract (cloaca), and the presence of a parchment-like shell around the large, yolk-bearing egg. These are all points of resemblance to reptiles and birds, and were interpreted as intermediate stages between the latter groups and the group of mammals. In addition to these intermediate characters, ornithorhynchus possesses some distinctive, mammalian features—mammary glands and hair, for instance. Fleischmann takes the ground, in this case, that there are so many points of difference between the monotremes and the higher mammals, that it is impossible to see how from forms like these the higher groups could have arisen, and that ornithorhynchus cannot be placed as an intermediate form, a link between saurians and mammals, as the followers of the transmutation theory maintain. He shows, giving citations, that anatomists themselves are by no means in accord as to the exact position of ornithorhynchus in relation to the higher forms. In reply to this criticism, the same answer made above for archæopteryx may be repeated here, namely, that because certain optimists have declared the monotremes to be connecting forms, it does not follow that the descent theory is untrue, and not even that these forms do not give support to the theory, if in a less direct way. I doubt if any living zoologist regards either ornithorhynchus or echidna as the ancestral form from which the mammals have arisen. But on the other hand it may be well not to forget that these two forms possess many characters intermediate between those of mammals and reptiles, and it is from a group having such intermediate characters that we should expect the mammals to have arisen. These forms show, if they show nothing else, that it is possible for a species to combine some of the characters of the reptiles with those of the mammals; and the transmutation theory does no more than postulate the existence at one time of such a group, the different species of which may have differed in a number of points from the two existing genera of monotremes. The origin of lung-bearing vertebrates from fishlike ancestors, in which the swim-bladder has been changed into lungs, has been
- 73. pointed to bythe advocates of the transmutation theory as receiving confirmation in the existence of animals like those in the group of dipnoan fishes. In these animals both gills and a swim-bladder, that can be used as a lung, are present; and through some such intermediate forms it is generally supposed that the lung-bearing animals have arisen. Fleischmann argues, however, that, on account of certain trivial differences in the position of the duct of the swim- bladder in living species, the supposed comparison is not to the point; but the issue thus raised is too unimportant to merit further discussion. Leaving aside also some even more doubtful criticisms which are made by Fleischmann, and which might be added to indefinitely without doing more than showing the credulity of some of the more ardent followers of the transmutation theory, or else the uncertainty of some of the special applications of the theory, let us pass to Fleischmann’s criticism of the problem of development.[4] 4. The long argument of Fleischmann in regard to the origin of the fresh-water snails, as illustrated by the planorbis series, and also the origin of the nautiloid group, has been recently dealt with fully by Plate, and, therefore, need not be considered here. With fine scorn Fleischmann points to the crudity of the ideas of Oken and of Haeckel in regard to the embryology (or the ontogeny) repeating the ancestral history (or the phylogeny). We may consider briefly (since we devote the next chapter almost entirely to the same topic) the exceptions to this supposed recapitulation, which Fleischmann has brought together. The young of beetles, flies, and butterflies creep out of the egg as small worm-like forms of apparently simple organization. They have a long body, composed of a series of rings; the head is small and lacks the feelers, and often the faceted eyes. The wings are absent, and the legs are short. At first sight the larva appears to resemble a worm, and this led Oken to conclude that the insects appear first in the form of their ancestors, the segmented worms. If we examine the structure of the larva more carefully, we shall find that there are a great many differences between it and the segmented worms; and that even the youngest larva is indeed a typical insect. The tracheæ, so
- 74. characteristic of thegroup of insects, are present, the structure of the digestive tract with its Malpighian tubes, the form of the heart, the structure of the head, as well as the blastema of the reproductive organs, show in the youngest larva the type of the insects. In other words the body of the caterpillar is formed on exactly the same fundamental plan as that of the butterfly. In regard to the larval forms of other groups we find the same relations, as, for example, in the amphibians. The young of salamanders, toads, and frogs leave the egg not in the completed form, but as small tadpoles adapted to life in the water. A certain resemblance to fish cannot be denied. They possess a broad tail, gills (rich in blood vessels) on each side of the neck, and limbs are absent for a long time. These are characters similar to those of fish, but a more careful anatomical examination destroys the apparent resemblance. The superficial resemblances are due to adaptation to the same external conditions. Fleischmann ridicules the idea that the young chick resembles at any stage an adult, ancestral animal; the presence of an open digestive tract shows how absurd such an idea is. The obvious contradiction is explained away by embryologists, by supposing that the ancestral adult stages have been crowded together in order to shorten the period of development; and that, in addition, larval characters and provisional organs have appeared in the embryo itself, which confuse and crowd out the ancestral stages. In regard to the presence of gill-slits in the embryo of the higher vertebrates, in the chick, and in man, for example, Fleischmann says: “I cannot see how it can be shown by exact proof that the gill- slits of the embryos of the higher vertebrates that remain small and finally disappear could once have had the power of growing into functional slits.” With this trite comment the subject is dismissed. On the whole, Fleischmann’s attack cannot be regarded as having seriously weakened the theory of evolution. He has done, nevertheless, good service in recalling the fact that, however probable the theory may appear, the evidence is indirect and exact
- 75. proof is stillwanting. Moreover, as I shall attempt to point out in the next chapter, we are far from having arrived at a satisfactory idea of how the process has really taken place.
- 77. CHAPTER III THE THEORYOF EVOLUTION (Continued) The Evidence from Embryology THE RECAPITULATION THEORY At the close of the eighteenth, and more definitely at the beginning of the nineteenth, century a number of naturalists called attention to the remarkable resemblance between the embryos of higher animals and the adult forms of lower animals. This idea was destined to play an important rôle as one of the most convincing proofs of the theory of evolution, and it is interesting to examine, in the first place, the evidence that suggested to these earlier writers the theory that the embryos of the higher forms pass through the adult stages of the lower animals. The first definite reference[5] to the recapitulation view that I have been able to find is that of Kielmeyer in 1793, which was inspired, he says, by the resemblance of the tadpole of the frog to an adult fish.[6] This suggested that the embryo of higher forms corresponds to the adult stages of lower ones. He adds that man and birds are in their first stages plantlike. 5. The earlier references of a few embryologists are too vague to have any bearing on the subject. 6. Autenrieth in 1797 makes the briefest possible reference to some such principle in speaking of the way in which the nose of the embryo closes.
- 78. Oken in 1805gave the following fantastic account of this relation: “Each animal ‘metamorphoses itself’ through all animal forms. The frog appears first under the form of a mollusk in order to pass from this stage to a higher one. The tadpole stage is a true snail; it has gills which hang free at the sides of the body as is the case in Unio pictorum. It has even a byssus, as in Mytilus, in order to cling to the grass. The tail is nothing else than the foot of the snail. The metamorphosis of an insect is a repetition of the whole class, scolopendra, oniscus, julus, spider, crab.” Walther, in 1808, said: “The human fœtus passes through its metamorphosis in the cavity of the uterus in such a way that it repeats all classes of animals, but, remaining permanently in none, develops more and more into the innate human form. First the embryo has the form of a worm. It reaches the insect stage just before its metamorphosis. The origin of the liver, the appearance of the different secretions, etc., show clearly an advance from the class of the worm into that of the mollusk.” Meckel first in 1808, again in 1811, and more fully in 1821 made much more definite comparisons between the embryos of higher forms and the adult stages of lower groups. He held that the embryo of higher forms, before reaching its complete development, passes through many stages that correspond to those at which the lower animals appear to be checked through their whole life. In fact the embryos of higher animals, the mammals, and especially man, correspond in the form of their organs, in their number, position, and proportionate size to those of the animals standing below them. The skin is at first, and for a considerable period of embryonic life, soft, smooth, hairless, as in the zoophytes, medusæ, many worms, mollusks, fishes, and even in the lower amphibians. Then comes a period in which it becomes thicker and hairy, when it corresponds to the skin of the higher animals. It should be especially noted here, that the fœtus of the negro is more hairy than that of the European. The muscular system of the embryo, owing to its lack of union in the ventral wall, corresponds to the muscles of the shelled, headless
- 79. mollusks, whose mantleis open in the same region. Meckel compares the bones of the higher vertebrates with the simpler bones of the lower forms, and even with the cartilages of the cephalopod. He points out that in the early human embryo the nerve cord extends the whole length of the spinal canal. He compares the simple heart of the embryo with that of worms, and a later stage, when two chambers are present, with that of the gasteropod mollusk. The circulation of the blood in the placenta recalls, he says, the circulation in the skin of the lower animals. The lobulated form of the kidney in the human embryo is compared with the adult condition in the fishes and amphibians. The internal position of the reproductive organs in the higher mammals recalls the permanent position of these organs in the lower animals. The posterior end of the body of the human embryo extends backwards as a tail which later disappears. Some of these comparisons of Meckel sound very absurd to us nowadays, especially his comparison between the embryos of the higher vertebrates, and the adults of worms, crustaceans, spiders, snails, bivalve mollusks, cephalopods, etc. On the other hand, many of these comparisons are the same as those that are to be found in modern text-books on embryology; and we may do well to ask ourselves whether these may not sound equally absurd a hundred years hence. Why do some of Meckel’s comparisons seem so naïve, while others have a distinctly modern flavor? In a word, can we justify the present belief of some embryologists that the embryos of higher forms repeat the adult stages of lower members of the same group? It is important to observe that up to this time the comparison had always been made between the embryo of the higher form and the adult forms of existing lower animals. The theory of evolution had, so far, had no influence on the interpretation that was later given to this resemblance. Von Baer opposed the theory of recapitulation that had become current when he wrote in 1828. According to Von Baer, the more nearly related two animals are, or rather the more nearly similar two forms are (since Von Baer did not accept the idea of evolution), the
- 80. more nearly alikeis their development, and so much longer in their development do they follow in the same path. For example two similar species of pigeons will follow the same method of development up to almost the last stage of their formation. The embryos of these two forms will be practically identical until each produces the special characters of its own species. On the other hand two animals belonging to different families of the same phylum will have only the earlier stages in common. Thus, a bird and a mammal will have the first stages similar, or identical, and then diverge, the mammal adding the higher characters of its group. The resemblance is between corresponding embryonic stages and not between the embryo of the mammal and the adult form of a lower group. Von Baer was also careful to compare embryos of the same phylum with each other, and states explicitly that there are no grounds for comparison between embryos of different groups.[7] 7. In one place Von Baer raises the question whether the egg may not be a form common to all the phyla. We shall return again to Von Baer’s interpretation and then discuss its value from our present point of view. Despite the different interpretation that Von Baer gave to this doctrine of resemblance the older view of recapitulation continued to dominate the thoughts of embryologists throughout the whole of the nineteenth century. Louis Agassiz, in the Lowell Lectures of 1848, proposed for the first time the theory that the embryo of higher forms resembled not so much lower adult animals living at the present time, as those that lived in past times. Since Agassiz himself did not accept the theory of evolution, the interpretation that he gave to the recapitulation theory did not have the importance that it was destined to have when the animals that lived in the past came to be looked upon as the ancestors of existing animals.[8] But with the acceptation of the theory of evolution, which was largely the outcome of the
- 81. publication of Darwin’s“Origin of Species” in 1859, this new interpretation immediately blossomed forth. In fact, it became almost a part of the new theory to believe that the embryo of higher forms recapitulated the series of ancestral adult forms through which the species had passed. The one addition of any importance to the theory that was added by the Darwinian school was that the history of the past, as exemplified by the embryonic development, is often falsified. 8. Carl Vogt in 1842 suggested that fossil species, in their historical succession, pass through changes similar to those which the embryos of living forms undergo. Let us return once more to the facts and see which of them are regarded at present as demanding an explanation. These facts are not very numerous and yet sufficiently apparent to attract attention at once when known. The most interesting case, and the one that has most often attracted attention, is the occurrence of gill-clefts in the embryos of reptiles, birds, and mammals. These appear on each side of the neck in the very early embryo. Each is formed by a vertical pouch, that grows out from the wall of the pharynx until it meets the skin, and, fusing with the latter, the walls of the pouch separate, and a cleft is formed. This vertical cleft, placing the cavity of the pharynx in communication with the outside, is the gill-slit. Similar openings in adult fishes put the pharynx in communication with the exterior, so that water taken through the mouth passes out at the sides of the neck between the gill filaments that border the gill-slits. In this way the blood is aerated. The number of gill-slits that are found in the embryos of different groups of higher vertebrates, and the number that open to the exterior are variable; but the number of gill- openings that are present in the adults of lower vertebrates is also variable. No one who has studied the method of development of the gill-slits in the lower and higher vertebrates will doubt for a moment that some kind of relation must subsist between these structures.
- 82. In the lowestadult form of the vertebrates, amphioxus, the gill- system is used largely as a sieve for procuring food, partly also, perhaps, for respiration. In the sharks, bony fishes, and lower amphibians, water is taken in through the mouth, and passes through the gill-slits to the exterior. As it goes through the slits it passes over the gills, that stand like fringes on the sides of the slits. The blood that passes in large quantities through the gills is aerated in this way. In the embryos of the higher vertebrates the gill-slits may appear even before the mouth has opened, but in no case is there a passage of water through the gill-slits, nor is the blood aerated in the gill-region, although it passes through this part on its way from the heart to the dorsal side of the digestive tract. It is quite certain that the gill-system of the embryo performs no respiratory function.[9] 9. This statement is not intended to prejudice the question as to whether the presence of the gill-slits and arches may be essential to the formation of other organs. In the higher amphibians, the frogs for example, we find an interesting transition. The young embryo, when it emerges from the egg-membranes, bears three pairs of external gills that project from the gill-arches into the surrounding water. Later these are absorbed, and a new system of internal gills, like those of fishes, develops on the gill-arches. These are used throughout the tadpole stage for respiratory purposes. When the tadpole is about to leave the water to become a frog, the internal gills are also absorbed and the gill- clefts close. Lungs then develop which become the permanent organs of respiration. There are two points to be noticed in this connection. First, the external gills, which are the first to develop, do not seem to correspond to any permanent adult stage of a lower group. Second, the transition from the tadpole to the frog can only be used by way of analogy of what is supposed to have taken place ancestrally in the reptiles, birds, and mammals, since no one will maintain that the frogs represent a group transitional between the amphibians and the
- 83. higher forms. However,since the salamanders also have gills and gill-slits in the young stages, and lose them when they leave the water to become adult land forms, this group will better serve to illustrate how the gill-system has been lost in the higher forms. Not that in this case either, need we suppose that the forms living to-day represent ancestral, transitional forms, but only that they indicate how such a remarkable change from a gill-breathing form, living in the water, might become transformed into a lung-breathing land form. Such a change is supposed to have taken place when the ancestors of the reptiles and the mammals left the water to take up their abode on the land. The point to which I wish to draw especial attention in this connection is that in the higher forms the gill-slits appear at a very early stage; in fact, as early in the mammal as in the salamander or the fish, so that if we suppose their appearance in the mammal is a repetition of the adult amphibian stage, then, since this stage appears as early in the development of the mammal as in the amphibians themselves, the conclusion is somewhat paradoxical. The history of the notochord in the vertebrate series gives an interesting parallel. In amphioxus it is a tough and firm cord that extends from end to end of the body. On each side of it lie the plates of muscles. It appears at a very early stage of development as a fold of the upper wall of the digestive tract. In the cartilaginous fishes the notochord also appears at a very early stage, and also from the dorsal wall of the digestive tract. In later embryonic stages it becomes surrounded by a cartilaginous sheath, or tube, which then segments into blocks, the vertebræ. The notochord becomes partially obliterated as the centra of the vertebræ are formed, but traces of it are present even in adult stages. In the lower amphibians the notochord arises also at an early stage over and perhaps, in part, from the dorsal wall of the digestive tract. It is later almost entirely obliterated by the development of the vertebræ. These vertebræ first appear as a membraneous tube which breaks up into cartilaginous blocks, and these are the structures around and in which the bone develops to form the permanent vertebræ.
- 84. In higher forms,reptiles, birds, and mammals, the notochord also appears at the very beginning of the development, but it is not certain that we can call the material out of which it forms the dorsal wall of the archenteron (the amphibians giving, perhaps, intermediate stages). It becomes surrounded by continuous tissue which breaks up into blocks, and these become the bases of the vertebræ. The notochord becomes so nearly obliterated in later stages that only the barest traces of it are left either in the spaces between, or in, the vertebræ. In this series we see the higher forms passing through stages similar at first to those through which the lower forms pass; and it is especially worthy of note that the embryo mammal begins to produce its notochord at the very beginning of its development, at a stage, in fact, so far as comparison is possible, as early as that at which the notochord of amphioxus develops. The development of the skull gives a somewhat similar case. The skulls of sharks and skates are entirely cartilaginous and imperfectly enclose the brain. The ganoids have added to the cartilaginous skull certain plates in the dermal layer of the skin. In the higher forms we find the skull composed of two sets of bones, one set developing from the cartilage of the first-formed cranium, and the other having a more superficial origin; the latter are called the membrane bones, and are supposed to correspond to the dermal plates of the ganoids. In the development of the kidneys, or nephridia, we find, perhaps, another parallel, although, owing to recent discoveries, we must be very cautious in our interpretation. As yet, nothing corresponding to the nephridia of amphioxus has been discovered in the other vertebrates. Our comparison must begin, therefore, higher up in the series. In the sharks and bony fishes the nephridia lie at the anterior end of the body-cavity. In the amphibia there is present in the young tadpole a pair of nephridial organs, the head-kidneys, also in the anterior end of the body-cavity. Later these are replaced by another organ, the permanent mid-kidney, that develops behind the head- kidney. In reptiles, birds, and mammals a third nephridial organ, the
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