best

1. 1

2. Expectations?
• Objectives
 By the end of this session, you will be able to:
 Understand role of researcher in qualitative data
analysis
 Use opencode to analyse/code qualitative data
2

3. Value?
3

4. What to analyze
• Text – Transcripts
• Photo/Picture
• Video
• Field notes
• Diaries
• Documents- meeting minutes,
reports
• Survey data (questionnaire)-
must be open ended
• Online data
4

5. How to transcribe?
Pure verbatim protocol: word for
word including every utterance
Clean read/smooth verbatim
transcript: word for word, but not
all utterances
Comprehensive protocol: stops
and sums up the main content
writing it down
Selective protocol: parts of the
(audio recorded) interview
Transcription
Systems
Translation??
5

6. Notes: -Unlike the quantitative, preliminary analysis is an inherent part of data collection
-Reading and re-reading
-Code book
6

7. What it does
• Qualitative data analysis transforms data into
findings
• No formula exists for the transformation
• Gives guidance but no recipe
• It gives direction
• Road map that leads the traveler to a
destination
• It does not give answers to your question
• Its up to the researcher choose the best way
to one's destination
7

8. Types of
qualitative
data analysis
8
Thematic analysis?? (Michelle E. Kiger & Lara Varpio, 2020)
Qualitative content analysis: (Satu Elo & Helvi Kynga¨s, 2008)
Narrative analysis (Michelle Butina (2015))
Framework analysis (Hackett A, Strickland K (2018))
Grounded theory: (Sbaraini, A., Carter, S.M., Evans, R.W. et al.,
2011)
Phenomenology: (Neubauer, B.E., Witkop, C.T. & Varpio, L, 2019
Phenomenography: (Marton, 1986)
Discourse analysis
Ethinographic data analysis

9. Thematic Analysis
• Closely examines the data to identify common
themes
• Flexible- adapted to many approaches
• Steps:-
Familiarization
Initial coding
Searching (generating) themes
 Reviewing themes
Defining and naming themes
Write- up
9

10. Qualitative Content analysis
• Steps
10
Preparation of the
data
Reading and re-
reading
Defining meaning
units (unit of
analysis)
Develop a codebook
(coding and
categories scheme)
Testing coding
schemes (optional)
Actual coding- all
the data
Check coding
consistency-
dependability (inter-
coder reliability)
Reporting the
method and findings

11. An example of the abstraction process
Satu Elo & Helvi Kynga¨s, 2007

12. Grounded
Theory
12
Constant comparative method
Seeks to develop theory that is
grounded in data systematically
gathered and analyzed
Always inductive
Open code – coding, category
(types of analysis)

13. Grounded theory...
13
Mind bracketing- buffering
against confirming
preconceived beliefs about the
topic or phenomenon under
consideration
Data collection and analysis are
tightly interwoven
Grounded theory relies on an
iterative recruiting process
called theoretical sampling
Sampling- theoretical relevance

14. Steps in coding
• The overall process- Similar to
thematic
• Coding:-
• Open (Initial) coding
• Axial (Focused) coding
• Selective (Theoretical) coding
14

15. GT_ Constant comparative method
• The CCM method of analysis is a continual process that involves
several steps to generate theories from data
Step 1: Collect Data – The first step in the analysis process is
collecting data through fieldwork, interviews, or observations
Step 2: Open Coding – The second step involves breaking down your
data into smaller pieces and assigning codes that represent each
segment’s content- no predefined categories at this stage
Step 3: Axial Coding – After completing open coding, researchers use
axial coding to identify relationships between codes and group them
together based on their similarities or differences- going back and forth
between these two stages until all categories are coherent
Step 4: Selective Coding – Finally, selective coding helps researchers
identify and refine core themes or concepts that explain why participants
behave or think in certain ways. These themes act as a basis for
developing theories grounded in empirical evidence

16. Framework analysis
• Is developed by the National
Centre for Social Research
(http:/www.scpr.ac.uk) is explicitly
geared towards generating policy-
and practice-oriented findings,
and is popular with many health
and social researchers
• Similar with thematic and QCA
• Within and across cases-
commonalities and differences
• Uses matrix or diagram
16

17. Framework
analysis
MT 17
A key difference between
this and grounded theory is
that ‘framework analyses
maintains the integrity of
individual respondent
accounts is preserved
throughout the analysis
While a deliberate attempt
to fracture the data in
order to open up new
avenue for analysis is
done in GT

18. Framework analysis
•The first step in FA is familiarization with the data
• listening to the tapes and re-reading the field
notes or transcripts until the researchers are
familiar with its entirety
•Second step is thematic analysis to develop a
coding scheme
• The themes in the data became the labels for the
codes
•The third step is indexing (the process of applying
codes to the whole data set in a systematic way)
• Like TA, comparison is involved in framework
analysis both between and within cases
MT 18

19. Framework analysis
• The fourth step is charting, which involves the
rearrangement of data according to thematic content
either case by case or by theme
•These charts contain only summarized data and
hence enable the researcher to see cases across and
under themes
•The final stage is looking at relationships between
the codes
•This is called ‘Mapping and Interpretation’
•A key tactic to use diagrams and tables to explore
the relationships between the concept's typologies
developed from them and the associations between
the concepts
MT 19

20. Framework: Example
MT 20

21. Narrative
Analysis
Identifies the broader
interpretive framework that
people utilize to turn
meaningless events into
meaningful episodes that are
part of a story leading out of
the past and into the future.
Use of plot, context and
content, compare etc using
different types of narratives –
epiphany, confirmation and
calamity.

22. Computer assisted data analysis
22
Qualitative analysis ultimately depends on the analytical intellect and style of the analyst

23. Software in analysis of qualitative data
• Opencode, Atlas.ti, Nvivo, MAXQDA,
HyperRESEARCH, Focuson, Annotation etc-
16+
23

24. Open code
24
Practical Session
Download: Open Code 4.03 (64)
https://www.umu.se/en/department-
of-epidemiology-and-global-
health/research/open-code2/

25. Trustworthiness (Assuring quality in
qualitative research)
Concepts Quantitative research Qualitative research
True value Validity Credibility
Consistency Reliability Dependability
Neutrality Objectivity Confirmability
Applicability Generalization Transferability
Are the findings true, consistency, neutral and applicable to another context?
MT 25
Do the data collected by the researchers reflect reality?
Lincolin and Guba (1985) suggested four criterion for assessing the
trustworthiness of qualitative data:

26. Credibility
• First carrying out the investigation in a way to enhance the believability
of the study
• Second taking steps to demonstrate credibility
Techniques to document credibility:
1. Prolonged engagement and persistent observation:
• To have an in-depth understanding of the culture, language and view
of the group
MT 26

27. Credibility cont...
• To check for misunderstanding and
distortions
• It is also important to create rapport
and trust with informants
• In naturalistic inquiries,
• Credible data collection involves persistent
observation which gives depth for the
research
• While prolonged observation provides scope
MT 27

28. Credibility cont..
2. Triangulation
•This is one way of ascertaining credibility
•Triangulation refers to the use of multiple sources
(referents) to draw conclusions about what constitutes the
truth
•Four types of triangulation are known:
2.1 Data triangulation involves the use of multiple source
of data to obtain diverse views for the purpose of
validating conclusions
MT 28

29. Credibility cont..
Three types of data triangulation:
• Time, space, and person
• Time: collecting data on the same
phenomenon at different points in
time
• This concept is like test-retest reliability
• It is to test the congruence of the
phenomenon across time not to examine
the phenomenon longitudinal
MT 29

30. Credibility cont…
•Space triangulation is collecting data on the same
phenomenon in multiple sites
• The aim is to validate the data by testing for
consistency across sites
• Person triangulation involves collecting data from
different levels of persons: individuals, groups, (e.g.,
dyads, triads, families) and collectives (e.g.,
organizations, communities, institutions), with the aim
of validating data through multiple perspectives on
the phenomenon
MT 30

31. Credibility cont…
2.2. Second major triangulation is method triangulation
•This involves the use of different methods of data
collection, in purely qualitative studies combination of
unstructured data collection methods such as
interviews, observations and dairies
MT 31

32. Credibility cont…
2.3 External checks: peer debriefing and member
checks
•This is external validation of the inquiry.
•Peer debriefing is exposing the finding for an
experienced peer to comment
•Member check is to communicate the findings
with a member or participant at the middle of the
study process or at the end and observe the
reaction
MT 32

33. Credibility cont…
2.4. Searching for disconformities: the credibility of
dataset can be enhanced by the researchers
systematic search for data that will challenge an
emerging categorization or descriptive theory
2.5. Researcher credibility: In qualitative study the
researcher is an instrument of data collection as well
as the creator the analysis process; therefore, the
qualification of the researcher is important
It is important to report the profile of the researcher in
the report.
MT 33

34. 2. Dependability
MT 34
Dependability refers to the
stability of data. It is similar with
the reliability/consistency of
data in quantitative research
This is achieved by using
separate teams to collect data
and compare it into other
groups
The other method is inquiry
audit: this is scrutiny of the data
and relevant documents by
external reviewers

35. 3. Conformability
• This refers to the objectivity and neutrality of the data
• An inquiry audit can assure the conformability of the data
• The auditor will find conclusions being grounded to the data
• Six documents are used for the audit:
1. Raw data (field notes, interview transcripts)
2. Data reduction and analysis procedures (theoretical notes,
documentation on working hypothesis)
3. Process notes (methodological notes, notes from member check
sessions)
4. Materials related to intentions (personal notes on intentions
5. Instrument development information
6. Data reconstruction products (drafts of the final report)
MT 35

36. 4. Transferability
MT 36
Transferability refers essentially to
generalizability of the data, that is the
extent to which the findings of the data
can be transferred to other settings or
groups
This is a methodological issue related
to sampling and design rather than the
soundness of the data
Demographic representation of the
sample than the number unlike the
quantitative method is used in
qualitative studies

37. Thank you!