2. Chapter Objectives:
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
1. have a thorough understanding of communication
models and processes ;
2. Understand the importance of ethics in
communication and academic writing; and
3. Discover how the English language spread
throughout the world, and appreciate the
differences between Standard English, World
English, and Philippine English.
3. COMMUNICATION
- is the process of sending and
receiving messages through verbal
or non verbal means.
4. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
VERBAL
- is a type of oral
communication wherein the
message is transmitted through
spoken and written.
NONVERBAL
- transmission of messages
or signals through nonverbal
platform such as eye contact,
facial expressions, gesture and
posture between two individuals.
12. “The art of communication is
the language of leadership.”
- James Humes
13. Lesson Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. understand the importance of communication in
society;
2. Know the principles and processes of
communication as embodied in the communication
models provided; and
3. Relate the communication models to their
experiences and apply them to their own
communication processes.
14. ARISTOTLE’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
• Aristotle explains that the speaker
should adjust their messages
according to their audience and
the occasion to achieve a
particular effect.
• earliest mass communication
model proposed before 300 B.C
• focused on public speaking than
interpersonal communication.
15. SHANNON-WEAVER MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
• created by Claude
Shannon and Warren
Weaver
• often called the “Telephone
Model”
16. OSGOOD-SCHRAMM MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
• built on the theory that
communication is a two
way street, with a sender
and receiver
• Pays
attention
on the
interpretati
on
17. SCHRAMM SECOND MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
• build about
interpreter into the
different fields of
experience of the
sender and the
receiver
18. WHITE’S STAGE OF ORAL COMMUNICATION
• it is possible to begin at any
of the stage outlined in this
model
• people are under mistaken
impression that when we
communicate, we usually
start with thinking
• Oral communication is
continuous process with no
real beginning or end
• the most important
contribution from Eugene
White’s Model is the concept
of feedback
20. Lesson Objectives:
By the need of this lesson, you should be able
to:
1. know how to communicate in an ethical
manner; and
2. apply these ethical principles to their
communication process.
21. ETHICAL COMMUNICATION
• is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision-
making, and the development of relationships and
communities within and across contexts, cultures,
channels, and media
• enhances human worth and dignity by fostering
truthfulness, fairness responsibility, personal
integrity, and respect for self and others
22. FOUR PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
Accept responsibility for the short-and long-term consequences of our own
communication and expect the same of others
Condemn communication that degrades individuals and humanity through distortion,
intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the expression of intolerance and hatred
Freedom of expression, diversity of perspective and tolerance of dissent to achieve the
informed and responsible decision-making fundamental to a civil society
Advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the integrity of
communication
1
2
3
4
25. GLOBALIZATION
Globalization has affected us in numerous ways.
• Airfare has become cheaper
• One can travel internationally more than one could
in the past
• Many Filipinos have decided to work or live abroad
• The free trade of goods and services all over the
world has brought multinational companies and
foreign investors to our shores
26. Because of the advent of the internet, the world seems
to be shrinking continually. One can communicate
internationally in a matter of seconds, whether one is
sending email, chatting in social media, or sending a
text messages.one can read about different cultures,
and have access to films, academic papers, and the
like from countries around the world, and vice versa.
Given this increasingly shrinking world, one should
know the difference between the kind of English that
we write and speak, and the kind of Englishes that
exist outside of the Philippines.
27. BRITISH AND AMERICAN LANGUAGE
• the two most well-known varieties of English
DIFFERENCE OF AMERICAN AND BRITISH ENGLISH
Aspect American English (US) British English (UK)
Punctuation Dr. Jones will be here in a minute. Dr Jones will be here in a minute.
Date March 2, 2017 2 March 2017
Spelling Center, color, organize, program Centre, colour, organize, programme
Words Elevator, pants, diaper Lift, trousers, nappy
Expression / Local idiom ruffled feathers(agitated) Knickers in a twist (agitated)
Grammar Do you have that book? Have you got that book?
Pronunciation Vase/vas/-sounds like VEYZ Vase/va:z/]-sounds like VAHZ
28. CULTURALLY SENSITIVE AND BIAS-FREE LANGUAGE
Philippine English as well has its unique and
idiosyncratic usages.
Example: comfort room – washroom
There’s a traffic – There’s a heavy traffic
salvage – to brutally murder
for a while – just a second
29. CULTURALLY SENSITIVE AND BIAS-FREE LANGUAGE
Sutherland also notes that “every English-speaking
nation has its own set of English phrases and
idioms; English is equally idiosyncratic in say, India,
Jamaica, Zimbabwe, or Singapore. In other words,
there is no wrong way of speaking English as long
as those who speak it understand each other.
30. CULTURALLY SENSITIVE AND BIAS-FREE LANGUAGE
Just as important as awareness of the existence of
World Englishes is that practicing cultural sensitivity. To
write a culturally sensitive way means to be aware that
cultural differences and similarities between people exist
and that this should be assigned in positive or negative
value via words and descriptions selected in writing.
Academic and professional writings are characterized by
bias-free language.
31. CULTURALLY SENSITIVE AND BIAS-FREE LANGUAGE
Students, scholars, professionals, and anyone
wishing to maintain harmonious communicative
relations should be careful in using words and
phrases that do not discriminate against particular
groups whether in terms of race ethnicity, gender,
social class, age, and disability. The essential point
is to communicate in a way that is respectful of
diversity.
32. GENERAL PRINCIPLES TO FOLLOW WHEN REFERRING
TO DIFFERENT GROUPS OR CATEGORIES
RACE AND ETHNICITY
RACISM is a form of discrimination against
a person or persons of a different race. In
general, it is best to avoid identifying people by
race or ethnic group.
33. GENERAL PRINCIPLES TO FOLLOW WHEN REFERRING
TO DIFFERENT GROUPS OR CATEGORIES
GENDER AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION
SEXISM refers to the prejudice and
discrimination based on sex or gender. To be
exclusive of all people in general references,
one should favor gender-neutral words and
phrases over gender-biased words.
35. GENERAL PRINCIPLES TO FOLLOW WHEN REFERRING
TO DIFFERENT GROUPS OR CATEGORIES
SOCIAL CLASS
CLASS DISCRIMINATION or CLASSISM is a form
of prejudice against person or people because of their
social class. An example of language with a bias against
class is the American term “white trash”, which is not
only a racial slur but a classist one that refers to white
people, usually from the rural Southern United States,
coming from a lower social class inside the white
population.
36. GENERAL PRINCIPLES TO FOLLOW WHEN REFERRING
TO DIFFERENT GROUPS OR CATEGORIES
AGE
AGEISM is a form of discrimination against
other people because of their age, or assuming that
older people are less physically, intellectually, oe
emotionally able than other age groups. The
capabilities of younger people should also not
underestimated on the basis of their age.
37. GENERAL PRINCIPLES TO FOLLOW WHEN REFERRING
TO DIFFERENT GROUPS OR CATEGORIES
DISABILITIES
Discrimination in this area often arises because
of lack of understanding and awareness. Therefore,
first, it is important to distinguish some terms that
are mistakenly understood to be synonymous.
When referring to people with disabilities, the focus
should be on the person, not the condition.
38. GENERAL PRINCIPLES TO FOLLOW WHEN REFERRING
TO DIFFERENT GROUPS OR CATEGORIES
These general guiding principles are
helpful, but not always apt. One may also
simply ask concerned people what their
preferred terms are.
40. Chapter objectives:
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
1. appreciate the importance and history of public speaking;
2. speak in public in an organized and competent manner; and
3. analyze speeches and identify perceived strengths and
weaknesses.
41. PUBLIC SPEAKING is an important life skill, yet few people master it.
LESSON 1: PUBLIC SPEAKING
LESSON 1: PUBLIC SPEAKING
42. is the process of communicating information to an audience
Public Speaking
Different Types of Public Speaking
• Speaking to Inform (Informative, Argumentative Speech)
• Speaking to Persuade, Motivate or Take Action (Persuasive, Argumentative,
Controversial, Policy Speeches)
• Speaking to Entertain
43. According to acclaimed public speakers Dale Carnegie and Joseph Berg Esenwein
(2007),
“Public speaking is public utterance, public issuance, of the man himself; therefore,
the first thing both in time and importance is that the man should be and think and
feel things that are worthy of being given forth.”
44. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. understand the history of public speaking and the nature of
communication;
2. dissect a speech using the general principles of logos, pathos,
and ethos.
3. give a short, prepared speech in public.
LESSON OBJECTIVES:
45. The most well-known public speaking traditions come from the WEST, specifically
from the Greco-Roman tradition. The Greeks studied the art of rhetoric on the
island of Sicily, and it began with a practical need. Their government had been
overthrown, a new democracy was formed, and the Greek courts were filled with
clashing property claims. The Greek teacher of rhetoric, Corax, and his student,
Tisias, proceeded to help citizens when it came to speaking persuasively in courts of
law, and this led to the expansion of the teaching of rhetoric to mainland Greece.
A Short History of Public Speaking
According to Corax, a basic speech has three parts, the INTRODUCTION,
EVIDENCE, and CONCLUSION, and this simple organization of speeches has
endured throughout the ages (Morreale 2010).
46. Other famous Greek teachers were PROTAGORAS, the father of debate, who
made his students argue for and against issues of the day, to sharpen their
reasoning skills and appreciate different sides of an issue. And there was the
famous Greek philosopher, ARISTOTLE, also known as the father of
modern communication. Aristotle wrote a treatise entitled “Rhetoric,” where
he discussed the use of logos (logical argument), pathos (emotional
argument), and ethos (the speaker’s character and credibility), in the use of
persuasive speaking.
According to Greenville Kleiser (2009), in Successful Methods in Public Speaking,
“ The great orators of the world did not regard eloquence as simply an
endowment of nature, but applied themselves diligently to Greece was
Demosthenes. In the beginning, he had many flaws when it came to public
speaking, chief among them were his stammer and weak voice.
47. According to Kleiser (2009), Demosthenes practiced earnestly by “declaiming on
the seashore with pebbles in his mouth, walking up and downhill while reciting,” and
that his speeches were known for their deliberation and forethought.
On the other hand, the most famous Roman orator was Cicero, whose eloquence
was described as a “resistless torrent” (Kleiser, 2009). Cicero was a statesman
who argued that the teaching of rhetoric should be considered an art form, and
that this could be useful in “all practical and public affairs.” Cicero believed that in
order to prepare a speech, one should think first of one’s listeners and their
interest, and to use certain strategies, such as using humor, questions, etc., to
engage the audience. (Morreale,2010)
The Roman Lawyer and Educator, Quintilian, also forwarded the idea that public
speakers should be ethical. According to Morreale (2010), the ideal speaker was “a good
man speaking well . . . A good speaker is ethical and pf high character, and speaking well
meant being well-informed and presenting the speech effectively.
48. It is interesting to note that during these times, women were not allowed to
speak publicly in these countries, and that for a long time, this was
true for women in other areas of the world. However, during pre-colonial times, the
Philippines was one of the few places that allowed women to speak in public for
the purpose of presiding over religious rituals. These women were
known as the babaylan, priestesses of the community, and along with the
warriors of the community, the mandirigma, they were the leaders of pre-
colonial Philippines (Mallari, 2013).
Although most of the babaylan were women, babaylan priests also existed,
wearing feminine clothing and adopting a feminized role in Philippine society.
The Philippines actually has its own tradition of public speaking. It is called
different words in different regions in the Philippines.
49. According to Montemayor (n.d), among the Tagalogs, the Karagatan is said to be
a game wherein young men and women duel with each other using words when it
comes to talking about love, while the “huwego de Prenda … is a game used to
entertain guests and the bereaved family during wakes.”
During the American Period, the more widely known Balagtasan was also
staged, on order to honor Francisco Balagtas, a well known Filipino poet.
The Balagtasan is “like an ordinary debate, except that one has to reason and
argue in verse. Two master poets are assigned to defend the pros and cons of
an issue, and a board of judges sits to determine the winner.” At first, this whole
enterprise was scripted and staged, but thereafter, they were made in a more
impromptu manner.
50. When the Americans brought public education in the Philippines, they also brought
their public speaking traditions along with them. The Americans wanted to
distinguish themselves from the Spanish colonizers by emphasizing public
education, ad did so on a massive scale. They did this using the medium of the
English language, which has it’s own peculiarities and forms, foremost among
them is the dictum to be straightforward. It is anchored on the public speaking
tradition founded on Western Civilization, which is based on the Greek and the
Roman traditions.
In this manner, the Filipino public speaking tradition brings with it the
flamboyant, poetic manner that flourished under Spanish colonizarion, and the
simpler, methodolical public speaking traditioms of the West.
51. Sample speeches of public speaking
Bataan Has Fallen – Salvador P. Lopez
The Filipino is Worth Dying For – Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino, Jr.
Speech to the Troops at Tilbury – Queen Elizabeth I
Second Inaugural Adress – Abraham Lincoln
52. LESSON 2: The Tools Needed in Critical/Creative Reports
LESSON OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Create a credible, logical report that is thoroughly researched and fast-
checked;
2. Deliver a report using effective verbal and non-verbal communication; and
3. Augment the report with relevant and eye-catching visual aids.
LESSON 2: The Tools Needed in Critical/Creative Reports
53. BEST PRACTICES OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
INTRODUCTION
What makes a speech electric? What
makes a speech so effective it can make the
audience have goosebumps or make them
flush in rage or joy? Some speeches can be
so effective they trigger adrenaline, while
other speeches, just as effective, trigger a
sense of peace and calm in the midst of
chaos.
54. PERFORMANCE
Speeches are performances, and they are delivered best when they have the feel of authenticity
and earnestness.
People respond when they think that the one speaking is being honest and sincere, and they
respond even more strongly when they feel that they can relate to the speaker in question.
PLAN THE SPEECH
It is important to express oneself in an expressive and articulate manner
It is best to choose one’s words carefully, and to ensure that one’s speech builds on the
foundations of logos, pathos, and ethos.
EYE CONTACT
One way of coming across as authentic is the ability to make good eye contact with the
audience, and to speak in a manner that touches them.
It is important to engage the audience, and eye contact helps in doing that.
SPEAKING STYLE
Different people have different speaking styles, and one can only find one’s personal style
through constant practice.
55. HAND GESTURES
Hand gestures can create as much of an
impact as the content of the speech itself.
They must always look smooth and natural,
rather than robotic or artificial.
RECORDING THE SPEECH FOR FEEDBACK
One of the best practices in public speaking is to videotape
speakers, and then have these speakers watch themselves.
They can watch for the flaws of their performances, instead of
being too dependent on the teacher or their peers when it
comes to constructive criticism.
PEER EVALUATION
It is important to have discerning teachers, coaches, or peers to provide feedback when it
comes to the effectivity of one’s speech.
Feedback from people is important, and this will be a great tool in improving one’s speaking
style in general
56. APPEARANCE
When it comes to appearance, it is important to look
credible and worthy of respect.
CLOTHING
One’s dresses should match the kind of audience one
wants to impress
For men, this would mean donning a suit and tie at the
most formal level, or at the very least, the use of long-
sleeved button-down shirts, slacks, and leather shoes
For women, a pantsuit or a formal coat and skirt
ensemble should suffice. In less formal instances, a
dress or blouse and skirt (or slacks) outfit should do as
well.
GOOD GROOMING
Good grooming is a must, and that extends to one’s hair to one’s nails. As long as one looks
neat and clean, that should be enough to satisfy most audience’s requirements
57. VISUAL AIDS
It has become de rigueur for audiences to expect
speeches to be accompanied with visual aids, such as
PowerPoint presentations, video or audio clips, and
infographics.
POWERPOINT PRESENTATIONS
When it comes to the use of PowerPoint, one should
ensure that the font size of the text is not too small. An
acceptable size font would be type 24 or larger, and the
text should be in dark colors for easier reading.
The best PowerPoint presentations are not text-heavy;
instead, they are visually oriented, which is why the use
of photographs, illustrations, charts, and the like would
better serve one’s use of the medium.
HANDOUTS
It would be best to have handouts ready for one audience , so that members of the audience will
not have to scramble when taking notes during the presentation.
58. FEEDBACK
Although the speech is a performance, it is also one where it’s audience can
participate, often by the speaker asking rhetorical or directing actual questions
to the audience.
It is always good to read the verbal and non-verbal cues from the audience,
such as whether they agree with what one is saying or whether they are
resisting to certain ideas, mirrored by their use of body language.
CONCLUSION
In the end, public speaking is a dynamic performance that is meant to
disseminate information, create greater awareness and evoke emotions in the
audience.
59. SAMPLE REPORTS
News reports are still the best samples when it comes to delivering the
best reports
1. “The Marcos Million” (Jim Laurie [20/20, ABC News])
2. “Duterte’s Drug War: Manila’s Brutal Night Shift” (Raffy Lerma
[BBC])
60. LESSON 3: TED Talks and Critical/Creative Thinking in Today’s Society
LESSON OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this lesson, you should be
able to:
1. Know the features of a good TED talk
2. To perform a good TED talk using
visual aids; and
3. Give a talk in front of a corporate or
academic audience, in a business or
an academic conference.
LESSON OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this lesson, you should be
able to:
1. Know the features of a good TED talk
2. To perform a good TED talk using
visual aids; and
3. Give a talk in front of a corporate or
academic audience, in a business or
an academic conference.
LESSON 3: TED Talks and Critical/Creative Thinking in Today’s Society
61. According to John Bates, “ I think the world needs people with great ideas to
have the communication skills to match, because we need those ideas more
than ever ”
When people have good ideas, they should be able to share it with
others. There are times when funding a good idea relies solely on
one’s public speaking skills, or times when groundbreaking ideas
need to be shared to create a social revolution.
62. When people speak in front of an audience, they are already on a place
of vulnerability, which is why some people freeze up or are afraid of
showing their emotions. The opposite should take place-speakers should
use their emotions to connect to the audience- it makes them more
relatable and more accessible. Personal anecdotes are you can in order
great ways to connect to an audience.
It is important to speak slowly so the audience can understand the
concepts one talks about. The temptation is to speak as fast as you can
in order to get the experience over and done with, but that would simply
give a bad impression.
63. WHAT IS TED TALKS?
• TECHNOLOGY
• ENTERTAINMENT
• DESIGN
Founded in 1984, began in
1990 as annual conference
where Technology,
Entertainment and Design
converged
Non-profit platform for “ideas
worth spreading” to make
great ideas accessible and
spark conversation
TED is a global so set of
conferences devoted in
spreading ideas in the form of
short, powerful talks (18
minutes or less)
64. SAMPLE OF TED TALKS
1. “What Reality Are You Creating for Yourself?” (Isaac Lidsky)
2. “All it Takes is 10 Mindful Minutes” (Andy Puddicombe)
3. “Confessions of a Bad Feminist” (Roxanne Gay)
4. “Life, Learning and Filipino Martial Arts” (Felipe Jocano Jr.)
5. “What Makes a Good Life? (Robert Waldinger)
65.
66. 1. know the content, purpose, and significance of scholarly
documented essays and collaborative knowledge-production in
the twenty-first century.
2. gain critical thinking skills to read high-level texts on topics of
social and cultural significance in the Philippines and larger
contexts;
3. be able to evaluate sources of information, using old and new
technologies; and
4. practice high-level writing as a process of thinking, planning,
reading, and evaluating, as well as creating and revising
knowledge for the benefit of Philippines society.
Chapter Objectives:
by the end of this chapter, you should:
68. ACADEMIC WRITING
• The label “academic” refers to a student’s informed, scholarly, and insightful contribution to
ongoing discussions of relevant topics or issues.
• Academic writing is a form of language used by people who communicate within an academic
context using written means.
• Such context is formal in terms of relationships, expectations, thinking, performance, creativity
and competition among peers.
• Therefore, the language form used must reflect such formality; especially when
communicating in written form due to the permanence of the means.
69. Characteristics Explanation
1. Specific and Clear Language Academic writing should not sound pompous. It
should not be difficult to read because academic
knowledge is meant to be shared with others.
Example: “carbonaceous gem” for “diamond”
“Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star”
2. Write in the register or style of academic
writing
Following the rules of Standard English or avoiding
usage that are considered ungrammatical or non-
standard.
3. Formal Academic writing is formal in terms of vocabulary
used. It means that colloquial expressions,
abbreviated forms of verbs, contractions, sexist or
racial terms, idioms, and emotional language should
be generally avoided.
4. Explicit Academic writing is explicit in relation to the
message communicated and the connections
among the parts of the text. Sentences must be
connected in a clear way by means of signal words
and phrases that show the logical organization of
text.
70. Characteristics Explanation
5. Precise Sentences, terms, dates figures, and data must be
precise and texts must be focused. Avoid general
expressions like “a lot of people”, “many things”
etc. Be sure of the meaning of a word before using
it. Be sure of having a clear focus for each
paragraph.
6. Structured Essays, study reports, and thesis or dissertations
have specific structures. That fact assures that
information is presented in a logical way and that
ideas can be developed clearly. Follow the
structure that characterizes each type of academic
text.
7. Unbiased Academic writing intends to inform or to produce
reasonably persuasive arguments. Try to convince
using arguments that can be evaluated. To
achieve such a goal, you need to use language
and arguments that express neutrality.
71. Characteristics Explanation
8. Responsible In academic writing, you are responsible of:
-providing evidence to support your claims
-managing information ethically
-understanding sources deeply
9. Supported Academic writing is characterized by acknowledging
sources used to develop your own views or ideas.
Plagiarism is considered a severe academic crime.
72. DOCUMENTED ESSAY
• “Documented essay” is another term for “academic paper”; the term
“documented” emphasizes that any kind of scholarly or academic
writing requires the writer to:
• (1) read and gather information from a variety of relevant sources on
a chosen topic,
• (2) clearly acknowledge these supporting sources, and
• (3) add to scholarship by selecting, arranging, commenting on, or
even debunking the information from these sources.
73. DOCUMENTED ESSAYS VERSUS STANDARD ESSAYS
Documented Essay
• requires concrete supporting information from relevant sources
Standard Essay
• generally known facts and personal experiences of the writer are sufficient to
support the thesis
74. PLAGIARISM
- Borrow someone else’s words and make these appear as your own.
Types of plagiarism
1. Copies word-for-word sentences, paragraph, whole article, etc.
2. Borrows someone else’s ideas, rewords them to make the idea seem like
her/his own.
3. Translating to other languages of someone else ideas that were expressed
in English or other foreign languages and fails to enclose the translated
material in quotation marks.
75. WRITING A DOCUMENTED ESSAY
• Do not plagiarize.
• Be aware of the purpose and style of the documented essay.
• All borrowed materials have to be documented by means of acknowledging the writer.
• Armed with knowledge of what to document and know how to acknowledge their sources properly.
These includes attributions, in-text or parenthetic citations, and list of work cited.
• At the end of the paper, list all the sources that have been cited or mentioned. Bibliographic
information about these sources will appear in an alphabetically arranged list of works cited.
77. Lesson Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Conceptualize an original argument or thesis on a relevant social or cultural
issue;
2. Organize supporting ideas into a working plan or outline; and
3. Write a paragraph that integrates original ideas with properly documented
quotations, paraphrases, and/or summaries from a variety of supporting
sources.
78. WRITING AS A PROCESS
-When we say writing as a process, students are involve in the process of learning about
the subject, other people’s ideas, and their own writing.
- It includes three stages such as pre-writing, writing, and rewriting.
“that writing is first and foremost a social activity; that the act of writing can be a means
of learning and discovery”
-Olson, 1999
79. STAGES OF THE WRITING PROCESS
1. PRE-WRITING STAGE
CHOOSING A TOPIC AND LIMITING IT
-is defined as “everything that takes place before the first draft”. It begins with brainstorming
exercises and preliminary research to select a topic. Once a topic has been chosen, this should be
limited based on the type of written output required. Students should ask the following practical
questions:
• What are the objectives (of the course or the professor) that need to be met by this paper?
• What are my objectives in writing this paper?
• What are the length requirements of this paper (minimum and maximum number of words or
pages)?
• How much time do I need to write it?
• What are the other restrictions or limits imposed by the professor or the course?
• What has already been written about this topic and what new ideas can I add to the conversation
about it?
80. Example of notes leading up to the selection of a narrow and focused topic for a
documented essay:
Brainstorming: Philippine culture expressions, terms, behavior, and
practices unique to the Philippines expressions like
“Ano ba yan!” , “ukay-ukay” “Philippine hospitality”,
bringing home pasalubong , the so-called tingi-tingi
system
General Topic Selected: The tingi-tingi system (the practice of buying and
selling by piee or small amount, e.g., one stick of
cigarettes versus a pack, a sachet of shampoo versus
a bottle)
Specific Topic: The cultural significance of the tingi-tingi system in
the twenty-first century
81. ASKING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND ESTABLISHING THE
SIGNIFICANCE OF ONE’S RESEARCH
-The next helpful step is to barrage the specific topic with questions to come up with the
essay’s main Research Questions. Although it is helpful to begin with questions that ask
who, what, when, or where, these should be used as background research questions.
COMPOSING A THESIS STATEMENT
-This is the explicit statement of what will be the paper’s central idea, point, or
argument, that is – the main assertion that will be supported by the entire essay. It is
also, essentially, the tentative answer to the research question.
82. PREPARING A WRITING OUTLINE
-It is very helpful for students to prepare a writing outline for any type of essay,
and particularly for an academic, documented one. An outline consist of three
main sections:
INTRODUCTION that includes background, definitions, questions,
quotations, or even try to explain why you are writing the essay.
DEVELOPMENT includes the important facts and information, causes and
effects, results, prevention.
CONCLUSION included the recap of the introduction or the summary of the
entire essay.
83. DOING RESEARCH AND FINDING CREDIBLE SOURCES
-Writing is not only a social activity but a collaborative one. Writing an
academic essay means adding one’s voice to the conversation of other writers
and scholars. To do this, a writer needs to familiarize himself or herself with this
conversation; a writer must first do research and gather information from a wide
variety of sources available.
84. 2. WRITING STAGE
- The act of producing a first draft. Donald Murray says that it is the fastest
part of the writing process. That is because if the essay is well planned,
drafting will not be difficult.
3. REWRITING STAGE
- This third stage involves “researching, rethinking, redesigning, rewriting –
and finally, line by line editing, the demanding satisfying process of making
every word right”. The writer review the paper to see how it may be
improved.
86. Lesson Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
• Explain what concepts are, through the critical reading of sample documented
essays on concepts of social and cultural significance in the twenty-first
century:
• Evaluate sample documented essays written by Philippine scholars to
explore techniques of developing and explaining concepts; and
• Write an effective documented essay that critically engages with a concept
from Philippine culture.
87. WRITING ABOUT CONCEPTS
- The term “concept” is a synonyms for an idea, notion, or thought. More
importantly though, “concept” may also refer to a perception, conception, or
impression of something – a theory or perspective about something.
SYNTHESIS
- For many academics, the writing process does not end with rewriting. Ideally,
the kind of collaboratively produced knowledge in academic papers should be
shared with other researchers, scholars, writers, and readers. Academics
often write multiple drafts, spin off papers on related topics, and more
research papers that they share at conferences and lectures or publish in
academic journals and books.
91. Lesson Objectives:
By the need of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Describe the purpose and features of the register of
professional communication ;
2. Know the principles that guide professional
communication; and
3. Apply these principles by revising professional
documents or excerpts from these.
92. CORPORATE CULTURE AND PROFESSIONAL
COMMUNICATION
People shift their language depending on a variety of social
factors: Who they are talking to the number of people they are
addressing, and general social context. Physical factors matter
as well, suc as the distance between speakers or the presence
of a crowd. Also to be considered is the chronological factor, or
when the utterance is made, such as a time of day, a certain
point in a week, or a season of a year. Finally, cultural
conventions guide the communication situation; for example.
“no comment” is a typical response from both politician and
celebrities to journalists whose questions they do not wish to
answer.
93. CORPORATE CULTURE
• Defines as “the total sum of the values,
costumes, traditions and meanings that
make a company unique.”
94. PROFESSIONAL PURPOSE
• Record important workplace information (via
minutes of a meeting, secretarial notes, official
documentation of proceedings)
• Give or ask for information from people within
the company (memos, business letters,
professional reports)
• Persuade readers to take action (professional
proposals, marketing or promotional materials,
job application letters)
95. AUDIENCE OF PROFESSIONAL
Professional writing targets a specific audience,
sometimes one reader, sometimes multiple readers.
What is important in any case is to consider the level of
knowledge of the single reader or of the audience. The
audience may be homogenous ones; a “discourse
community” with the same level of technical knowledge;
a group of people who share consumptions about what
channels, formats, and styles to use for communication,
what topics to discuss and how to discuss them, and
what constitutes evidence”
96. AUDIENCE OF PROFESSIONAL
When writing for specific discourse community of
professionals, like lawyers, engineers, or architects, the
writer may use technical terms that are familiar to the
readers without having to explain what these mean.
97. AUDIENCE OF PROFESSIONAL
Professional writing targets a specific audience,
sometimes one reader, sometimes multiple readers.
What is important in any case is to consider the level of
knowledge of the single reader or of the audience. The
audience may be homogenous ones; a “discourse
community” with the same level of technical knowledge;
a group of people who share consumptions about what
channels, formats, and styles to use for communication,
what topics to discuss and how to discuss them, and
what constitutes evidence”
98. STYLE OF PROFESSIONAL WRITING
• necessarily written in a particular style
or register that aims to build goodwill.
• Reader-centered
• emphasizes the positive
• uses bias-free language
99. PROFESSIONAL LANGUAGE
PROFESSIONAL DOCUMENTS require
language that is appropriate to the
workplace setting: polite, professional
rather than overly personal, and
grammatically accurate.
101. PROFESSIONAL LANGUAGE
PERSONAL MATTERS AND OVERLY FRIENDLY
LANGUAGE should not appear in workplace
corresponds.
Overly Personal Professional
Hey, I’m not sure if you heard, but
I’ve been having a bunch of family
problems lately. My son was
recently expelled, my daughter is
in rehab, and to top it off, my wife
hasn’t spoken to me in days! So, I
really need a few days off to try to
get my home situation
straightened out. Please help me
out by approving this request.
I am writing to request a three-day
leave. I have some urgent
personal business to attend to,
and I would certainly appreciate
you approving this request. Thank
you very much for your
consideration.
102. PROFESSIONAL LANGUAGE
It should go with saying professional
writing should exhibit GRAMMATICAL
ACCURACY in the use of Standard
English.
104. PROFESSIONAL LANGUAGE
EMOJIS or EMOTICONS and shortcuts that are
commonly used in text messages and electronic
communication have no place in professional
writing
Examples: exclamation points (!), question marks
and exclamation point (?!), dramatic ellipses (…)
105. GENRES OF PROFESSIONAL WRITING
Each type of documents follows specific
generic conventions which are simply
out, conventions for the formatting, lay
out, and contents of the documents.
106. GENRES OF PROFESSIONAL WRITING
Business letter
• document that conveys information
to a member of one organization
from someone outside of that
organization.
107. GENRES OF PROFESSIONAL WRITING
Memo (memorandum)
• document written by a member of an
organization to one or more
members of the same organization
108. THE DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF PROFESSIONAL
WRITING
Size
• A4, SHORT BOND, US LEGAL
Type
• Board, bond, craft
Quality
• Substance 20 or 24, 70, 80 gsm
109. THE DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF PROFESSIONAL
WRITING
• the use of negative space or white
space
• Proper arrangement
• Specific font size, font choices and
effects
• Typography choices
111. CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
“Cross-cultural faux pas result when we
fail to recognize that persons of other
cultural backgrounds have different
goals, customs, traditions, thought
patterns, and values from our own.”
(Pascasio, 1999)
112. CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
Americans value promptness. They generally
make use of schedules and evaluate each
other’s behavior in these terms
This is also true in Japan, where the trains –
and – people are expected to arrive on
schedule.
113. CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
In the Philippines, “to arrive late is the norm
rather than the exception and it has a
different meaning depending on how late is
one is, the circumstances of the meeting,
and how well one knows personal being met”
114. CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
“Language reflects the realities of a given
culture and affects the way its members
define their experiences.” Language can
reflect how concepts like time, distance,
color, pain, and so on perceived differently
by people from different cultures.
115. EFFECTIVE INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
DIRECTNESS VERSUS CIRCUMLOCUTION
• Brevity, clarity, and directness of
communication are favored in American and
British cultures.
• As Chan (1999) explains it, “this means that
a message, an idea and a request, should
be conveyed to the audience or recipient
clearly and in as few words as mandatory.
116. EFFECTIVE INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
PERSONAL/FRIENDLY LANGUAGE VERSUS
RESPECTFUL LANGUAGE
• Chan (1999) calls attention to the
emphasizes in western contexts on using
friendly and personal – rather than
impersonal – language in the workplace.
Employers and employees are encouraged
to use personal pronouns such as I, you, me
and we in writing.
117. EFFECTIVE INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Gloria S. Chan says that intercultural
communication is more challenging that
intracultural communication because there is
greater mastery of one’s own language and
culture. Yet for intercultural communication to be
effective, adaptations to a culture different from
one’s own are necessary. One also need to abide
by the cultural norms and standards English
imposes on the users of language” (Chan, 1999).
118. LESSON OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Construct basic workplace documents based on the principles of
corporate/ professional communication;
2. Write an effective cover letter and resume based on the guidelines for the
job application process; and
3. Effectively introduce oneself and answer questions in a scenario
simulating the job interview.
LESSON 3: SIMULATING THE PHILIPPINE WORKPLACE
119. MEMOS
The memo follows a specific format designed for internal
communication.
It tends to be brief (one page is enough), and its content is arranged
into paragraphs, typically just one to three.
The memos subject line is of prime importance.
Good-news memos and letters can highlight the good news in the
subject line, but bad-news letters and memos should have a neutral
subject line.
A good subject line is specific, concise, and appropriate to the kind of
message.
120. Differences between ineffective and effective subject lines
A.
TOO GENERAL: Training Seminar
BETTER: Dates for 2018 Training Seminar
OR: Schedule of Training Seminar on Conducting Interviews
B.
WORDY: Survey of Students’ Preferences Regarding Course Offerings
BETTER: Students’ Course Offering Preferences
OR: Survey of Students’ Course Preferences
121. BUSINESS LETTER
The business letter, like the memo, should be clear, concise, and organized
Typically, it contains a brief introductory paragraph establishing the context and purpose of the letter,
a middle section conveying details of the message in a logical sequence, and a brief concluding
paragraph politely requesting action, thanking the reader, or providing any additional pertinent
information
The main message should be the focus of the letter, it is important to write effective openings and
closings.
Openings should be clear and direct, that is, they should immediately tell the reader the purpose of
the letter.
• INDIRECT: Thank you for your email of May 11 in which you inquired about the availability
of sprinkler part H640B.
• DIRECT: You will be glad to know that we have an ample supply of H640B parts
The closing or concluding paragraph wraps up the main points while building goodwill via what is
called a positive or forward-looking final message
122. WORK EMAIL
Emails are eco-friendly, as large documents may be sent economically
and without using paper resources
Like memos and business letters, email messages should be warm and
friendly, but not too conversational, emotional, or intimate.
The goal is a professional tone-neither too formal nor too
conversational.
Workplace emails have salutations that use the colon at the end, but in
certain contexts when sender and recipient have a close working
relationship, titles are dropped and first names are used.
123. COVER LETTER and RESUME
The first two workplace documents any person has to accomplish upon or even
before graduation are the cover letter (or letter of application) and the resume.
A cover letter is a “letter you write to a prospective employer to persuade him/her
to give you a job”
It is typically just one-page long, with a message conveyed about three to five
paragraphs .
The cover letter is formatted like a business letter, but it has its own specific
challenges.
The date and inside address should be provided, the latter including the contact
person’s name and position, as well as the company name and address.
Like in business letters, the salutations should begin with the word “Dear” followed
by the appropriate courtesy title (Mr., Ms., Dr., Prof., Atty., Engr., Hon., etc.) and a
colon (:).
124. COVER LETTER and RESUME
In the first paragraph, the applicant should immediately state an interest in the
specified position as well as give reasons, for example, background, as to his/her
suitability as a candidate.
In the second paragraph, qualifications should be supported with concrete and
specific details, such as highlights from the applicant’s resume.
The applicant interest in the company should be emphasized further with details that
call attention to the fact that he/she knows the firm, field, or industry well.
In the closing paragraph, there should be a request fir an interview or some form of
follow-up action. It helps to provide contact information or mention the option of
calling or sending an email to arrange an interview at a convenient time for both
parties.
The complimentary close should be formal (“Sincerely,”, “Respectfully,”, or “Very
Truly Yours,” ).
125. 24 April, 2011 Date Line
Dr. Anna M. Rodriguez
Chairman, Department of English and Literature
College of Arts and Letters, University of the Philippines Inside Address
Diliman, Quezon City
Dear Ms. Rodriguez: Salutation
Body
I am writing to express my interest to return to teach at the Department of English and Comparative
Literature (DECL). A former colleague informed me of the current availability of positions there. In line with
this, I would like to request for your consideration of my application.
I served for six and half years as an instructor with your department and, in the four years since I left, I
have grown in experience as an educator and a scholar. I am close to completing my PhD in Literary
studies from NUS, my dissertation on rewritings of Charles Dickens; “a Christmas carol” is currently
pending examination . At NUS, I served as a teaching assistant for 4 sems at the Department of English
Language and Literature (DELL), teaching Introduction to literature (EN1101) and Films and other
126. Cultural Texts (EN2102). I concurrently took modules in areas such as literary theory, cultural studies,
the analysis of discourse & lots of other stuff. I also have a background in creative writing, my
undergraduate major, and in English language studies, which was the focus of my work for a master’s
degree. And I am trained in professional education and have received favorable evaluations from my
students both in UP and NUS. Given my teaching experience, academic advancement, and excellent
capabilities, I believe I am suited for a position with the DECL.
Attached in this application are supporting documents which includes my resume, undergraduate and
graduate transcripts, evaluations of students, and sample syllabuses for subjects I have taught. I am
very much willing to come in for an interview. Hoping for your kind consideration. Thank you very
much.
Sincerely, Complimentary Close
ARSCruz Signature
Aurora Roja S. Reyes
PhD Candidate, National University of Singapore
127. JOB INTERVIEW
An interview consisting of a conversation between a job applicant and a representative of
an employer which is conducted to assess whether the applicant should be hired.
128. THE MOST COMMON TYPES OF JOB INTERVIEW
The Traditional One-on-one interview
- The candidate is interviewed by one person.
The Panel Interview
- The candidate is interviewed by a group or
panel
129. THE MOST COMMON TYPES OF JOB INTERVIEW
The Stress Interview
- The candidate is asked a series of difficult
and intimidating questions to see how he/she
handles stress.
The Group Interview
- The candidate is interviewed along with fellow
candidates
130. Before the Interview
• HAVE THE RIGHT MINDSET. Answer their questions honestly so that you may both find out
if you can meet the company’s needs.
• RESEARCH. Gather information about the company you are applying to so you can adjust
your responses to fit that company.
• KNOW THE TYPICAL QUESTIONS ASKED. You should practice by preparing responses
for general types of questions.
• KNOW WHAT QUESTIONS ARE ILLEGAL.
• PREPARE YOUR OWN QUESTIONS. Take the opportunity to ask about your duties, what it
is like to work in the company, what training programs are available, and if there are
possibilities for promotion from this position
131. During the Interview
• ARRIVE EARLY AND PRESENT YOURSELF WELL. Be on time, even 5 minutes early, so
that you have time to compose yourself before you step into the interview.
• SMILE, MAKE FREQUENT EYE CONTACT, AND CONTROL YOUR BODY MOVEMENTS.
Sit erect, leaning forward slightly, Keep your feet on the floor. Sound enthusiastic and
interested-but sincere.
• BE CLEAR. Answer questions briefly and clearly.
• WAIT FOR THE INTERVIEWER TO OFFICIALLY SIGNAL THE END OF THE INTERVIEW.
You may ask at this point, what action will follow or when you will be contacted. Then, thank
the interviewer for considering you for the position.
133. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Appreciate the fundamentals of persuasive speaking and how logos, pathos, and ethos are used
in it;
2. Understand and detect logical fallacies in speeches and written texts;
3. Analyze persuasive speeches and evaluate their worth;
4. Give effective speeches for and against issues of the day;
5. Persuade people when it comes to pitching a project, when it comes to marketing, in the context
of a corporate conference, and in the public sphere as advocate; and
6. Initiate change or create campaigns in the public sphere.
134. LESSON OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Know how to create a solid argument;
2. Understand several logical fallacies and how to spot them; and
3. give persuasive speeches with excellent logical reasoning and
argumentation
LESSON 1: THE IMPORTANCE OF PERSUASIVE SPEECH
135. THE BASICS OF ARGUMENTATION
ARGUMENT
Is composed of three features: Assumption, Evidence and Explanation.
If any of the three features are missing, these are merely opinions.
In the case of evidence without assertions, these are simply bald facts that need further
contextualization.
136. ASSUMPTION
Is an opinion that needs evidence to back it up.
It is not an opinion that asks for evidence, because it has already been proven and
considered to be true by all accounts
EVIDENCE
Can be any of the following: Concrete facts and Figures; a philosophical ideology agreed
upon to be true by everyone; and anecdotal evidence.
The strongest bodies of evidence are based on facts and figures, and it is important to that
they are true and come from reliable resources.
EXPLANATION
tells the audience why the evidence supports the assumption must not commit any
logical fallacies.
A stronger explanation would go to the premises of the argument and analyze this point by
point, in order to make the audience fully understand the argument
138. Lesson Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Pitch a project
2. Market a product; and
3. Take part in a corporate conference.
139. Corporations and private institutions rely on persuasion in order to get
investments, broker deals, and find clients. Persuasion comes, not just in the
words that are used, but also with snappy audio-visual presentations and
infectious music. It can be dead serious, as in corporate negotiations or
seriously fun, as in marketing products and pitching projects.
In this lesson, you will learn how to use persuasion in marketing,
pitching, and creating buzzworthy events. Although this can be primarily used
by Business and Advertising majors, it can also be used by anyone who is
interested in putting up a business someday, pitching a product to fund, or
getting something off the ground. It would also be helpful in other professions,
because these skills can some in handy someday.
140. PITCHING A PROJECT
According to Brad Pray, to stay in business, you’ve got to earn business.
That’s a given. You have to train your ears to listen to your clients and your eyes to
identify gaps or shortcomings in their processes, content, or other areas- problems
they may or may not recognize themselves. And then, you have to pitch your solution.
Pitching requires a delicate balance:
• You have to be thorough but nor long-winded
• convincing but not pushy
• well- rehearsed but not rigid
• Confident but not cocky
141. SEVEN STEPS TO PITCHING THE PERFECT PROJECT
1. Know your client.
2. Tie your pitch directly to your client’s business goals
3. Inject a “wow” factor
4. Keep it simple
5. Consider providing options.
6. Play devil’s advocate
7. Be passionate
142. KNOW YOUR CLIENT
Research. Ask questions. Listen more than you talk. Research some more Spend
time with them in the field. The better you understand your client inside and out – their goals,
audience, obstacles, successes, frustrations, personalities, approaches to problem- solving –
the better your odds are of finding the right project.
TIE YOUR PITCH DIRECTLY TO YOUR CLIENT’S BUSINES GOALS
They have a need you can satisfy or a problem you can solve. Maybe they know it;
maybe they don’t. Make the connection clear and make it often. It is like a win-win situation;
we boost our chances of scoring meaningful work, and they home in on the conversations
they need most.
INJECT A “WOW” FACTOR
It doesn’t necessarily mean the scale of the project you’re pitching. After all, not every
solution is a monumental, life altering one. You can wowed them with hard data and
examples of business best practices. Educating them on user paths, user experience, and
information architecture helped build a comprehensive case for the project.
143. KEEP IT SIMPLE
In business, the faster the pitch, the better. Few people have the time or patience for a
long dog-and-pony show. Edit yourself. Aim to be comprehensive yet concise.
CONSIDER PROVIDING OPTIONS
To showcasing your team’s creativity and agility, it also reinforces to the client that you
understand the importance of their bottom line and that you’re willing to partner with them to
achieve it.
PLAY DEVIL’S ADVOCATE
No matter whom you’re pitching to, they’re bound to have doubts or questions at first.
Be prepared to address them and to do so confidently. Before your pitch, assemble your team
and anticipate any objections to clients might throw your way. Then, practice how you’d
respond to each one. Not only will being prepared inspire and confidence and trust in your
work, it could very well result in a new business.
144. BE PASSIONATE
How you deliver your pitch is often just as important as the pitch itself. If you don’t
believe in what you’re selling, then you can’t expect the client too. Find the best way to stay
excited about your work is to chase meaningful projects and clients committed to making
positive impacts on our world.
145. MARKETING A PRODUCT
Strategies to Market a Product and glow your sales.
1. Create a Sales Plan
-define your market as accurately as possible so you have a deeper understanding of exactly who you’re
selling to. You’ll need to develop a sales plan. Before you groan, “Another Plan”, understand
this can be a simple document for you eyes only that’ll help you organized and think through
your sales strategy. Write it in a way that makes sense for you. Typically, it should include the
following:
– Sales Goals: These goals should be specific and measurable, not something like selling a
million units. Base them on the nature of your product and try to break them down into
manageable parts.
– Sales activities: These are your tactics--how you plan to make the sale. You may say you'll
sell direct-to-consumer through a website or via craft shows, for instance. Or this part of the
plan may include activities like developing a sell sheet to send to independent retail stores.
146. – Target accounts: Your sales plan should also include the accounts you want to sell to.
If it's end-users, for example, plan how you're going to reach them through eBay,
classified ads or your website.
– Timelines: Put dates to all of the above elements so you can define your steps within a
realistic timeline. Don't forget that your timelines should be fluid--if you're
underachieving, your sales plan can help you figure out why and define the corrective
steps you need to take.
147. 2. Build Your Market
To learn how to bring a product to market, begin by selling directly to end-users. This'll
give you confidence that there's demand for your product and will also create referenceable
customers that you can contact for product and packaging feedback before you hit the bigger
leagues. So where can you reach your end-users?
The web is one highly effective channel, and you can reach your market through your
own website or via a site like eBay. You can also tap into your own personal network as you
begin. Host a home party to share your product with friends and friends-of-friends, sell
through local community groups and e-mail your network.
148. 3. Expand to New Markets
Once you've established sales strength with independent retailers and are ready to
support new markets, it's time to sell to the big guns. Of course, exactly who those big guns are
will depend on your product. For some, it's powerhouse general mass retailers, like Wal-Mart
and Target, while other products will fit more specialized but equally powerful retailers, like
Williams-Sonoma, The Sharper Image and Sephora.
Note that when dealing with these major accounts, the sale is just the beginning of the
deal. Handling fulfillment, returns, rollbacks, slotting fees, advertising and more will require
strengthening your business's infrastructure and resources.
149. BEST WAY TO APPROACH A LARGER RETAILER
– Get the correct buyer: One of your biggest challenges is finding the right buyer within a large
organization, so do your homework. If you're experiencing roadblocks, consider hiring a distributor or
manufacturer's rep who already has established relationships in your industry.
– Be prepared: Develop a presentation and have professional-looking sell sheets ready. Your product
should also have packaging that's ready to go.
– Know your target: Understand what products they already carry and how yours will fit in. Don't
waste your time pitching to a retailer who's unlikely to carry your product.
– Take advantage of special programs: Some mass retailers, such as Wal-Mart, have local purchase
programs that give managers authority to try local items. And other retailers may have different
initiatives, such as minority business programs.
– Be patient: It can take up to a year or longer before you see your product on store shelves, so don't
get frustrated. And if the final answer is no, try to turn it into a learning experience.
151. LESSON OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to :
1. Appreciate and analyze persuasive speeches made in public institutions;
2. Give a speech as an advocate for or against a public policy, or to speak
up about a public figure, event, or other topic national/regional in scope;
and
3. Launch a public campaign for or against a public policy, or to advocate
for or against a public figure, event, or other topic national/regional in
scope.
152. Persuasive speeches in public institutions are important in government
and in our way of life. They affect public policy and establish laws that citizens
should follow and obey. These can also be made to change existing laws and
norms that are problematic. It is also possible to make persuasive speeches in
the public sphere without being part of the government, or a way of expressing
outrage and airing public grievances.
