3. Structuralism
Through structuralism, Edward Bradford
Titchner aimed to study the structure of the
mind. One of the main methods that he used
was introspection. For example, Titchner would
have a person look into these flowers and
report their immediate sensations, thoughts,
and feelings. He would then figure out how
these things relate to each other, and would
search for the mind’s structural elements
through these personal reports.
4. Functionalism
This is a diagram of the human eye from my
biology class freshman year. The diagram
explains the function of each part of the eye
and why each part is important. Similarly,
functionalism focused on the specific ways in
which our mental processes function and the
ways in which they assist our adaptation and
survival.
5. Double-Blind Procedure
If we wanted to test the effectiveness of this
pill, a double-blind procedure would be used.
Half of the research participants would receive
the pill, and the other half would receive a
placebo. Neither the participants nor the
research staff would know whether the
participants have received the actual pill or the
placebo. In other words, they would be “blind”
to this information. If the energy of the
participants in experimental group was higher
than that of the people who received the
placebo, then we could conclude that the drug is
effective.
6. Case Study
Like a magnifying glass, which allows us to look
at one particular thing in great detail, the case
study is used to study one individual in depth. By
closely studying one person, scientists and
psychologists hope to reveal things that are true
of all of us.
8. Dendrite
Just as the dendrites of a neuron receive
messages from other cells and conduct
them toward the cell body, a telephone
receives calls from other people and directs
them toward us.
9. Myelin Sheath
The myelin sheath encases the fibers of
neurons and allows for greater speed of
neural impulses. Similarly, lotion acts as a
protective and moisturizing barrier on our
skin and helps to speed the healing of dry,
cracked skin.
10. Endorphins
When running on the treadmill (or taking part
in any vigorous form of exercise) endorphins
are released in our bodies. Endorphins are
linked to pain control and pleasure, and help
explain why exercise makes us feel good.
11. Sympathetic Nervous System
The sympathetic nervous system is
responsible for arousing the body and
providing energy in stressful situations.
Likewise, energy drinks such as Rockstar
provide the body with a rush of energy.
13. Medulla
The function of the medulla is to control the
most basic survival functions; heartbeat and
breathing. Without these functions, humans
would not be able to operate. Batteries do the
same for electronic devices. Without power,
devices such as calculators cannot add,
subtract, divide, or perform any of their given
purposes.
14. Cerebellum
The cerebellum coordinates our movements and
helps us to stay balanced. Coordination and
balance are essential to yoga. Doing yoga is
facilitated by the functions of the cerebellum.
15. Amygdala
The amygdala is located in the limbic system
and influences anger and rage. My sister’s
amygdala is very active when she is angry.
When my sister is having a temper
tantrum, she looks at this list in order to help
her calm down.
16. Occipital Lobe
In order to see things far away in the distance, I
need to wear glasses. When I look at things
through my glasses, the information is sent to
the occipital lobes, a portion of the cerebral
cortex located at the back of the head. The
occipital lobes receive information from the
visual fields and allow me to see things.
18. Circadian Rhythms
The circadian rhythm is similar to this clock.
Just as the clock displays the time and the
weather for the proceeding hours, our
circadian rhythm is a biological clock of regular
bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
Such bodily rhythms include temperature and
wakefulness. Our circadian rhythm helps to
explain why we feel most alert around the
same time every day and most tired the same
time every day.
19. Delta Waves
Delta waves are the large, slow brain waves
that are present during deep sleep. It is likely
that the brain of my dog is emitting delta
waves. She was so tired that she fell asleep on
top of my psych textbook!
20. Sleep Apnea
Sleep apnea is a sleep disorder marked by brief
interruptions in breathing which ultimately
disrupts the quality of sleep. My mom has
sleep apnea, and she has to wear this mask
every night. It pumps a flow of air into the
nasal passages in order to keep her airways
open.
21. Amphetamines
Amphetamines are drugs that stimulate and
cause sped-up body functions and changes in
energy and mood. The caffeine that is present in
coffee has similar effects. After drinking
coffee, our neural activity and body functions are
aroused and we feel a rush of energy and
alertness.
23. Teratogen
Teratogens are substances that can reach the
embryo or fetus during prenatal development
and cause harm to the growing baby. Alcohol
would be classified as a teratogen. When a
pregnant woman drinks, the alcohol enters
both the woman’s and her fetus’ bloodstream
and depresses activity in both of their nervous
systems. Consumption of alcohol during
pregnancy puts the baby at risk for brain
damage, birth defects, and mental retardation.
24. Habituation
When Riley was a puppy, she loved bones and
the gray/brown toy was her favorite. She
would play with them for hours and would
never get bored. As is evident in the picture,
she has no interest in playing with them.
Because it has been three years, she is
disinterested in the toy and the bones. This is
known as habituation: “decreasing
responsiveness with repeated stimulation.”
Riley is no longer responsive to these objects
because she has gained familiarity to them
with three years of repeated exposure.
25. Theory of Mind
I work with many autistic children through
Special Olympics. It has become apparent to
me that these children lack a theory of mind.
They typically have trouble understanding and
perceiving others’ mental states, emotions,
and feelings. It is also difficult for them to
interpret different social cues, and they
typically have trouble communicating their
own thoughts and feelings.
26. Imprinting
Imprinting is an attachment process that occurs
during a critical period very early in the life of
certain animals. This is very commonly seen
among ducks. Shortly after hatching, the newborn
ducklings spot the first moving object, which is
normally their mother. From then on, they follow
her everywhere.
28. Transduction
Transduction is the process of converting one
form of energy into another. In the context of
sensation, transduction is the conversion of
sights, sounds, and smells into neural impulses
that our brain can interpret. Similarly, a blender
transduces solids into liquids that we can drink
and swallow.
33. Rods
Rods are retinal receptors that detect black,
white, and gray. Without rods, it would be very
difficult to read the newspaper because it is
printed in black and white.
34. Cones
Without cones, it would be difficult to detect
the different colors and the details of these
paintings. Cones help us to identify fine details
and help us to perceive color.
35. Fovea
The fovea is the central point of the retina where
all of the eye’s cones cluster together.
Similarly, the living room of my house is the place
where all of my family members gather together.
36. Vestibular Sense
The vestibular sense monitors the body’s
movement and position, including the sense of
balance. A good sense of balance is crucial in
order to ride a bike. If our vestibular sense fails
us while riding a bike, we would probably end up
on the sidewalk with a scraped knee.
38. Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is when one learns to link
stimuli and anticipate events. My dog was
classically conditioned to stop barking with this
collar. Whenever she barked at a neighbor or
another dog, the collar would make an unpleasant
high-pitched beep. After a couple weeks, she
learned that if she barked, the unpleasant beep
would follow. Ultimately, she has learned to stop
barking at neighbors and other dogs.
39. Operant Conditioning
Using operant conditioning, I have trained my
dog to sit on command. Upon hearing the word
“sit”, she has learned to associate her own action
of sitting with the reward of a treat. Whenever I
tell her to sit, she sits down immediately because
she has learned that this action will produce a
treat.
40. Mirror Neurons
When watching a movie, we tend to feel the
emotions of the characters as if they were our
own. For example, when viewing a sad movie, we
feel sad along with the characters and may react
by crying. Our mirror neurons produce these
effects. They are active when we perform certain
actions or when we watch someone else do so.
Empathy is enabled through the brain’s mirroring
of another’s actions.
41. Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement removes or reduces an
undesirable or unpleasant stimulus. Most
mornings when my alarm goes off, I press the
snooze button. By doing so, I am removing the
unpleasant stimulus of the annoying alarm. The
result (end of the alarm) provides negative
reinforcement and increases the odds that I will
press the snooze button again the next
morning.
43. Fixed-Ratio Schedule
This coupon displays a fixed-ratio reinforcement
schedule. It says that you will get a free $10
Bonus Card for every $50 in gift cards that you
purchase. Therefore, reinforcement (a free $10
gift card) is given after only a specified number of
responses (after every $50 dollars purchased in
gift cards).
44. Variable-Ratio Schedule
A variable-ratio schedule reinforces a response
after an unpredictable number of responses.
Regardless of how many scratch tickets you
buy, you are never guaranteed to win. Every so
often, you may win as little as a dollar or as large
as one million dollars. However, there is no way
of knowing for sure. Because you may win after
an unpredictable number of tickets purchased, a
variable-ratio schedule is apparent.
45. Fixed-Interval Schedule
Over the summer, my sister was very excited to
receive her school schedule in the mail. The
letters were mailed during the last week of
August, and our mail usually comes around 4:00
p.m.. Every day during the last week of August
between 3:30 and 4:30, my sister would check
the mail every 10 minutes. This would be an
example of a fixed-interval schedule, which
reinforces the response after a fixed time
period. My sister would check the mail more
often as the anticipated time for reward (the
letter) drew near.
46. Variable-Interval Schedule
A variable-interval schedule reinforces a
response after an unpredictable period of time.
I had to reset my Twitter password, and I was
waiting for the confirmation email to come. I
checked my email persistently for about 30
minutes, but the message did not come. There
was no way of knowing when the wait would
be over. After an hour, the message came. The
“You’ve got mail” voice sounded on my
computer, and I was finally rewarded after my
persistence in re-checking my email.
48. Recall
On this fill-in-the-blank test, my recall was
tested. Recall is a measure of memory in
which you must retrieve information learned
at an earlier time . On this test, there were no
hints or context clues. I had to retrieve
specific facts and pieces of information about
the parts of the brain on my own.
49. Recognition
Identification of important terms and
concepts is what comprises the measure of
memory known as recognition. Recognition is
often tested through multiple-choice tests.
Rather than coming up with information on
your own, you only need to identify certain
items and terms that you had previously
learned.
50. Hippocampus
The hippocampus is the part of the brain that is
most involved with memory storage. This game
set has several memory games, such as the card
matching games and multiple others having that
test your memory. When we playthese
games, our hippocampus is very active.
51. Echoic Memory
In the game “Name That Tune”, small portions
of a song are played and contestants guess the
name of the song. Even if our attention is not
focused directly on the song, our echoic memory
helps us to recall the words and sounds within
three or four seconds. If we were distracted
while the song was being played, our echoic
memory would help us to temporarily replay the
portion of the song in our heads and we could
still have a chance at guessing the correct song
name.
53. General Intelligence (g)
According to Spearman, there is a general
intelligence factor (g) that underlies all mental
abilities and is measured by every task on an
intelligence test. Air could be seen as a g factor.
The availability of air underlies all of our
capabilities as humans. Without air, we would
not be able to do anything, and therefore we
would not be able to walk, talk, or display our
talents and intelligence.
54. Savant Syndrome
People with savant syndrome often score low
on intelligence tests and are typically limited in
mental ability. However, these people usually
have one specific skill, such as painting, that
they exceed in. Someone with savant syndrome
who may not be capable of understanding any
mathematical concepts may be able to produce
amazing paintings and works of art.
55. WAIS
The WAIS is the most widely used
intelligence test. The test consists of 11
subtests assess several different areas of
intelligence, such as verbal comprehension
and object assembly. This toy that I found
in my basement reminded me of
something that could be used on the WAIS
as a block design puzzle. If shown the
completed object (on the right) the person
may be asked to take it apart and replicate
it.
56. Gardner
Gardner theorized that instead of a single
intelligence, we have multiple intelligences. He
proposed that intelligence goes beyond basic
mathematical and verbal comprehension.
Some of his proposed intelligences include
musical, spatial, and bodily-kinesthetic.
Therefore, Gardner would agree that a setter
on a volleyball team exhibits different types of
intelligence than does a computer
programmer.
58. Standardization
Because my PSAT scores were compared with
the scores of a pretested group, we can conclude
that the PSAT is standardized. This way, I can
compare and determine my position relative to
others.
59. Content Validity
In order to get my license, I had to pass a road
test. The road test had content validity. This
means that the test sampled the behavior that
was of interest. The test sampled different kind
of situations that drivers will face on a regular
basis. I had to parallel park, three-point
turn, back up in a straight line, and drive around
town. If the test only consisted of parallel
parking, it would not have content validity
because there is much more to driving than
being able to parallel park.
60. Test-Retest Reliability
Through my personal experience, I have
found that the SAT has reliability. I have taken
the SAT twice, and both times my scores were
almost the exact same. This would be known
as test-retest reliability. Because the two sets
of scores were almost exactly the same, the
test is reliable.
61. Split-Half Reliability
When I looked at all of my answers on the SAT, I
found that the odd-question scores and even-
question scores agreed. This is known as split-half
reliability. Because I got almost the same number
of even-numbered questions right as odd-
numbered questions, the test is reliable.
63. Set Point
Our body’s set point is the weight at which our
“weight thermostat” is set. When a person’s body
weight falls below this point, hunger increases and
metabolism lowers in order to restore the body’s
weight back to its stable set point.
64. Drive-Reduction Theory
According to the drive-reduction theory, my dog
had a physiological need (need for food) which
created an aroused state (hunger), which drove
her to reduce the need by engaging in a drive
reducing behavior (eating).
65. Optimum Arousal Theory
According to the optimum arousal
theory, people who engage in risky activities
such as sky-diving have all of their biological
needs satisfied and lack stimulation. They sky-
dive as a way to cure boredom and increase
arousal.
66. Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the body’s maintenance of a
balanced internal state. An example of
homeostasis is the body’s temperature-
regulation system. It If our body temperature
cools, our blood vessels constrict in order to
keep us warm.
73. Adaptation-Level Phenomenon
The adaptation-level phenomenon is our tendency
to make judgments in comparison to a certain
level defined by past experience. On my 16th
birthday, my grandmother gave me this $100
dollar bill. Before my 16th birthday, I was
accustomed to and happy with receiving about
$2o dollars from my grandmother on my birthday.
However, from that point on, my judgment and
expectations of birthday money was raised. This
is known as the adaptation-level phenomenon.
Receiving $20 dollars seemed like nothing
compared to receiving $100 dollars for my
birthday.
74. Relative Deprivation
Relative deprivation is the sense that we are
worse off than others with whom we compare
ourselves. If we compare ourselves with Gwen
Stefani, who apparently has $4,000 worth of
sunglasses, we will feel worse about ourselves
and about our own possessions.
75. Type A
People who are classified as “Type A”
personalities are typically hard-
driving, reactive, and meticulous. My sister’s
Type A personality is evident through her
spotless bedroom. She becomes very angry
and impatient if everything is not in its set
place.
76. Type B
My Type B personality is evident through my
bedroom. Unlike my sister, I am generally
easy-going and relaxed. I don’t mind having a
messy bedroom, and I definitely would not
have a break-down if there are clothes and
shoes scattered across my room.
78. Id
According to Freud, the id is the largely
unconscious portion of personality that strives
to satisfy our immediate wants and
desires, operating on the “pleasure principle.”
Freud would view Amanda Bynes as an id-
dominated person. She puts her present
happiness above future consequences. She
would rather party now than sacrifice her
happiness of the present for future happiness
and success.
79. External Locus of Control
People who have an external locus of control
believe that outside forces determine their fate
and their future. They typically believe that the
course of their life is beyond their personal
control. If someone truly believes in
horoscopes, which say that the position of the
stars and planets affect your life, then this
person would have an external locus of control
because they would believe that external
forces determine their fate.
80. Spotlight Effect
In third grade, I experienced the spotlight
effect. One day at lunch, I spilled an entire cup
of applesauce down the front of my shirt. Only
five or six kids who were at my lunch table
saw, but I was humiliated. I thought that the
entire cafeteria was laughing at me. I was so
devastated that I stayed in the nurse’s office
for the rest of the school day!
81. TAT
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a type
of projective test. People make up stories about
ambiguous scenes, and their inner thoughts
and feelings are expressed through these
stories. If this picture was used for the
TAT, someone may say that the dog and cat
grew up together and the dog was always shy
and apprehensive while the cat was always
there to protect the dog. Through such a story
about an ambiguous scene, people’s inner
feelings and interests are expressed.
